CBSE +1 PHYSICS CDF MATERIAL

1. PHYSICAL WORLD
1. The word science originates from the Latin verb ‘Scientia’ meaning ‘to know’.
2. The word physics comes from a Greek word ‘phusis’ meaning ‘nature’.
3. Physics is the study of basic laws of nature and their manifestation in different natural phenomena.
4. Johannes Kepler introduced the concept of elliptical orbits for the motion of planets around the sun.
5.  - Particle scattering experiment conducted by Rutherford that leads to the basis of the quantum theory of
hydrogen atom proposed by Niel’s Bohr.
6. The concept of antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by Paul Dirac and confirmed later by the
experimental discovery of positron by Carl Anderson.
7. Positron is the anti particle of electron.
8. Classical Physics deals with macroscopic phenomena and includes subjects like mechanics, electro
dynamics, optics and thermodynamics.
9. Modern Physics deals with the constitution and structure of matter at the minute scales of atoms and nuclei.
10. Gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force are the fundamental
forces in nature.
11. Acceleration due to gravity has no symmetry but law of gravitation has symmetry.
12. Gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of their massess. It is
a universal force.
13. Electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles.
14. The electric force between two protons is 1036 times the gravitational force between them for any fixed distance.
15. Strong Nuclear Force :
a) Strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
b) Strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, about 100 times the electromagnetic force in
strength.
c) Strong nuclear force is charge independent and acts equally between a proton and proton, a neutron and
neutron, and a proton and neutron.
d) Strong nuclear force range is extremely small, it is about 10  15 m .
16. Weak Nuclear Force :
a) The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the  -decay of a nucleus.
b) The range of weak nuclear force is exceedingly small and in the order of 10 16 m .
17. Einstein’s mass (m) energy (E) relation :
E  mc 2 , where c is speed of light in vacuum.
18. The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium when they are excited to vibrational
energy levels and it is discovered by C.V. Raman.
19. S. Chandrasekhar contributed Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars.
20. Neutron is discovered by James Chadwick.

2. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

1. The physical quantity which does not depend upon other physical quantities is called fundamental physical
quantity.
Eg: Length, mass, time, temperature, electric current , amount of substance, luminous intensity
2. A certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly standardised reference is called unit.
3. The units for the fundamental quantities are called as fundamental or base units.

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4. The system of units which is internationally accepted for measurement is called SI system.
The fundamental physical quantities in this system and their units are

Base Quantity SI unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
5. Units for supplementary physical quantities, plane angle is radian and solid angle is steradian.
6. The physical quantities which can be derived from the fundamental physical quantities are called derived
physical quantities.
e.g.: Velocity, acceleration, force, work, energy, power, pressure etc.
7. The units obtained for derived quantities are called as derived units.
e.g.:- m/s, dyne, erg, newton, etc.,
8. 1 fermi = 10 15 m
o
1 angstrom (A) = 10 10 m
9. 1 astronomical unit (1AU) is the average distance of the sun from the earth.
1 AU = 1.496 1011 m
10. 1 light Year (1 ly) is the distance that light travels with velocity of 3  108 m / s in one year..
1 ly = 9.46  1015 m
11. 1 parsec is the distance at which average radius of earth’s orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc second.
1 parsec = 3.08  1016 m
th
 1
12. Unified atomic mass unit(amu) is   of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope  6 C 12  including the
 12 
mass of the electrons. 1amu =1.66×10-27 kg
13. The arithmetic mean of a large number of repeated measurements is taken as the true value or actual value.
14. Error is the amount of uncertainity that is present in the measurement made with a measuring instrument.
15. Accuracy is a measure of the closeness of the measured value to the true value.
16. Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured by an instrument (or)
Precision refers to the agreement among a group of measured values.
17. The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive (or) negative.
18. Sources of systematic errors are Instrumental errors, imperfection in experimental technique, personal errors.
19. The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to sign and
size.
20. Least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
21. Absolute error is the magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and the true value of the
quantity.

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22. The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error  amean  to the mean value  amean  of the quantity
measured.
amean
Relative error =
amean
amean
Percentage error ( a )   100 %
amean
23. Significant figures are the reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit in a number.
24. Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities are to be raised to
represent that quantity.
25. Dimensional formula is the expression showing the powers to which fundamental quantities are to be raised
to represent a physical quantity.
26. Dimensional constants are the constants having dimensional formula.
Eg:- Planck’s constant, universal gravitational constant, universal gas constant.
27. Dimensionless quantities are the physical quantities having no dimensional formula.
Eg: Angle, strain, coefficient of friction, refractive index
28. Principle of homogeneity states that only physical quantities having same dimensions can be added,
subtracted or can be equated.
29. Applications of Dimensional Analysis
a. to check the correctness of an equation
b. to convert one system of units into another system
c. to derive relationship among different physical quantities
30. In a physical quantity the numerical value (N) is inversly proportional to its unit (U).
1
N or N1U1  N 2U 2
U

3. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

1. The study of motion of objects along a straight line is known as rectilinear motion.
2. Pathlength (distance) is the total length of the path traversed by an object. It is a scalar.
3. Displacement ( x ) is the change in position of an object.
x  x2  x1 , where x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1 and t2 .
Displacement is the shortest distance between two points with specific direction. It is a vector.
4. If an object moving along a straight line, covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in
uniform motion.
5. Average velocity ( v )is defined as the change in position or displacement ( x ) divided by the time intervals
( t ), in which displacement occurs.
x  x x
v 2 1  where x1 and x2 are the positions of the object at time t1 and t2 .
t2  t1 t
Average velocity is a vector quantity.
6. Average speed is defined as the total path length travelled divided by the total time interval during which the
motion has taken place.
Total path length
Average speed =
Total timeinterval

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7. The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average velocity over a given time
interval.
8. If the motion of an object is along a straight line and in the same direction, then average velocity is equal to the
average speed.
9. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity (v) at an instant is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the
time interval t becomes infinitesimally small.
x dx
v  Lim
t  0 t
 , SI unit of velocity is m s 1
dt
10. In uniform motion instantaneous velocity is equal to the average velocity.
11. Instantaneous velocity is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on position-time graph at that instant.
12. The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
v u
a , SI unit of ‘a’ is m s 2
t
13. The average acceleration ( a ) over a time interval ( t ) is defined as the change of velocity divided by the
time interval.
v  v v
a 2 1
t2  t1 t
v dv
14. Instantaneous acceleration a  Lim 
t  0  t dt
15. The Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the slope of the tangent to the velocity - time curve at that instant.
16. The area under velocity - time curve represents the displacement over a given time interval.
17. Body travelling with decreasing velocity possess retardation or deceleration (negative acceleration).
18. Equations of motion for uniformly accelerated bodies :
v0 = initial velocity; v = final velocity
a = acceleration ; x = displacement
t = time of travel
i) v  v0  at
1 2
ii) x  v0 t  at
2
2 2
iii) v  v0  2ax
 1
iv) S n  v0  a  n   where Sn is the displacement in nth second
 2
19. Equations of motion of a freely falling body when the point of dropping taken as origin
(take v0  0 , a = -g, x = -y)
1 2  1
i) v = -gt ii) y  
gt iii) v 2  2 gy iv) yn   g  n  
2  2
20. Galileo’s law of odd numbers is the ratio of distances traversed, during equal intervals of time, by a body
falling from rest is same as the odd numbers beginning with unity (1 : 3 : 5 : 7 .....).
21. Reaction time of a person is the time taken to observe, think and act.
2h
22. Time of fall for a freely falling body from a height ‘h’ on to the ground is t 
g
23. For a body thrown vertically up with an initial velocity ' v 0 ' .

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v02
(a) Maximum height H
2g
v0
(b) The time taken by a body to reach the maximum height is known as time of ascent  ta  . ta 
g
(c) The time in which body comes down from maximum height is known as time of descent  td  .
v0 2H
td 
g g
(d) The total time for which a body remains in air before reaching the ground is known as time of flight.

2v0
T
g
24. Velocity of one body with respect to that of another body is called relative velocity.

i) Velocity of body B relative to body A is vBA vB vA

ii) Velocity of body A relative to body B is vAB  vA  vB
4. MOTION IN A PLANE
1. A physical quantity having magnitude only is called scalar quantity.
Eg.:- distance, work, power etc.,
2. A physical quantity having both magnitude and direction and obeys the law of vector addition is called vector.
Eg : displacement, velocity, force etc.,
3. Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and only if, they have same magnitude and the same direction.
4. Vector addition is commutative .
If A and B are two vectors, then A + B = B + A
5. Vector additon is associative.
If A, B and C are three vectors, then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A Vector with zero magnitude and its direction cannot be specified is called null or zero vector.
7. Substraction of two vectors A and B is the sum of two vectors A and -B.
A - B = A + (-B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into two component vectors a and b along a and b lying in the same plane.
A = a + b , where  and  are real numbers.
9. A vector of unit magnitude in a particular direction is called unit vector.
| ˆi |  | ˆj |  | kˆ |  1 ; where ˆi, ˆj & kˆ are unit vectors along x, y and z axes respectively..

= A .
10. Unit vector along vector A is A
A

11. Resolution of a vector (In two dimension)

A vector of magnitude A can be resolved into two rectangular components along x and y axes
A x = A cos   A y = A sin  represented as

Ay
A = A x i  A y j Tan   Magnitude of vector A is A  Ax 2  A y 2
Ax

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12. Resolution of a vector (In three dimension):-
If ,  and  are the angles made by A with x, y and z axes respectively..
A  A x i  A y j  A z k , where A x  A cos , A y  A cos , A z  A cos 

Magnitude of vector A is A  A 2x  A 2y  A 2z
13. If two vectors A and B of magnitudes A and B are acting at an angle  , then the magnitude of their resultant (R)
using parallelogram method of vector addition is
R  A 2  B2  2AB cos  . This equation is known as ‘Law of cosines’.
Bsin 
If the resultant (R) is making an angle  with A then tan  
A  Bcos 
14. The position vector r of a particle located in a plane is given by r  x i  y j
15. A body projected into air with some velocity at an angle  (other than 90 ) with the horizontal is called a
projectile.
16. The path of a projectile is a parabola.
17. The equation of path of a projectile which is projected with a velocity  v0  at an angle 0 with horizontal is

g
y   tan 0  x  2
x2 where x and y are horizontal and vertical displacements respectively..
2  v0 cos 0 

2v0 sin 0
18. Time of flight of a projectile T 
g
2

19. Maximum height attained by a projectile is h m

 v sin 0 
 0
2g
y
v02 sin 20
20. Horizontal range of a projectile R 
g
21. Range is maximum, when angle of projection 0  45
A y j A
v02
The maximum horizontal range R m  
g
O
A x i x
22. Ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or fall short of 45 by equal amounts of  i.e.,
 45    ,  45    .
23. When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion is called uniform circular motion.
24. The acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion always directed towards the center of the circle is
known as centripetal acceleration  ac 

v2
ac   2 R where   angular speed.
R
25. The time rate of change of angular displacment of a body is defined as its angular speed  

 SI unit - rad s 1
t

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5. LAWS OF MOTION
1. Aristotle’s fallacy : An external force is required to keep a body in motion.
2. If the net external force is zero, a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body in motion continues to
move with a uniform velocity. This property of the body is called inertia.
Inertia means resistance to change.
3. Newton’s first law : Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by some external force.
4. The product of mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ of a body is called momentum.
P = mv It is a vector. SI unit Kg m s 1
5. Newton’s second law : The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force and takes place in the direction in which force acts.
P
F  or  F  ma SI unit of force : kg ms 2 (or) newton (N).
t
6. A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite change in momentum (  mv ) is called an impulsive
force.
The product of magnitude of force (F) and time of duration ( t ) of it is called impulse.
Impulse = F t =  mv
7. Newton’s third law : To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
8. Conservation of momentum : The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved.
| |
If PA , PB & PA , PB are the momenta of two bodies A & B before and after collision then
| |
PA  PB  PA  PB
9. If the net external force on a body is zero the body will be in translational equilibrium.
If two forces F1 and F2 kept the body in equilibrium then F1   F2
If three forces kept the body in equilibrium then F1  F2  F3  O
10. Common forces in mechanics are Contact force, Tension in a string & Spring force.
11. Spring force F = -k x where x is displacement and k is force constant.
12. The tangential force which opposes the relative motion between the surfaces in contact is called friction.
13. Types of friction :
i) Static friction ii) Kinetic friction iii) Rolling friction
14. The force which opposses the impending motion of the body is called static friction.
15. Limiting value of static friction  f s max  s N
where s is coefficient of static friction, N is normal reaction.
16. The force which opposses relative motion between two surfaces in contact is called kinetic friction or sliding
friction.
fk  k N where k is coefficient of kinetic friction, N is normal reaction.
17. When applied force (F) >  fs  max then acceleration of body a =  F  f k  / m
18. Friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces. (applicable for static and kinetic
friction only)

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19. Friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction acting on the body.
f  N  f  N where  = coefficent of friction
20. The force providing centripetal acceleration and directed towards the centre of curved path is called centripetal
force
mv 2
f C = ma c =  mR2
R
21. The maximum possible speed of a car along curved path of radius (R) and coefficient of friction ( s ) is
v max  s Rg
22. The maximum possible speed of a car along curved path of radius (R) and coefficient of friction ( s ) with
banking angle (  ) is
1/ 2
    tan   
v max   Rg  s 
  1  s tan   
1/ 2
23. For smooth banked road s = 0 then v max   Rg tan 

6. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

1. The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B is A  B = AB cos 
2. Dot product obeys commutative law, A  B  B  A
3. Dot product obeys distributive law, A   B + C  = A  B + A  C
4. If iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors along x, y and z axes respectively then
iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1
iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  0
5. If A  A x i  A y j  Az k and B  Bx i  By j  Bz k then
   
     
  
A  B = A x i  A y j  A z k  Bx i  B y j  Bz k = A x B x  A y B y  A z B z
6. If A and B are perpendicular then A  B = 0
 
A.B
cos    
7. The angle between two vectors A and B is given by A B
8. The work done by the force is defined as the product of component of force in the direction of displacement
and the magnitude of this displacement W   Fcos   d  F  d , It is a scalar..
9. Work done is zero if
i) the displacement is zero ii) the force is zero
iii) the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular
10. i) When angle between force and displacement lies between 0 and 90 , work will be positive.
ii) When angle between force and displacement lies between 90 and 180 , work will be negative.
11. SI unit of work is joule. C.G.S unit is erg.
12. 1 erg = 10 7 J
1 eV = 1.6  1019 J
1 Cal = 4.186 J
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6  106 J
x2

13. Workdone by the variable force W   F  x  dx

x1

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14. The area under force - displacement curve gives work done.
1 2
15. The energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. K.E  mv
2
16. The total work done by net force acting on a body is equal to change in kinetic energy. It is known as work-
energy theorem.
1 1
W = F  d  mv 2  mu 2  K f  K i
2 2
17. Work energy theorem for a variable force
xf

W =  F  dx  K f  K i where K i and K f are initial and final kinetic energies at initial and final positions
xi

x i and x f respectively
18. The energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position or configuration is called potential energy.
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a height ‘h’ is given by U = mgh.
19. Conservation of mechanical energy : The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the forces
doing work on it, are conservative. K  U  0 (or) K + U = constant
20. Spring force Fs   kx , where k is called spring constant.
This force law for the spring is called Hookes law, k is called spring constant.
1
21. Work done by spring force for elongation x is Wspring   kx 2 and it is stored in the form of PE.
2
1 2 1 2
22. When the spring is elongated from x i to x f then work done by the spring is Wspring = kx i  kx f
2 2
2
23. According to Einstein mass and energy are equivalent and are related by the relation E = m c
where ‘c’ is the velocity of light c = 3  108 m s 1
24. The time rate at which work is done (or) energy is transferred is called power.
work w
P average  
time t
dw
instantaneous power P = = F  V , Power is a scalar, S.I unit is watt, 1 hp = 746 watt
dt
25. Law of conservation of momentum: In an isolated system, total momentum before collision = total momentum
after collision.
26. In the case of elastic collision both momentum and kientic energy are conserved.
27. In the case of inelastic collisions only momentum is conserved but not kinetic energy.
28. When two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and u2 undergo head on elastic collision,
both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. If v1 and v2 are their respective velocities after the collision,
then
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
i) m1u1  m2u2  m1v1  m2 v2 ii) m1u1  m2 u2  m1v1  m2 v2
2 2 2 2
 m  m2   2m2   2m1   m2  m1 
iii) v1   1  u1    u2 iv) v2    u1    u2
 m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2   m1  m2 
v) v2  v1  u1  u2
29. If the masses of two bodies are equal, they will exchange their velocities after the collision.

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7. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
1. The motion in which all particles of the body have the same velocity, at any instant of time is pure translational
motion.
2. The motion of a body in which all the particles are moving in concentric circles about common axis of rotation
with same angular velocity then the body is said to be in rotatory motion.
3. The point at which whole mass of the body supposed to be concentrated is called centre of mass.
4. The coordinates of center of mass of a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, ..........,mn whose coordinates
 x1 , y1 , z1  ,  x2 , y2 , z2  , ......,  xn , yn , zn  respectively are
m1 x1  m2 x2  ....mn xn
xcm 
m1  m2  ...  mn
m1 y1  m2 y2  ....mn yn
ycm 
m1  m2  ...  mn
m1 z1  m2 z2  ....mn zn
zcm 
m1  m2  ...  mn
5. The coordinates of centre of mass of a body with continuous mass distribution are
1
xcm   xdm
M
1
ycm   ydm
M
1
zcm   zdm
M
6. Position vector of centre of mass of two particles of masses m1 and m2 whose position vectors r1 and r2 is

m1r1  m2 r2
rcm 
m1  m2

m1 v1  m2 v 2  ...  mn v n 1 n
7. Velocity of centre of mass Vcm 
m1  m2  ....  mn
=  mi vi
M i 1

8. Momentum of centre of mass MVcm  m1 v1  m2 v 2  ....  mn v n

MVcm  P1  P2  ....  Pn

m1a1  m2 a2    mn an 1 n
9. Acceleration of centre of mass acm 
m1  m2    mn
=  mi ai
M i 1

10. A vector product of two vectors a and b is a vector c magnitude of c = a  b = a b sin 

direction of c is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b

11. The direction of cross product is given by right hand screw rule .

12. Cross product does not obey commutative law a  b  b  a but a  b    b  a 

13. Cross product obeys distributive law a  (b + c) = (a  b) + (a  c)

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14. a  a = 0 (0 is a null vector).

15. If i, j and k are unit vectors along x, y and z axes then iˆ  iˆ  0, ˆj  ˆj  0, kˆ  kˆ  0
iˆ  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  iˆ , kˆ  iˆ  ˆj ˆj  iˆ  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  iˆ , iˆ  kˆ   ˆj


16. The average angular velocity of the particle over the time interval  t  is av 
t
d
17. The instantaneous angular velocity  
dt
18. The linear velocity and angular velocity are related as v =   r
d
19. The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration  
dt
20. The vector product of position vector r and force vector F is called torque  = r  F,,  = r Fsin 
21. The moment of momentum is known as angular momentum (L) .
The angular momentum of the particle with respect to origin L = r  p . In magnitude L  rp sin 
22. The angular momentum is zero when   00 or 1800

dL
23. Relation between  and L , 
dt
Thus, rate of change of angular momentum of a particle is equal to the torque acting on it.
24. If the total external torque on a system is zero, then the total angular momentum of the system is conserved
(remains constant). This is called law of conservation of angular momentum.

dL
If  ext  0   0  L = constant
dt
25. Equilibrium of a rigid body  F  0 and    0

26. A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as couple or torque.

27. Principle of moments:- load arm  load = effort arm  effort F1d1  F2 d 2

F1 d 2 Effort arm
Mechanical advantage, M.A = F  d  Load arm
2 1

28. Centre of gravity is a point inside the body through which its whole weight acts.
29. Centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass in uniform gravity or gravity free space.
30. Moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given axis of rotation is the sum of products of the masses
of various particles and square of their perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
n
I   mi ri 2
i 1

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31. M.I of a rigid body depends on the mass of the body, its shape and size, distribution of mass about the axis of
rotation and the position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
32. M.I is the rotational analogue of mass in linear motion .

S.NO BO DY AXIS FIGURE MO MENT

OF
INERTIA

1 Thin circular Perpendicular MR 2

ring, radius R to plane, at
centre

2 T hin rod, Perpendicular z

ML2 / 12
length L to rod, at m id
point

x
y

3 Circular disc, Perpendicular MR 2 / 2

radius R to disc at
centre

4 Solid Axis of MR 2 / 2
cylinder, cylinder
radius R

5 Solid sph ere, Diameter 2 MR 2 / 5

radius R

33. The perpendicular distance from axis of the rotation to the point where whole mass of the body is supposed to
be concentrated is called radius of gyration
I = M K2
34. Theorem of perpendicular axes:- The moment of inertia of a planar body about an axis perpendicular to its
plane is equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular
axis and lying in the plane of the body.
Iz  Ix  Iy This theorem is applicable to the bodies which are planar.
35. Theorem of parallel axes:- The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to sum of moment of
inertia of about a perpendicular axes passing through its centre of mass and the product of its mass and the
square of distance between the two parallel axes.
I  I CM  Md 2

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36. The kinematic equations of rotational motion with uniform angular acceleration   are
1
  0   t    0t   t 2  2  02  2 
2
37. Work done by a torque W   

38. Instantaneous power, P  d W   d   

dt dt
39. Relation between Torque   and Angular acceleration   :   I
40. Condition for pure rolling motion v cm  R
41. K.E of a rolling body K .E  K .ETranslational  K .ERotational
2
1 2 1 2 1 mv 2 1  K 
= mv  I  = 2 cm  
2
cm
2  R2 

g sin 
42. Acceleration of a body rolling down on an inclined plane is given by a 
K2
1 2
R

2 gh
43. Velocity of a body rolling down on an inclined plane is given by v 
K2
1 2
R

2h  K 2 
44. Time taken by a rolling body to reach the bottom of inclined plane t  1  2 
g sin   R 

8. OSCILLATIONS
1. A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
2. The to and fro motion of a particle about an equilibrium position is called oscillatory motion.
3. The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its period (T).
4. The number of repetitions that occur per unit time is called frequency (v)
1
5. Relation between frequency and time period v =
T
6. SI unit of frequency is s 1 or hertz.
7. If the displacement of a particle is a sinusoidal function of time, then the motion of the particle is called simple
hormonic motion (SHM).
8. The equation of displacement of a particle in SHM is x = A cos  t +   .
9. The magnitude of maximum displacement of a particle in SHM is called amplitude (A).
10. In SHM, the position and velocity of a particle at any time ‘t’ is determined by the argument  t +   and is
called phase of the motion.
11. The value of phase at t = 0 is  and is called the phase constant.

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2
12. The relation between time period and angular frequency T 

13. The angular frequency,  = 2v
14. In SHM, the velocity (v) of a particle in time (t) is v = - A sin  t +  

15. In SHM, the velocity (v) of a particle at displacement (x) is v =  A 2 - x2

16. The maximum velocity  v max  of a particle in SHM is v max = A

17. In SHM, the acceleration (a) of a particle in time (t) is a = -  A cos  t +  

18. In SHM, the acceleration (a) of a particle at displacement (x) is a = - x

19. The maximum acceleration of particle in SHM, amax = - A
20. Force law for SHM is F = -kx where k is force constant.
1
21. Kinetic energy of particle in SHM is K = m2  A 2 - x 2 
2
1
22. Potential energy of particle in SHM is U = m2 x 2
2
1
23. Total energy of particle in SHM is E = m 2 A 2
2
T
24. If the time period of SHM is T, then the time period of kinetic energy and potential energy is
2
25. If the time period of SHM is T, then the time period of total energy is zero

m
26. The time period of spring and mass system is T = 2 Where m -mass of the block, k -spring constant.
k

I
27. The time period of physical pendulum is T = 2 m - mass of the body, I - moment of inertia,
mgL
L - distance between point of suspension and centre of mass of the body.


28. The time period of simple pendulum is T = 2
g
29. The time period of seconds pendulum is 2 seconds and length is 1 meter
30. If the energy of the system dissipates continuously, then the oscillations are called damped oscillations.
31. The damping force Fd   b v where b is positive constant, v is velocity..
-bt
32. The amplitude of damped oscillator is Ae 2m , where ‘b’ is damping constant, ‘m’ is mass of the particle

k b2
33. The angular frequency of damped oscillator, ' = -
m 4m 2
34. If an external agency is required to maintain oscillations, then the oscillations are called forced oscillations.
35. The external force in forced oscillations is Fo cos ω d t
36. The phenomena of increase in amplitude when the driving frequency is close to the natural frequency of the
oscillator is called resonance.
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9. GRAVITATION
1. Kepler’s Laws:-
i) Law of orbits : All the planets move in elliptical orbits with sun at one of its focii.
Closest point between planet and sun is called perihelion, farthest point is called aphelion.
ii) Law of areas : The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
iii) Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi - major axis.
T2  a3
A L
2. According to law of areas, Area swept per unit time   Constant
t 2 m
where L is angular momentum, L = mvr
3. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between any two
particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r has the magnitude
m1m2 m1 m2 
F G , In vector form F = - G r , where G is universal gravitational constant
r2 r
3

4. Law of gravitation is valid for point masses.

5. For a collection of point masses the force on any one of them is vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted
by the other point masses.
F1 = F12 + F13 + F14 + .....
6. Cavendish determined the value of gravitational constant. G  6.67  1011 Nm 2 kg 2

GM
7. Relation between ‘g’ and ‘G’ g
R2
GM
8. The acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface of the earth is g h  2
 R  h
 2h 
If h<<R then gh  g 1  
 R

 d
9. The acceleration due to gravity at a depth (d) below the surface of the earth is given by g d  g  1  
 R
10. Work done in moving a body from position  r1  to position  r2  is denoted by W12 then

1 1 
W12  GMm    where M is mass of the earth.
 r1 r2 
11. Gravitational potential energy associated with two particles of masses m1 & m 2 seperated by a distance r is
Gm1m 2
U
r
12. Minimum speed required for an object to reach infinity if thrown from surface of earth is called escape speed.

2GM E
Ve   2gR E
RE
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13. Time period of moon around earth is approximately 27.3 days.
14. The orbital speed of a satellite around a planet

GM E
V0 = If h <<<< R E then V0 = gR E
RE + h

3
RE  h
15. If ‘T’ is time period of revolution of satellite around earth then T = 2
G ME

16. The energy of an orbiting satellite of orbital radius r  R E  h

GM E m
The K.E. of satellite K.E 
2r

The P.E. of satellite P.E   GM E m

r
GM E m
The total energy of satellite E = K.E + P.E E= 
2r
17. Satellites in a circular orbits around the earth in the equitorial plane with time period of 24 hours are called
geostationary satellites.
i) Earth & geostationary satellite has same time period, so geostationary satellite appears to be at rest from any
point on the earth.
ii) Height of geostationary satellites is around 35800 km.
18. Polar satellites are low altitude satellite, around 500 - 800 km above earth surface and have time period of
around 100 minutes.
Polar satellites go around poles of the earth in a north south direction.
19. If an object is in free fall, it is weightless. This phenomena is called weightlessness.

10. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

1. The property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its original shape and size when the applied force
is removed is known as elasticity.
2. If materials have no tendency to regain their original size and shape after the removal of applied force, the
property of materials is known as plasticity.
3. The force which is equal and opposite to deforming force is called restoring force.
F
4. The restoring force per unit area is called stress   .  SI unit is Nm 2 or Pa
A
5. If a body is stretched by two equal and opposite forces normal to its cross sectional area then such a stress is
called tensile stress.
6. If the body is compressed under the action of applied forces such a stress is called compressive stress.
Tensile or compressive stresses are also termed as longitudinal stresses.

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7. The ratio of change in length  L  to the original length (L) of a body is known as longitudinal strain    .

L
Longitudinal strain    = It has no units
L
8. If two equal & opposite deforming forces are applied parallel to cross sectional area, then such stress is called
tangential or shearing stress.
9. The ratio of relative displacement of the faces  x  to the length (L) of the body is called shearing strain.

x
Shearing strain =  tan 
L
10. A solid sphere placed in fluid under high pressure is compressed uniformly on all sides then stress developed is
called hydraulic stress or bulk stress.
11. The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is called volume strain.
V
Volume strain =
V
12. For small deformations the stress and strain are proportional to each other. This is known as Hooke’s law.
Stress  Strain Stress = K  strain K is known as modulus of elasticity.
13. Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber etc which can be stretched to cause large strains are called elastomers.
14. The ratio of longitudinal stress   to the longitudinal strain    is defined as Young’s modulus(Y).

 FL
Y  SI units Nm 2 or Pa
 A L
15. Young’s modulus of material of a wire is determined practically
Mg L
Y where M is mass suspended, ‘r’ is radius of the wire, L is change in length of the wire
r 2 L
L is initial length of the wire.

F x 
16. The ratio of shearing stress   to the corresponding shearing strain     is called shear modulus (G)
 A  L 
or modulus of rigidity.
FL F
G  SI unit is Nm2 or Pa
A x A
17. The ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain is called bulk modulus (B).

P
B
 V  SI units is Nm2 or Pa
 
 V 
18. The inverse of bulk modulus is called compressibility and is denoted by k.
19. A bar of length l, breadth b and depth d, supported at the ends when loaded at the centre by a load W sags by
an amount given by


  Wl 3 / 4bd3 y 

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11. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Force acting normally per unit area is called pressure.
F
Pav  SI unit - Nm 2 or Pa
A
2. A common unit of pressure is atmosphere (atm).
1 atm = 1.013 105 Pa
3. Pressure equivalent of 1mm of Hg = 1 torr
1 torr = 133 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
4. Pressure at a depth ‘h’ below the free surface of fluid is called absolute pressure.
P  Pa  gh
5. The difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure
P  Pa  gh
6. Liquid pressure is same at all points at the same horizontal level.
7. Whenever external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished
and equally in all directions, this is called Pascal’s law.
8. The working of a Hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes are based on Pascal’s Law.
F1 F
Principle of hydraulic lift  2 .
A1 A 2
9. Archimedes principle : When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts a force
in upward direction called Buoyant Force.
10. Buoyant Force is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
11. In a fluid at any given point the velocity of each passing fluid particle remains constant in time then the flow is
called streamline flow.
12. The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is called a streamline.
Streamline can’t be closed loops or they cannot cross each other in steady flow.
13. Equation of continuity: It is conservation of mass for the flow of incompressible fluid.
AV = constant where A - area of cross section V - Velocity of flow
14. Beyond a limiting value of flow speed is called critical speed, the flow becomes turbulent.
15. Bernoulli’s principle: As we move along a stream line, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and the
potential energy per unit volume remains constant.
1
P  v 2  gh  constant
2
16. Speed of efflux from Torricelli’s law is
Ve  2gh where h is height of the liquid surface from orifice.
17. The venturi-meter is a device used to measure the flow speed of incompressible fluid.
The speed of fluid flowing through the tube at the broad neck area ‘A’ is
1
2 -
2m gh   A   2
V1      1 m - density of liquid in manometer  - density of flowing fluid
  a  
 
a - Area of narrow part A - Area of broad neck

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18. The force that acts on a body (such as aeroplane wing or a spinning ball) by virtue of its motion through a fluid
is called dynamic fluid.
19. The Dynamic lift due to spinning of ball which is due to pressure difference between top & bottom, due to the
velocity difference is called magnus effect.
20. Dynamic lift = A  PB  PT 
A - Area of wing PB - Pressure on bottom of wing PT - Pressure on top of wing.
21. The resistance force to fluid motion between two successive layers of fluid is called viscosity.
22. The coefficient of viscosity   for a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate

F/ A F
  , where ‘  ’ - coefficient of viscosity,, ‘F’ - Viscous Force, ‘A’ - Area of liquid layers
v/  vA
SI unit is N s m 2 or Pa s, CGS unit is Poise
‘v’ - Velocity of top layer, ‘  ’ - height of liquid.
23. Stokes law:- The viscous force acting on a sphere of radius ‘r’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ through a fluid of
viscosity ‘  ’ is given by F  6rv
24. The constant velocity attained by spherical body in the presence of fluid resistance is called terminal velocity

2r 2      g
Vt  r - radius of body;  - density of the body;  - density of fluid.
9

vd
25. Reynold’s number R e  , where  - density of fluid, v - velocity of flow,, d - diameter of the pipe.


26. For Laminar flow R e  1000 For Turbulent flow R e  2000

inertial force
27. Reynold’s number is the ratio of inertial force (mass of moving fluid) to viscous force. R e  viscous force

28. The force acting per unit length normal to the length on the surface of a liquid is called surface tension(S).
F
S SI unit - N m 1

29. Surface tension of a liquid usually falls with temperature.
30. Surface tension = Surface energy per unit area
31. The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid surface inside the liquid is
termed as angle of contact (  ). For pure water   00 , for mercury   1400
2S
32. Excess pressure inside a drop of radius (R), (compared to surroundings)  Pi  P0  
R
4S
33. Excess pressure inside a bubble of radius (R), (compared to surroundings)  Pi  P0  
R
34. The rise or fall in the level of liquid inside a capillary tube due to surface tention when dipped in a liquid is called
capillary rise.
2Scos 
35. The rise or fall of liquid in capillary tube h  where S - Surface tension of liquid,
ga
 - angle of contact, a - radius of capillary tube,  - density of liquid.
36. Detergents decrease surface tension of liquid.

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12. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. The measure of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.
Unit of temperature on Kelvin scale (K ) on Celsius scale ( C ) on Fahrenheit scale (  F ).
2. Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems by virtue of temperature difference.
SI unit of heat energy is joule (J).
3. Relation between Fahrenheit temperature (tF) and Celsius temperature (tC) is
t F  32 tC

180 100
4. Ideal gas equation for n moles of an ideal gas of pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T)
PV=nRT where, R - universal gas constant, R  8.31 J mol 1 K 1
5. Absolute Zero =  273.15 C
6. Relation between Kelvin scale of temperature (T) and Celsius scale of temperatue  tc  is
T  tC  273.15
7. The increase in the dimensions of a body due to the increase in its temperature is called thermal expansion.
8. The expansion in length is called linear expansion.
9. Expansion in area is called area expansion.
10. Expansion in volume is called volume expansion.
 l 
11. The ratio of fractional change in length   to temperature change  T  of a rod is called coefficient of
 l 

l
linear expansion l  . l  / C
l T
A 
12. The ratio of fractional change in area   to temperature change  T  of a body is called coefficient of
 A 

A
area expansion  A  . A  /C
AT
 V 
13. The ratio of fractional change in volume   to temperature change  T  of a body is called coefficient of
V 
V
volume expansion  V  . V  / C
V T
14. The relation between coefficient of linear expansion l  and coefficient of volume expansion V  is
V  3 l
15. All liquids expands on heating but water contracts between 00 C and 40 C temperature. This behaviour of
water is called anomalous expansion of water.
16. Density of water is maximum at temperature 40 C .
17. The stress developed in the rod by rigid supports when rod is heated is called thermal stress.
F  l 
 Y   , Where Y - Youngs Modulus of rod, l - Fractional change in length. SI unit is N m  2
A  l  l

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18. The ratio of amount of heat  Q  supplied to the substance to change its temperature by one unit (or) 1K is
called heat capacity (S).
Q
S SI unit is J K  1
T
19. The amount of heat absorbed or rejected per unit mass of the substance to change in its temperature by one unit
(or) 1K is called specific heat capacity (s).
S 1 Q
s SI unit is J Kg 1 K 1 .
m m T
20. The amount of heat absorbed or rejected by one mole of gas to change in its temperature by one unit at
constant pressure is called molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp).
S 1 Q
Cp   SI unit is J mol 1 K 1
n n T
21. The amount of heat absorbed or rejected by one mole of gas to change in its temperature by one unit at
constant volume is called molar specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv).
S 1 Q
Cv   SI unit is J mol 1 K 1
n n T
22. A device in which heat measurement can be made is called as calorimeter.
23. Melting is the change of state from solid to liquid.
24..Fusion is the change of state from liquid to solid.
25. Vapourisation is the change of state from liquid to vapour.
26. Sublimation is the change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state.
27. The temperature at which the solid and liquid states of the substance in thermal equilibrium with each other is
called its melting Point.
28. The temperature at which liquid and vapour states of substance coexist is called boiling Point.
29. Regelation is the phenomenon in which the ice melts to water below 00C in the application of pressure and
refreezes back to ice on the removal pressure.
30. The temperature (273.16 K) and pressure  6.11 103 Pa  at which fusion curve, vaporisation curve and
sublimation curve meet is called triple Point.
31. The amount of heat (Q) required per unit mass (m) to change the state of the substance is called Latent heat
(L) L = Q / m SI unit is J kg 1
32. The latent heat for a change of solid - liquid state change is called latent heat of fusion (Lf).
For water L f  3.33  105 J kg 1
33. The latent heat for a change of liquid - gas state change is called latent heat of vapourisation (Lv).
for water Lv  22.6  105 J kg 1
34. Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body due to their temperature
difference (or) is a mode of heat transfer without actual motion of matter.

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35. T her mal conduct ivit y ( K): In steady state, the rate of flow of heat H is proportional to the temperature
difference  TC  TD  and area of cross section A and is inversely proportional to the length L.

TC  TD 
H = KA SI unit of K is J S 1 m1 K 1 (or) Wm 1 K 1
L
36. Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter.
37. Examples of natural convection 1) Sea Breeze 2) Land Breeze 3) Trade Wind
38. The steady surface wind on the earth blowing from north - east towards the equator is called trade wind.
39. Examples of forced convection : 1) Cooling system of automobile engine 2) The human circulatory system
40. Radiation is a mode of heat transfer without medium.
41. Speed of electromagnetic wave C  3  108 ms 1
42. A body completely absorbing the radiation of all wavelengths falling on it is called a black body.
 dQ 
43. Newton’s law of cooling : The rate of loss of heat    of a body is directly proportional to the difference
 dt 
 dQ
of temperature of the body T2  and the surroundings T1  .  K T2  T1 
dt
where K is a positive constant. It depends upon the area and nature of the surface of the body.

13. THERMODYNAMICS
1. Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium, if there is no exchange of heat energy between them when
they are in thermal contact with each other.
2. Zeroth law of thermodynamics : If two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately then
they are in thermal equilibrium.
3. The zeroth law leads to the concept of temperature.
4. Heat is a form of energy which is transferred from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature.
SI unit - Joule C.G.S unit – Calorie
5. The amount of heat energy required by one gram of water to rise its temperature from 14.50C to 15.50C is
called Standard calorie.
6. Internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of the molecules in the
system.
7. The external work done by an ideal gas during expansion is given by W  P V
8. First law of thermodynamics: A quantity of heat energy supplied to the system  Q  goes in partly to

increase the internal energy of the system  U  and the rest in work on the environment.
Q  U  W (OR) Q  U  P V
 1  Q
9. Specific heat capacity s    SI unit is J kg 1 K 1
 m  T

10. Molar specific heat capacity C  1 Q SI unit is J mole 1 K 1

 T
11. Relation between CP and CV is C P  CV  R

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12. Quasi-static process: The process in which, the system changes its variables(P,V,T) so slowly that it remains
in thermal and mechanical equilibrium with its surroundings throughout.
13. The process in which the temperature of the system is constant is called isothermal process.
For an isothermal process PV = constant
v2
14. Work done in the isothermal process is W   RT ln , are initial and final volumes of  moles of ideal gas.
v1
15. The process in which a system is insulated from the surroundings and no heat flows between the system and
surroundings is called adiabatic process.
For an adiabatic process PV   constant where  is the ratio of specific heats.

2 2  PV
PV 1 1  R(T1  T2 )
16. Work done in the adiabatic process is W  =
1   1
17. A thermodynamic process in which volume of the system remains constant is called isochoric process.
18. A thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system remains constant is called isobaric process.
19. A thermodynamic process in which internal energy of the system remains constant is called cyclic process.
20. Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical work.
W Q
21. The efficiency of heat engine   1 2
Q1 Q1
Here Q1 - heat absorbed Q2 - heat rejected W - work done
22. A refrigerator is a heat pump working in reverse of heat engine.
Q2 Q2
23. The coefficient of performance   of a refrigerator   
W Q1  Q2
Here Q1 - heat released Q2 - heat extracted W - work done
24. Second law of thermodynamics:
Kelvin – planck statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a
reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to
a hotter object.
25. If the process can be turned back such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original states,
with no other change anywhere else in the universe, is called reversible process.
26. A thermodynamic process in which system and surroundings will not return to their original states is called
irreversible process.
27. A reversible heat engine operating between two temperatures T1(source) and T2(sink) is called a
carnot’s engine.
T2
The efficiency of the Carnot’s engine   1 
T1

14. KINETIC THEORY

1. The perfect gas equation is given by PV   RT where  is number of moles
2. The relation between universal gas constant (R) and Boltzman constant  k B  is R = N A k B
where N A - Avogadro’s number

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M N
3. Number of moles    , where M - mass of the gas, M 0 - molar mass
M0 NA
 RT
4. The perfect gas equation in terms of mass density   is P 
M0
5. A gas that satisfies the perfect gas equation at all pressures and temperatures is called an ideal gas.
6. Boyle’s law : Keeping temperature constant, the pressure of a given mass of a gas varies inversely with
volume.
PV = constant
7. Charle’s law: Keeping pressure constant, the volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature.
V
V T   constant
T
8. Dalton’s law of partial pressures : The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial
pressures.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..............
1
9. Pressure of an ideal gas P  n m v 2
3
where n is the number density of molecules, m is the mass of molecule and v 2 denote mean of the square speed.
10. According to Kinetic interpretation of temperature
3
Kinetic energy per molecule K.E  k BT , k B = Boltzman’s constant, k B  1.38  10 23 J / K
2

3kBT
11. Root mean square speed of a molecule vrms 
m
12. The law of equipartition of energy states that if a system is in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the total
1
energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of absorption, the energy in each mode equal to k BT .
2
13. Specific heat capacity of mono atomic gases :
3
The total internal energy of one mole of an ideal monoatomic gas is U  RT
2
dU 3
The molar specific heat at constant volume C v   R
dT 2
5
The molar specific heat at constant pressure CP  R
2
CP 5
Ratio of specific heats   
Cv 3
******

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