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Reforming Research and Extension Systems in Nepal: Emerging Models of
Technology Development and Transfer1

Devendra Gauchan2

ABSTRACT
Currently, agricultural research and extension works are carried out by independent and separate
organizations without adequate partnerships, coordination and linkages in the country. As a
result the flow of agricultural knowledge, technology and information systems to farmers and
rural poor including other R & D stakeholders is poorly developed and inadequate to the
emerging needs, priorities and expectations of people in the changed socio-economic and
evolving political scenario of the country. Hence there is a necessity of reforming agricultural
research and extension system to make them more dynamic, responsive and accountable to
diverse client’s needs and priorities for poverty reduction and social inclusions. The current
challenge is how to be more pro-active, inclusive and cost-effective to design, develop, and
deliver appropriate technologies to large masses of small farmers, rural poor and other clients in
Nepal? In this context, there is a need of review to identify gaps and issues in its on-going
research and extension approaches, models and strategies. This paper reviews current research
and extension systems in Nepal including recently emerging dominant models of technology
development and transfer world wide such as Agriculture Knowledge and Information System
(AKIS) and National System of Innovation (NSI) perspectives. Efforts are made to outline
possible justification and advantages of the innovation systems and perspectives in Nepal and
insuggestions are made to reform current research and extension systems and strengthen their
innovation systems in line with changing economic, developmental and evolving political
scenario of the country. The paper suggests adoption of innovation system framework and
discusses possibility of linking current research and extension programmes with the informal
innovation of the various actors and rural people to reach and meet the emerging needs of large
number of resource poor farmers and other clients in the country. Options are also indicated to
focus on targeting technology development and transfer programmes to rural poor and
disadvantaged groups and emphasize promotion of institutional innovation in its current R & D
systems, through networking, partnerships and coalition building.

Key words: Agriculture innovations, Actors, AKIS, efficiency, linkage, reform, technology

1
Gauchan, D. 2008. Reforming Research and Extension Systems in Nepal: Emerging Models of
Technology Development and Transfer. Agricultural Development Journal. Vol. 4 (4). 34-44. Nepal
2
Senior Scientist (Agricultural Economist) and Chief, Socioeconomics & Agricultural Research Policy
Division (SARPOD), NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur. Email: dgauchan@narc.gov.np: Tel:5540818

1
Introduction

Modernization, decentralization and inclusive agricultural research and development are key
elements now in the development strategy worldwide. The use of partnerships, coalitions and
linkages between government, non-government, community-based and private-sector
organizations for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating research and development
initiatives is gaining ground but very slowly in Nepal. Agricultural research and extension
systems conventionally are largely public sector and sectoral activity and lacked a coherent,
holistic and national approach. Research and extension providers outside the public sector played
a limited role (NARC, 2001; APP-IAP, 2005; MoAC, 2006). Little work has been done towards
developing critical knowledge as most the technology generation and transfer process to date is
less sensitive to social issues as gender, equity, culture and the stock of knowledge that the local
people possess. Agricultural research and extension model benefited mainly resource rich and
powerful farmers (APP-IAP, 2005; ITAD & New Era, 2005). Many small-scale resource poor
farmers have been more or less left out of development process. In view of this, the need for an
effective research and extension strategy for improving efficiency of technology development
and transfer and increasing the rate of technology adoption has been widely acknowledged.

Currently much of research and extension emphasis is still on service centers, research stations
and laboratories with limited activities and incentives for on-farm activities, stakeholder
interaction, partnerships and networking. Research and extension activities are mainly along the
lines of commodity and disciplinary research with incentives for working in urban centers rather
than for holistic multidisciplinary problems solving in the remote farmers' fields. The notion of
farmer as the ultimate audience of research and extension is taken in a very generic sense,
without disaggregating the social groups, class and gender, which are crucial determinants of the
type of technology that could be useful. Emphasis has been given mainly on productivity
enhancement approach of technological innovations than enhancing income and livelihood
security of resource poor farmers and creating enabling environment for institutional
innovations. With the present limited number of trained and motivated research and extension
staff in the country, currently only very small number of total farming population (6% of the
total population) has been reached through its extension and outreach programmes (APP-IAP,
2005). Similarly, the pool of technologies available in current research and extension systems are
limited as compared to diverse technological needs and priorities of diverse clients scattered
around agroecological and developmental regions in the country. Furthermore, there are high
expectations and increasing demands for technologies and research needs of the client groups in
the changed political scenario of the country. The current challenge facing research (e.g NARC)
and extension organizations (e.g. DoA and DLS) therefore, is how to be more pro-active,
efficient and cost-effective to update its current technology development and transfer programs
to reach the millions of resource poor farmers that are weakly integrated into the market and
scattered in diverse agro ecologies and socioeconomic settings ?. Similarly, there is a need to
make public sector research and extension more pro-poor, inclusive, responsive, dynamic, and
accountable to changing client’s needs and priorities in the changing socioeconomic and
evolving political scenario of the country.

The poor performance of the agricultural sector for more than three decades has cast serious
doubts on the adequacy of the agricultural research, extensions and the overall innovation

2
systems in Nepal (APP-IAP, 2005, ITAD & New Era, 2005). Hence there is an urgent need to
reform agricultural research and extension system to enhance their relevancy, dynamism and
accountability through stakeholder participation at all levels-funding, priority setting, selection,
and implementation of research and development projects. In the changed socioeconomic and
evolving inclusive development scenario of the country, the new reform agenda need to
emphasize agricultural research and extension to be more outward looking, client oriented, and
impact driven. Reforming research and extension system from the perspectives of the clients
(demand side) is more important than from the perspectives of the supply side (institutions
/government). In Nepal, the main factors that have shaped the present research and extension
reform agenda include:

 Changes in the socioeconomic and the political context of agricultural research and extension
such as market liberalisation, democratization and decentralization
 Changes in the research and extension needs (market focus, environmental and food safety,
climate change, bio-energy needs), technologies, methodologies (client oriented, PTD) and
new public management and systems linkages concepts

In the changed context, the role of public sector R & D agencies such as NARC and DOA / DLS
should guide, facilitate, enable, monitor and promote participatory (involving farmers) and
collaborative (involving NGOs and locally based agricultural consultants) technology
development employing multiple sources of innovation (NARC, 2001; Gauchan et al, 2003).
Reforming research and extension system towards demand driven, decentralization and
institutional pluralism with stronger stakeholder participation has, thus become major themes of
the new reform agenda. The current emphasis on decentralisation and stronger stakeholder
participation in formulating demand for agricultural knowledge and technology is an attempt to
improve the match between the supply of, and demand for, agricultural research and extension.
Stakeholder participation should shift the supply more towards the needs of resource-poor,
subsistence oriented farmers, and ideally would be implemented concurrently with broader
poverty alleviation policies (Chema et al., 2003). One way of making agricultural research and
extension to make more outward looking, client oriented, responsive and impact driven is to
bring them (both agricultural researchers and extension) closer to their clients—the farmers,
rural poor and private entrepreneurs.

This paper reviews current research and extension (R & E) problems and issues including the
existing linkages, partnerships and technology development and transfer models in the country
and suggests adoption of an innovation system framework, which is suggested to be more
efficient and effective to reach the large number of resource poor farmers and other clients and is
accountable to client's needs and priorities. The paper also discusses possibility of linking
technology development and transfer programs with the informal innovation of the various actors
and rural people to reach and meet the emerging needs of large number of resource poor farmers
and other clients in the country. Options are also indicated to focus on targeting research and
extension programmes to rural poor and disadvantaged groups and emphasize promotion of
institutional innovation in addition to on-going process of promoting technological innovation.
Finally, the paper suggests strategic framework for reforming research and extension systems to
make their current programs relevant, cost effective, responsive, dynamic and accountable to
clients' needs.

3
Current Research and Extension (R &E) Problems and Issues

Agricultural R and E in Nepal dates back to early 1960s with the establishment of government
agricultural research stations, farms and agricultural extension programs in various
agroecological, development zones and districts in the country. Historically the agricultural
research and extension system in Nepal is dominated by the conventional public sector
dominated research and extension approach with limitation participation of farmers, private
sectors and other relevant R & D actors (Gauchan, et al., 2003). Research (e.g. NARC) and
Extension (e.g. DoA and DLS) organizations are basically working as implementers of R & D
programmes in top-down transfer of technology (ToT) mode rather than their new strategic role
of facilitating, co-ordinating and supporting overall agriculture research and development
activities. Furthermore, the focus of R & E has been mainly on commodity-specific production
and technology rather than improving the overall livelihood of resource poor farmers and
disadvantaged groups. Emphasis of research and extension (R &E) system has been mainly on
technological innovations than institutional innovations. In addition, researchers and extension
workers presently have no incentives and obligations to go out of the research station and service
center's fence to solve farmers’ multi-sectoral and multidisciplinary technological problems. This
conventional, supply-driven approach that yielded successes during the Green Revolution in
Indian Punjab has not, therefore worked out very well for a diverse and complex risk-prone
agricultural systems of Nepal. Furthermore, developing partnerships and working with multiple
actors in multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral approach (3M) is complicated. Currently there is
no mandatory obligations and incentives for both research and extension agencies to develop and
enhance linkages and partnerships with multiple actors in the overall innovation system.

Technology Development & Transfer Systems: Role of Research and Extension

Agricultural knowledge and information flow through a variety of channels, including public
research and extension agencies, private sector firms, universities, NGOs, agro-industries and
commercial suppliers of agricultural inputs and equipment (Berdegué and Escobar, 2002). New
knowledge and technologies in agriculture are developed by research while outreach, tests,
refines and validates with the farmers in the outreach sites and extension takes them and
promotes to the large masses of end users. Research is a “search” for new knowledge and it is a
continuous never ending process, whilst outreach including extension is a process for “reaching
un reached” particularly those resource poor farmers, disadvantage groups in marginal locations
for technology testing, validation and up-scaling with extension agencies and the other clients
(Gauchan, 2008). Currently outreach is a domain of research programmes in NARC. The role of
research, outreach and extension in technology development and promotion system is presented
in Fig 1. Research is responsible for generating technologies and knowledge whilst extension is
simplifying this knowledge and delivering to farmers. The role of outreach is to act as bridge
between research, extension and clients (farmers). Hence, the role of outreach is to focus on
technology testing, technology integration and packaging of technologies suitable for uptake,
scaling-up/out and dissemination. Participatory technology development (PTD) is the main
domain of research and covers both research and current outreach work of the research systems.
However, participatory innovation development (PID) that emphasizes farmer-led innovations
and farmer to farmer extensions covers part of outreach and current extension work of the
development agencies.

4
Fig 1: Technology Development & Transfer Systems: Role of Research and Extension

Technology Testing Integration/ Dissemination

Generation /Validation Packaging

Research Outreach Extension

Research and PTD Process Extension and PID Process

Links between research and extension through outreach serve to transform farmers’ needs into
researchable problems and to communicate the results of this research back to the farmers.
However, currently, technology integration and packaging part of outreach is not very strong due
to conventional disciplinary focus of research on technology generation and validation rather
than integration, packaging and up-scaling using holistic interdisplinary and system framework.
Similarly, current focus of the extension is mainly on delivery of the generated technologies with
limited attention given on technology integration. Therefore, technology integration and
packaging are the weakest part of the research-extension interface resulting in poor technology
flow, uptake and adoption by the farmers and other clients.

Emerging Models of Technology Development and Promotion

In the recent years various models of technology development and transfer are emerging to
strengthen and promote participatory and multiple sources of innovations. These include
participatory technology/innovation development (PTD/PID), Agricultural Knowledge &
Information Systems (AKIS) and National System of Innovation (NSI). Participatory technology
/innovation development (PT/ID) includes a range of approaches to technology development that
encompasses from, farmer participatory and action learning to actor oriented pluralistic multi-
stakeholder approaches and farmer led innovations. The PTD or PID is a process of bringing
together the knowledge and research capacity of farmers and other actors and combines
indigenous and scientific knowledge to develop technology that are more acceptable, adaptable
and adoptive to local context. In the changed context of liberalization and globalization,
innovations come from multiple sources (Biggs, 1990) and several actors in public, private,
I/NGOs, CBOs including national and international agencies are the sources of innovation and
technologies (Gauchan and Pandey, 2005). The multiple pathways to PTD and transfer as

5
envisaged in the current R & D system in Nepal (Gauchan, et al. 2003) is presented in Fig 2. As
indicated in the actor linkage maps, currently, PTD are managed by multiple actors from
government R & D agencies, I/NGOs, CBOs, private sectors, universities and international
agricultural centers (IARC's) in partnership. In this PTD and partnership, the role of public sector
R & E agencies like NARC and DOA/DLS is to facilitate, coordinate and support overall
national agricultural innovations employing PTD through partnerships, alliances and networking.

Figure: 2 Framework for Participatory Technology Development and Partnerships

Farmer Groups
Private Sector /Individual
(Agrobusiness Managed PTD
firm) Managed NARC
PTD Managed PTD
activities
(e.g.PVS, FATs)

Development
Projects e.g. Public sector
CLDP etc. Research & DOA/DLS
Extension Managed PTD
(Facilitator, (e, g PPP, FFS,
Coordinator) Minikit,).
PTD Activities
Managed by
IARCs Other HMG
(MoF, DoI)
I/NGOs Managed PTD
University-
Managed IAAS
PTD
Managed
activities
PTD
e.g.LIBIR
D

Some literature states that Participatory Innovation and Development (PID) focuses beyond PTD
(farmers' needs and problems), which is based on farmers' innovation capacities, and start with
farmers' own solutions and support farmers' local innovation (Kolff et al, 2005). It combines the
knowledge of farmers with those of researchers and extensionists to find the solutions to farmers'
problems. In Nepal various agencies have used and applied, PTD, PID and related experiential
learning models of technology development and transfer some of which are mentioned here.
Farmer-led experimentation and farmer to farmer diffusion of technology with Experienced
Leader Farmer (ELF) approach is the current focus of Sustainable Soil Management Programme
(SSMP) of SWISS Helvitas project (Paudel, et al. 2007). LIBIRD and FORWARD have
emphasized on participatory plant breeding (PPB) and participatory variety selection (PVS) with
nodal farmer and local resource person (LRP) approach respectively. Similarly, Community

6
Livestock Development Project (CLDP; TLDP earlier) of the Department of Livestock Services
(DLS) has been focusing on systems learning approach. Agricultural Perspective Plan Support
Programme (APPSP) of the Department of Agriculture of MoAC has focused on decentralized
competitive grant (CGE) system emphasizing delivery of extension services to poor and
excluded (PxE) groups through District Extension Fund (DEF) and Local Initiative Fund (LIF).
Recently, Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS) and National System of
Innovation (NSI) models have been emphasized world wide including in Nepal in reforming the
top-down transfer of technology (ToT) approach which is founded on the systems approach
(APP-IAP, 2005; MoAC, 2006). Both AKIS and NSI models assume that R & D is always
embedded in social, political and institutional contexts and that unless the influence of this
environment is accounted for by decision makers, the evaluation and planning of R and D will
be incomplete (World Bank, 2006; Hall et al, 2003). Brief concepts of AKIS and NSI are
outlined below.

The Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS)

The Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS) focuses on knowledge-system

perspective with holistic systems approach and it outlines that an innovation comes from
interactive and collaborative efforts of various actors such as research, extension and education
(FAO & World Bank, 2000; Chema et al, 2003). At present, Nepal’s agricultural research and
extension (R & E), hardly recognizes any significant role of the education system, where as its
responsibility in producing agriculturists who are oriented to the clients, are inclusive,
participatory, pluralistic and open-ended is undisputed. Hence AKIS framework is more holistic
which includes linkage with not only extension but also education for greater innovation
development in agriculture and poverty alleviation. AKIS framework that includes a knowledge
triangle involving research, extension and education with farmers and other clients at the centre
is presented in Fig 3.

Fig 3: Knowledge Triangle of AKIS

Research

Farmers
& other
Clients

Education Extension

The focus of AKIS framework is on whole technology and knowledge systems from “technology
generation to testing-validation-refinement-integration-uptake and adoption”. NARC’s recent

7
initiative for the establishment of deemed university (approved in the Interim Three Year Plan) is
one the AKIS approaches where, this will enhance linkage of research with educational
programmes for strengthening agricultural knowledge and information system and focus on
technology development programmes in the national priority areas. In the changed context,
establishing strengthened knowledge triangle between research, extension and education
employing AKIS framework is essential to meet and reach large number of resource poor
farmers and other R & D stakeholders and reducing poverty and hunger in the country with
enhanced knowledge flow, technology development, transfer and uptake.

Concepts of Agricultural Innovation System

Agricultural innovations with a focus on National System of Innovation (NSI) framework

includes not only technology and knowledge system but also broader new ways of working
together, new institutional arrangements, new modality and practices that are successful,
practical and cost-effective (Hall et al, 2003; World Bank, 2006). Focused on a more pluralistic
agricultural extension and research, central to the innovation systems is the realisation that
innovation is a complex social phenomenon with two key concepts - innovation process and
innovation system (World Bank, 2006; APP-IAP, 2005). It emphasizes that innovation is a
complex social phenomena, where research, diffusion, and adoption are the three main phases of
any innovation process. National system of innovation is broader than AKIS and current focus of
narrow public research and extension system (Chema et al, 2003). The processes of learning and
acquiring knowledge are interactive, often requiring extensive links between different sources of
knowledge, both traditional and scientific. Therefore, NSI includes very broad framework where
it focuses not only formal R & E actors and education systems but also the whole range of
informal innovators such as farmers, traders, transporters, processors, retailers, consumers,
exporters, and their respective organizations in the innovation platform and value chains (Fig 4)..

Fig 4: Agriculture Innovation System Framework

Innovation system

AKIS
RxE Current
Focus

This model, therefore, provides possibility of linking current technology development and
service delivery programs with the informal innovation of the various actors and rural people to
reach and meet the emerging needs of large number of resource poor farmers and other clients in
the country. It is also likely to involve a far wider range of other key actors – not just researchers
and farmers but also policy makers, parliamentarians, private-sector companies, entrepreneurs
and journalists, among many others. The innovation systems approach also highlights the
importance of networks, coalitions and partnerships and the need for effective communication
channels among the organizations and individuals that make up the system (World Bank, 2006).

8
Networks can be formal or informal, and both are important. Informal links are vital, as they help
foster trust, thereby lowering the transaction costs of interactions, resulting in reaching a large
number of resource poor farmers and rural poor

Strategic Framework for Adoption of Agricultural Innovations

In the changed context, national research and extension system in Nepal need to focus more in
the identification and evolving of innovative methods, which promote continued interaction
between research and extension (R & E) including educational institutions, farmers and other
informal actors (e.g. traders, rural entrepreneurs, policy makers etc.). The country needs to adopt
an innovation system perspective to envisage a new reform agenda for agricultural research and
extension - a more decentralized approach to agricultural research and extension, and one which
is more holistic, outward looking, participatory, client oriented, and impact driven. This
innovation perspective is needed for responding to rapidly changing climatic, socioeconomic and
market conditions by creating enabling environment for innovations to meet the changing
technologies needs of the diverse group of clients. Promotion of user friendly information and
communication technologies (ICT) between public research and extension as well as among
diverse stakeholders such as private sector, farmers, rural innovators and NGOs will have
potential role in bridging the gaps in linkage and co-ordination and encouraging agricultural
innovation-both technological and institutional ones. Currently R & D agencies' focus has been
more on technological innovations and transfer with limited emphasize on institutional
innovations (e.g. new ways of working together with new institutional arrangements). Inclusion
of institutional innovation in addition to technological innovation will help public sector R & D
actors to be more effective to design, develop and deliver appropriate technologies to resource
poor farmers and other clients (Fig 5). Institutional innovation that promote facilitation,
coordination, networking and institutional arrangements and enabling environment for working
together with diverse clients and partners in the process of technology development, diffusion,
uptake and adoption will result in greater efficiency and impact of current research and extension
programmes.

Fig 5: Innovation Perspectives in Technology Development and Transfer

Innovation
Framework

Technological Institutional
innovation Innovation

Effective uptake,
diffusion and
adoption

9
Public research and extension agencies such as Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)
and Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Department of Livestock Services (DLS) respectively
need to redefine their role from mere implementers of research and extension programmes
respectively to coordinator, facilitators and promoter of agricultural innovation systems
involving both formal and informal innovators of agricultural technologies and knowledge. In
order to facilitate for such technological and institutional innovations in agriculture, extensionists
and scientists must collaborate with local innovators and others at the national and international
level to optimise (where necessary), adopt and disseminate their innovations. Building on an
innovation-decision approach, it may be possible to identify new roles for extensionists and
scientists that may facilitate development and dissemination of innovations to resource poor
smallholders (Reed, 2007). Developing innovation platforms for learning, sharing,
communicating, and innovating by linking with multiple partners and pathways to innovations
are essential to make research and extension (R&E) system more dynamic, relevant and
effective. Proposed agricultural innovation systems must focus on the application of knowledge
(of all types) rather than just development and dissemination of scientific outputs, solutions or
outcomes to achieve desired social and/or economic goals such as poverty reduction and social
inclusion. Major attention is to be given to improving research and extension system governance
and to strengthening the ability to form alliances and partnerships with other actors, educational
programmes and rural innovators. Reforms in current bureaucratic, non-responsive and
conventional agricultural research and extension therefore, are needed to make it more
decentralized, pro-poor, participatory and inclusive to all groups of clients as envisaged in
NARC vision (2021) and National Extension Strategy (2006) as well as National Agricultural
Policy (2005) of the country. Enabling policy environment, incentive structures and strong
national commitment is needed for development and promotion of innovations towards the
development of new, just and prosperous Nepal as envisaged by the Three Year Interim Plan
(2007-2009) of the government of Nepal. Policy support for agricultural innovation must
differentiate among potential target groups particularly focusing on resource poor farmers,
women and socially excluded disadvantaged groups.

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