LECTURE SERIES: CCS 001 –

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS

In Collaboration With

CENTRE FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

CCS 001
COMMUNICATION SKILLS COURSE

WRITERS:

Dr. Mary Okebe

Hellen Omangi

Dorothy A. Amolo

Lynn Ochieno
 LECTURE ONE
STUDY TECHNIQUES

Lecture Outline
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Characteristics of Students
1.4. Objectives of Studying Techniques
1.5. Studying Techniques
1.5.1. General Studying Techniques
1.5.2. Systematic Studying
1.5.3. Special Requirements of Study Reading
1.6. Summary

1.1. Introduction
In this lecture, I want to introduce you to study techniques as a student. Some people are
‘Natural’ students i.e. they always do the right thing at the right time as if by instinct. For
example, they are never late with their work, they never miss classes and are always well-
prepared for any test or assignment that they have to undergo. Unfortunately, this kind of
student is very rare.

1.2. Objectives
By the end of this Lecture you should be able to:
1. Identify objectives of Study Techniques
2. Apply general study techniques
3. Do a systematic study

1.3. Characteristics of Students

Most students find themselves in a state of panic and unprepared ness at some time or
other. Some even despair deeply of ever being successful in their studies. They always
end up saying, ‘If only, I had…’ but usually it is too late!

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This is natural, even normal and most cases it is avoidable. But ask your self how?
Right at the beginning of your studies look at your life-style as a student and ask if it is
helping you to succeed.

To help you in this, you will find self- assessment questionnaires below:

Activity 1.1
Look at the questions and then put a tick in the ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ column, as
appropriate. Leave the ‘For attention’ column blank for the time being.

Question Yes No For Attention

1. Have you got a clear idea in your own mind of the
ways in which the course that you are doing will
benefit you?
2. In general, do you find the subjects that you are
doing interesting and stimulating?
3. If you had problems with a certain subject, would
you discuss them with your tutor?
4. Do you miss classes from time to time?
5. Are you often late for classes?
6. Do you feel that the amount of work you have to
do is too much for you?
7. Do you hand in work on time?
8. Do you have a system for doing the work that you
are given?
9. Do you have a system for keeping notes, handouts
etc on the same subject together?
10. Do you take outline notes of lectures,
discussions, important texts etc?
11. Do you contribute to tutorial discussions?
12. Do you have any kind of cataloguing system for
keeping track of the books you read?

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 Intext Question
Private Study
1. Do you have a room where you can study privately?
2. Is your private place of study
a) properly heated?
b) properly lit?
(If you have answered ‘No’ to question I, leave these blanks).
3. Do you have access to a library or reading room where you can work
during your free time?
4. Do you know the opening and closing times of your
college/university library?
5. Do you know how the library is organized?
6. Do you know how many hours a week you spend
a) in classes?
b) on private study?
c) on recreation?
7. Have you made a plan of the number of hours per week you will have
to spend on
a) writing essays
b) revision?
c) other kinds of private study (e.g. reading)?
General way of life
1. Do you have a hobby or recreation which takes your mind off your
studies for a while?
2. Do you take part in sport or take other regular exercise?
3. Do you belong to any college/university clubs or societies?
4. Do you get enough sleep (i.e. 7-8 hours per night)?
5. Do you eat a proper balanced diet (especially important if you are
looking after yourself)?
6. Do you make lists of things that you have to do, and cross them off
each day?
7. Have you got a small notebook in which you can note down ideas,
book references and so on?

Please note that these problems apply to all students. Mark X where appropriate, to show
areas of weakness. Some weaknesses will be less important that others e.g. private place
of study and lack of interest in a subjects is very serious.

Activity 1.2
Discuss your weaknesses with your classmates or your tutor and see the
way forward.

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 Take Note
Most activities can be carried out more successfully if they are approached
purposefully and systematically. This principle underlies most of the
training in this book. But it is particularly true for the act of studying. It
does not matter whether you are studying to pass an examination or
studying documents in order to play an effective part in a discussion or
meeting. Success is more likely when you know your precise objectives
and follow a plan in order to reach them.

It will be clear from this course, that it is not only the student who studies.
Study is not confined to schools and colleges. It recurs frequently in the
course of most people’s working lives.

In view of this, it is surprising that training in study methods does not form
an accepted part of every school and college curriculum. It is partly in an
attempt to remedy this situation that this chapter appears here. Also, since
the effective studying of written materials is necessary for participation in
many kinds of interactive situations this skill is a basic communication
skill.

1.4. Objectives in Studying

The objectives to be achieved through study will vary with each type of study situation
but, broadly speaking, they will be of two kinds:
(a) mastery of a topic or subject;
(b) performing successfully in an examination or assessment situation. For example,
if you have to make a personal decision on an issue such as whether strikes
should be made illegal, you need to acquaint yourself with the principle facts and
arguments available before making your decision. In other words, you must
master your subject, or at least be one that you can defend in discussion with
others. If you have to operate successfully in the situation of a job interview,
you must have studied the job requirements carefully and must be able to show
the interviewer how you can meet them.

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Differences between successful and unsuccessful students
The most important of these are as follows

Unsuccessful student Successful student

a) Lacks a sense of purpose. Has clearly defined his objectives.
b) Does not use available time Plans his use of time carefully.
efficiently.
c) Does not plan the work he is Prepares a study plan and keeps to it as far
supposed do. as possible.
d) Has no method for studying. Follows a systematic study method.
e) Is a slow reader. Is a flexible reader, capable of good
performance at both low and high speeds.
f) Lacks skill in note making. Is able to make accurate, brief notes on
materials heard, seen and read.
g) Leaves examination preparation Prepares for examination situations in good
to the last minute. time.
h) Leaves revision until the last Revises material studied continuously
minute or fails to revise altogether progressively to ensure mastery of their
content.
i) Plays little part in discussions of Is active in discussions with other
study materials. Students on materials studied whenever
opportunities present themselves.
j) Ignores the effects of physical Realizes the importance of physical and
mental health on the mental ability health to study effectively. Takes action to
to promote study effectively. both.
k) Ignores environmental factors. Chooses appropriate environments for
studying.
l) Has poor concentration. Concentrates easily and well.
m) Lacks motivation Is highly motivated and actively seeks
success in studying.
n) Has poor examination technique Has good examination technique and
a planned approach to examination
situations.
o) Has poor handwriting. Has clear, legible handwriting.
p) Is discouraged by failure. Uses failure for purposes of re- assessment
to find approaches which will be more likely
to bring success.

The first of these differences has already been discussed and the others will be discussed
later in this and subsequent sections.

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1.5. Studying Techniques
Here are some of these ‘common-sense’ studying strategies that students rarely put into
practice. Later in this section, similarly strategies are suggested for taking notes and
revising. What is important here as a student is to observe the following studying
techniques:

1.5.1. General Studying Strategies

Reconnoiter is the first key word. Any good general studying strategy will, before
advancing into a new zone, find out as much about it as possible. By any available
means he will gather and analyze all possible information the terrain, the weather
outlook, enemy positions, and so on.

As a student embarking on a course of study, you should make similar researches

beforehand:
 Speak to other students who have already taken the course, and find out from
them the material it covers, the quality of the teachers, the problem areas, and the
most useful textbooks.
 Shop around if your college or place of learning offers an array of courses.
Attend the first class or lecture of several-more than you actually plan to register
for - and then make your selection. A good teacher may encourage you to sign up
for what seemed at first sight as unpromising course and a poor teacher may put
you off a course that otherwise looks tempting.
 Try to get an official copy of the full syllabus for each course beforehand. It will
guide you and help to pace you through the course. If you cannot get it physically
from your lecturer because of the distance try and get it online or through the E-
mail.
 Find out about marking systems as well: does class – participation count towards
your final results? What proportion the assignments, continuous assessment tests
and even the research projects and so on contribute towards the grading..

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 Read before the course starts, some broad introduction to the subject, such as
general textbook or even the references if you already have them. This will give
you an overview of the subject, enabling you to appreciate faster and better the
details of the subject as you acquire them in lectures and in subsequent reading.
 Cultivate the right attitude. The objective of study is (or should be) knowledge,
not just qualifications. Approach your course with the intention of learning the
subject and improving you mind, rather than merely of passing the exam at the
end of it. You will not only derive greater enjoyment and benefit from the course,
but will almost certainly score better results as well. Those who undertake a
course of study purely in the spirit of passing the exam at the end are those in
danger of failing.

Even if the course is a compulsory one, and not to your liking, you will get a great
deal more out of it by engaging it aggressively than by simply enduring it. Take up
the challenge; be affirmative. In other words, take your studies seriously. Your
student years are not just a period of preparation for the ‘real business of life’ – work
and adulthood. They are valuable in themselves. Don’t treat them as a time of
quarantine.
 Keep a balance. The opposite danger is that of taking your studies too
seriously. Remember the ‘law of Diminishing returns’ – after a certain point,
you actually produce or absorb less if you put in more work. The student, like
the doctor or the dockworker, can actually get more work done in an eight –
hour day than in a twelve-hour day. An overlong working day produces
greater boredom, fatigue, and resentment, and reduces the level of
concentration and commitment.
Of course, the threshold varies from person to person, and you will have to
discover for yourself what your own optimum is. You should in due course
settle down into a relaxed and highly efficient rhythm, combing sessions of
intense study with sessions of extracurricular activity: going to the theatre,
socializing in the pub, helping with charity work, doing the laundry, playing
tennis, sightseeing, debating… all the cultural pleasures that enrich your

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 education together with the routine chores of daily life, should fit comfortably
into your weekly timetable without seriously reducing the overall quality of
your studies.
 Take a businesslike approach. To live your student life to the full this way,
you will have to live it efficiently e.g.
Try to develop routine. If your mind is sharpest in the morning, for instance,
try to organize your day so as to do an hour’s reading, writing or ordering of
your notes before breakfast.

As with time, so with place: find out which working environment suits you
best, and try to maintain it. The library, or your own room? (Not the canteen
or the park). In solitude, or with a study partner? Background music? (it can
be distractive, but it can equally help to block out distractions.) A well-
lighted room, or just a pool of lamplight at your desk? And so on.

Whatever you decide in such matters, make sure you stick to it: the mind will
come to associate certain regular places and patterns with intense study, and
you will find yourself concentrating better when sticking to these.
 Keep ahead of the game. Don’t let big backlogs build up-whatever or essay
assignments or unpaid bills, background reading or unanswered letters. You
will need to keep a tidy desk – literally and metaphorically. If you feel
oppressed by that huge pile of clothes that needs ironing, or by those reams of
notes that need filing, these worries will only serve to distract you during
lectures or to reduce your concentration in the library or laboratory.
 Remember, if you fall behind in your work, you are at a great disadvantage.
Each succeeding lecture or assignment will be that much more difficult, since
it assumes some prior knowledge. Keeping ahead of the lecturer or
demonstrator, by contrast, will provide for richer lecture notes, and will enable
you to memories the subject matter more easily. Always try to do some
preparatory work before teaching sessions. Set aside, for example. Friday
evening or Sunday afternoon to read ahead in the textbook or to try some
advanced theorems for the next week’s classes.

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  Get your fellow-students involved in advance study. If, for example, your
lecturer runs a seminar that meets once a week, why not organize a parallel
seminar the night before with some classmates to go over the next days
material? You will get much more out of the ‘official’ seminar if you do, and
will feel more confident when taking part in it.

1.5.2. Systematic Study

Defining objectives and preparing study plans lays the basis for a systematic approach to
study. When it comes to the next step actually carrying out the studying method is even
more important in recent years. Increasing attention has been given to devising effective
study methods and one of the ones devised has the mnemonic title PINCER. In brief, the
stages of the method are as follows:
(a) Prepare. Survey the available information and material generally to decide the
amount of study time and effort required. Assess the purposes of your studying
and define what you hope to achieve by it. Assess your prior knowledge and
experience that will be relevant. Identify any gaps, either in your prior
knowledge or in the material at hand, which must be filled before you can
proceed
(b) Inspect. Preview the facts and the material in detail. Establish the pattern of
organization of the information, the general outline of the points to be covered
and identify those parts which you anticipate will give greatest difficulty in
understanding.
(c) Note. Make your own summaries of the main points, omitting points of
secondary or minor importance. Number the points and underline really
important information.
(d) Consider and evaluate. Immediately after completing each study session (or
as soon afterwards as possible) assess the value and over-all significance of
what you have learned. Make sure you understand thoroughly at each stage and
study again or seek advice if you do not.

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 (e) Revise continuously and progressively until you have thoroughly mastered the
information or are at least as sufficiently familiar with it as your purposes in
studying require you to be.

There is no reason, of course, why you should not devise your own system of steps to be
followed that meets your requirements more closely than the above method may. There
is no single method that is superior to all others. The test lies in the actual usage of a
method and you should not slavishly follow PINCER. Modification or a completely
different approach will suit you better. The point to be remembered is that almost any
study method will produce better results than no method at all.

1.5.3. Special Requirements of Study Reading

Study reading takes time. There are no short cuts and no easy ways if the material is to
be effectively mastered. This is not to say that faster reading and skimming techniques
cannot be used at certain stages of the study process. But if material is difficult to
understand and if it has to be comprehended in detail and in depth, time can only be
saved through the use of the kind of systematic approaches outlined above. Speed is
increased by avoiding reading things that are not essential.

Study reading is generally slow, methodological requires a high level of concentration.

Avoid reading materials where distractions are likely i.e. the environment should allow
for complete concentration.

Although some people read best when there is music in the background, study reading
actually requires time for consideration, time for you to reflect on what you have read and
where possible, to discuss your reading with others who are engaged in the same task

Sharing ideas with others in a discussion is usually the best if it is possible.

To be an effective student, you must be a flexible reader. Avoid reading irrelevant

material, skim through materials quickly when selecting those you will study. Read
through a smaller proportion of your materials relatively slowly if it is new material or
because it is more difficult for some other reason.

Those materials that you find essential read and re- read and make notes upon them.
Always remember to do your reading with a pen and a note book even when you are

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skimming or reading rapidly so that you note down what you think you need to
remember. In our next lecture we will look at this skill of Note-making and Note- taking
so that you can make useful notes for your study.

1.6. Summary
(a) Importance of a system
(i) Method is important for all kinds of study situations.
(ii) Training is important in developing systematic approaches
(b) Objectives
These must be defined in advance and will usually involve:
(i) Achieving mastery of a topic or subject;
(ii) Performing successfully in an examination situation.
(c) Attributes of the good student
The good student:
(i) is purposeful;
(ii) uses time efficiently
(iii) plans his work;
(iv) is methodical when working;
(v) is an efficient reader;
(vi) is a good note maker;
(vii) prepares for exams in good time;
(viii) revises continuously and progressively;
(ix) is active in discussions;
(x) safeguards physical and mental health;
(xi) chooses best environment for studying;
(xii) has good concentration;
(xiii) is highly motivated;
(xiv) has developed exam techniques;
(xv) has legible handwriting;
(xvi) learns from failures.

(d) Time
A timetable should be prepared and kept to as far as possible.
(e) Study plans
(i) Study plans should be prepared for each syllabus item.
(ii) Whole parts of the task should be completed at each study
session, where the task cannot be finished in one session.
(iii) You should always be prepared for plans not to work and
should be ready to take alternative action.

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The next step involves referring back more closely to the original to
compare your notes with it and to change and add to the latter where
necessary.

Sixthly, and finally, the whole process should be reviewed briefly

checking for errors and omissions and reinforcing in the mind the
information and ideas which are to be remembered and used. This last
step should, whenever possible, take place on the same day as the study
session. Where the study task has covered several sessions over several
days, or longer, daily reviews of progress should be made.

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 LECTURE TWO
NOTE – TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Lecture Outline

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Objectives
2.3. Distinct between Note-taking and Note-making
2.4. Records
2.5. Study Notes
2.6. Parallel Notes
2.7. Aims of Note-taking

2.1. Introduction
In this lecture, I want to talk about Note-taking and note making. In lecture I, I have
sensitized you to a very important aspect of a student’s life i.e. How to do your studies.

The next big question is what do you study? Now as you are studying, it is very
important to keep reference materials (notes) as you go along. These notes are going to
help you a lot now an when it comes to Examinations time which is the last part of this
section.

2.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Distinguish note-taking from note-making
2. Identify different types of notes
3. State the purpose of note-taking

2.3. Distinction between Note-taking and Note-making

At this juncture, it is very important first of all to distinguish between NOTE-TAKING
AND NOTE-MAKING. Although as you will note the two terms and processes are
different, they both lead to the same goal having notes to rely on for tests, Assignments
and exams.

What is the difference between these two?

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Note – Taking
You take notes from lectures, talks, speeches etc…and kind of verbal communication
from a speaker.

Note – Making
You make notes from non-verbal sources for example from text-books, Journals,
reference books etc…In relation to the two terms above you will also need to know that
students can compile two kinds of notes:
4. Records
5. Study notes.
But most students confuse these two: what they compile is records alone, but they treat
these as study notes.

Please note that:

Records
Are a summary of a lecture, an interview, an article, a chapter, or the like. The form of
such notes is dictated by the originator of the text, the lecture, interview all or author.

Study Notes
With study notes, it is you (the student) who decides the form. Their purpose is to sum
up the subject, not to sum up someone else’s views of the subject. For example, if you
are taking a course you can attend a:
- Lecture on a topic.
- A seminar on the topic.
- Read a library book on the topic
- Read three articles on the topic

So if you dutifully take notes each time, you will have six distinct sets of notes by the end
six records. This notes will be useful for a research paper but not for studying for exams.
What you want is a single unified set of study notes by combining the six records into
one well-ordered account, quick to read and easy to absorb.

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2.4. Records
It is important to note that in science subjects, a lecture or textbook will supply a full and
accurate account of a topic – which is more of factual. So every known detail of the
subject is made available to you: Record them all in your notes, and once you have
studied these and memorized them, you can truly claim to be master of the subject.

In the arts and humanities, things are more flexible. In these subjects there really no
actual facts or gospel truth. e.g what is Democracy? So, do not record slavishly
everything you hear or read on such subjects. Therefore, when taking or making notes,
you, are perfectly entitled to pick and choose. Let your notes reflect this freedom. This
means you record only what seems valid or enlightening.

However, here are a few tips on:

1. Use a notebook or a file pad, but no tatty envelopes, book jackets or the like,
make sure to file these notes systematically.
2. Write neatly-you will be grateful later on. Leave lots of space for additions.
3. Lectures and textbooks alike often structure their information poorly, looping
back to add afterthoughts or corollaries. Make allowance for this. You might, for
instance, use only left-hand pages for your main notes, leaving the opposite page
free in each case for extra details.
4. Use abbreviations or any other shorthand devices of your own choosing, so long
as the notes remain easy to read. Politics students for instance, may find
themselves writing the phrase economic development as ec dev. Philosophy
students will represent ‘knowledge’ as k and Aristotle as Ars. And so on. One
particularly common phrase is on the other hand: you will be doing yourself a
favour if you devise right away a shorthand symbol for it, what about a
horseshoe-shaped symbol for example, with suggestion of reversal?
5. Make clear whose views you are noting- the lecturer’s, Aristotle’s or your own?
You may get into a scrape later if you misattribute a particular opinion or
insight… especially if you claim someone else’s insight as your own. And make
sure, when noting down a quoted passage, that you have got the wording quite
accurate.

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6. For books or articles, start making your notes only once you have finished the
reading. Unlike a lecture, where you have to take notes as you go along, books
and articles allow you to go back and check for the noteworthy points. You will
waste a great deal of time and effort if you insist on taking notes on each
paragraph as you read it –quite possible the article or chapter will conclude with a
summary anyway. When you want to mark an important point, just draw a light
pencil line next to it in the margin (unless it is an old and precious library book).
Once you have finished marking the chapter or article in this way, go through it
again quickly, incorporating the marked points into your notes, and then go
through it all once more gently rubbing out the pencil lines with an eraser.

2.5. Study Notes

Here is a typical procedure for compiling a really useful set of study notes.
1. Begin by adopting a proper attitude towards study notes in respect to:
First, accept that making notes is a central, rather than incidental, part of
studying. Set time aside for updating and upgrading your notes. Rereading
your notes intermittently during the course is naturally a very good thing:
rewriting them is in many ways even better.

Secondly, accept that study notes are quite different from the record-type
notes discussed above. Study notes need not be written in elegant lines of
consecutive prose. They are for studying not for reciting on stage. The
yardstick is one of easy reading.

Thirdly, approach your note-taking (and the course itself) as a two-fold task
grasping the general and the particular, mastering the big picture and the
detail, seeing the wood and the trees. So, as well as compiling a set of notes
on each topic within the subject, make a point of maintaining an ever
expending outline of the subject as a whole.

2. Try to draw up an outline of the whole subject at the very beginning of the
course-reflect on your pre-reading or introductory lectures, and formulate a
provisional structure or ‘mental map’ of the subject. You can adjust or
supplement this continually in the light of new insights that you acquire as

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 the course proceeds. Each additional feature can then slot into this outline.
Keeping in touch with the overview in this way will provide you with a better
understanding and recall of each topic.
3. Similarly, rework regularly your study notes on specific topics. Integrate
those six records of the Peterloo Massacre into a single account. Or, far more
efficiently, avoid compiling six separate records in the first place; instead,
compile one well-structured pattern, and supplement it each time you attend a
new lecture or read a new text.

4. Don’t put off this rewriting for long, or you will find your notes getting
cumbersome and disorganized. With practice, you can do the rewriting very
quickly – rough notes from a 50-minute lecture can typically be reworked (or
filtered into your existing notes) in a matter of six or seven minutes. (for
more on note-taking, see the panel on pages 438 and 439).

2.6. Patterned Notes

In the layouts for your notes – you should think of them as diagrams rather than
manuscripts.

Be adventurous in the layouts for your notes you should think of them as diagrams rather
than manuscripts (put the diagram here)

Opposite is an example of an outline drown up by a student of international relations

attending a course on Nationalism-it is accompanied by supplementary notes. Note the
ways in which the student has chosen to present the information: a minimum of prose-
instead, an emphasis on accessibility. The time for prose comes later when the student
extracts relevant facts and figures from his notes in order to write his essays.

Such patterned or diagrammatic layouts have several advantages.

 They give you an overview of the topic once familiar with your layout, you can
take in the subject matter more or less at a glance.
 They show at a glance numerous vital connections between various points. These
serve to knit the topic into a coherent whole, and also provide a source of new

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 insights. And the three-dimensional effect of such multiple interconnections and
cross-references reflects your actual patterns of thinking for more closely than
two-dimentional linear notes do.
 They are easily adjusted and added to allowing you to insert new points or to
reposition existing points (by means of connecting arrows-see opposite) without
recourse to scissions and paste as in conventional linear notes.
 They are very flexible, allowing you to view the subject from several different
angles. As a basis for an essay or exam answer, they offer you a variety of
different starting points or emphases.
 They help you to memorise the various elements. The vivid appearance of the
notes brings into play your visual memory to supplement your general powers of
recall. And the use of key words focuses your memory on the highlights, rather
than diffusing across all the distracting very biage of conventional prose records.

Activity 2.1
Think of a topic you have done in other subjects and do patterned notes
of the topic.

2.7. Aim of Note-Taking/Making

Almost everyone who studies has to make/take notes at some time. The three main
reasons are:
1. To have a record of the speaker’s or writer’s main ideas
2. To help one’s memory when revising e.g before an exam or a test.
3. To make the speaker’s or writer’s says a part of your own knowledge.

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 LECTURE THREE
EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT
Lecture Outline

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Time Tabling
3.4 Need for Personal Time Table
3.5 There are two Ways you can use a Time Table
3.6 How you can Plan to Spend your Time
2.7 The Student’s Survival Kit
3.8 Time Management
3.9 How to Plan Time
3.10 How to Plan Work
3.11 Studying
3.12 Study and Memorizing Techniques
3.13 Study Hours Routine
3.14 Summary

3.1. Introduction
In this lecture, I am going to deal with management of your time as a student. One of the
things you should know is where your time goes. It is very easy to deceive yourself that
you are working harder than you really are.

3.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Develop a personal time table and use it
2. Identify survival kit for a student
3. Manage your time efficiently

3.3. Time Tabling

3.3.1. Need for Personal Timetable
One of the things you should know is where your time goes. It is very easy to deceive
yourself that you are working harder than you really are. To help you keep track of how

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you spend your time, you will find a blank timetable on Section 3.3.3, which you can
copy to suit your own requirements.

Activity 3.1
Fill in your blank timetable

3.3.2. There are two Ways you can use the Timetable
(a) If you are very conscientious, you can keep an hour-by-hour ‘daily’ for a week of
how you spend your time – traveling, attending classes, meals etc. This will
probably be very interesting for you, and you may be surprised at the results.
(b) Most people, however, don’t have the patience to keep an hour-by-hour account.
If you feel this way you can concentrate on ‘study hours’, i.e. the number of
hours you spend doing all kinds of study (reading, writing essays, etc), outside
the time actually spent in class. Shade in as accurately as you can the time spent
on private study.

3.3.3. How you Plan to Spend your Time

You can use a similar timetable to help you plan how you intend to spend your time.
Again, you can either do this in details, filling in times for recreation, classes, meals etc
or you can simply concentrate on study hours.

Be realistic – and be fair to yourself. Do not put down a study programme that you
cannot hope to achieve. Leave time for reaction, cups of coffee with friends, reading that
is not connected with your studies and so on. Over the next week, see how far what you
have planned fits in with what you are able to do. This should give you some idea of the
time that you really have for study, and what you can reasonably expect to do. Discuss
what you have discovered with your tutor.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

20
3.4. The Student’s Survival Kit
This is a summary of the information you need to survive as a student! Note down the
answers to the following questions somewhere where you can easily refer to them again,
e.g. in your note-taking file or diary.
1. Who is there in an official position that you can discuss personal problems with?
2. Who can help you with advice on accommodation?
3. Who can help you with general academic problems?
4. List your hobbies and sports.
5. Do you know of teams, clubs etc which exist connected with the hobbies and
sports that you are interested in? (your tutor may be able to advise you on where
to find information).
6. Where would you find details of films, plays, concerts, and other entertainment in
your area?

3.5. Tme Management

3.5.1. How to Plan Time
Whatever the nature of the study, there usually will be a limited amount of time available
before you are confronted with an examination of some kind. Not all of this time will, in
fact, be available for study because other activities (eating, sleeping, leisure and so on)
will also make demands upon it.

But, unless you calculate as early as possible how much time can be used for the study
task, you will be in great danger of wasting a large proportion of it and of you having to
make up the deficit by forgoing sleep or leisure activities in order to give yourself a
reasonable chance of success in the examination for which you have been studying.

Let us take an example to illustrate the point. You have one week in which to prepare for
a group discussion. How do you carry out this preparation as easily and yet as effectively
as possible? First of all, you calculate the times available as follows

Total time = 7 days x 24 hours =168 hours.

21
From this total the following figures must be deducted (N.B. the figures are examples
only). Activity Days Hrs

Sleep = 7 x 8 = 56 hours

Meals = 7 x 3 = 21 hours

Travel = 5 x 2 = 10 hours

Other work or studies = 40 hours

Leisure activities = 20 hours

SKILLS

Miscellaneous (including time held in reserve for unforeseen requirements) = 15 hours

Total 162 hours

This leaves you about six hours for the task. If you are preparing for a discussion, you
may have certain materials to hand. You will need to supplement these by consulting
other sources of information. You will need to determine in advance when you are going
to visit the library (college or public) and how long the collection of information will take
you. You may allow, say, about two hours for this, leaving four hours for the actual
studying.

As far as practicable this kind of “one-off” studying should be carried out in one or two
sessions. Odd half-hours here and there during the week will be of little use. At the end
of the four hours, the materials should have been read carefully and notes made (see the
comments on note making), so that you can play an active part in discussion and refer to
points in the study materials quickly and easily.

This kind of study is common not only in college life, but also in business and industry
where a manager, for instance, may have a week (or less) to study a major policy report
for discussion at a meeting. Study is more commonly encountered in all walks of life
than many people suppose.

22
3.5.2. How to plan work

If we continue with the example we have outlined above, a suitable plan of work for the
six hours of available study time might be as follows.
Looking for additional information = 2 hours
Reading the materials collected = 1 hours
Selecting information to be used in
discussion = ½ hours
making notes for personal reference
during discussion = 2 ½ hours

If the study time has to be broken up to fit in with other activities and to take account of
unexpected demands on time, it is better if, as far as possible, study sessions allow for the
completion of at least a single part of the plan of work or study plan. Thus you would
aim, with the above plan, for four study sessions of the appropriate lengths.

3.5.3. Studying
For each study situation a more detailed study plan is useful and this should specify the
total time estimated to be available and how much time is to be spent on each activity,
and stating what those activities will be. Where possible, the times of day to be devoted
to the studying should be given. A study plan for part of the BEC National Award People
and Communication module might be as follows.
Study Plan

Learning Recognise the existence of conflict

Objective: The nature of negotiation
Time available: 4 hours.
Study activities: (a) Read Chapter Five in Wainwright’s
People and communication
(NOTE: This assumes that this chapter has been set aside by
the tutor for private study by students)
(b) Make notes on salient points for reference during class
meetings.

23
 (c) Revise notes until familiar with content.
Time plan: Study activity Times for study
(a) above Mon. 6-7 p.m.
(b) above Tue. 6-8 p.m.
(c) above Fri. 7-8 p.m.

NOTE:All study activities and times for study might usefully be tabulated on a weekly
basis. You can then see at a glance what your study commitments for the period ahead
are.

Frequently the activities necessary for effective study may not be capable of completion
with in the time allowance. You will then have to decide whether to reduce the number
of activities or to find time from elsewhere (e.g. leisure pursuits). The point is that you
will be a more effective student if you are aware of problems like these in advance. A
study plan is not something to stick rigidly to regardless of other considerations, it is
simply a method of making a more efficient use of time and effort. The fact that changes
have to be made to study plan does not render it useless. In fact, it serves to emphasize
the need for careful planning. A student without a study plan will waste a great deal of
time (and may well be unaware of just how much he is wasting).

Take Note
I have said in this lecture that study must be approached purposefully
and systematically success in study involves:
1. Know your precise objectives as a student.
2. Follow a plan of study you have organized in order to reach these
objectives
Your objectives are very clear while you are a student:
1. To master your topic/subject area.
2. To perform successfully or pass your assessments and
examinations.

3.5.4. Study and Memorization Techniques

Planning your study really boils down to answering two very important questions:
1. What do you have to do?

24
 2. How much time do you have to do it?
3. What do you have to do? The information you have gathered in the previous
section may have given you an answer to this.
4. How much time? Get into the habit of study hours rather than calendar periods. If
you say, ‘I have a month to do my next exam’, you make it sound like a long
time. But how many study hours can you devote to the exam each week? Ten
…Twenty…Two…? You can easily see that the calendar measurement is almost
meaningless, unless you have a clear idea of what it means in study hours.

Activity3.2
Look at these personal timetables of two students doing the same
course. (The timetables represent a typical week day, Monday- Friday;
Saturdays and Sundays are free)

Example
Bill Jim
8 a.m. Rise 8 a.m. Rise
9-10 Economics Lecture 9-10 Economic Lecture
10-11 Coffee/Chat 10-10.30 Coffee/Chat
11-12 Sociology Lecture 10.30-11 Study
12-2 Lunch 11-12 Sociology Lecture
2-3 Statistics 12-1 Lunch
3-4 English Class 1-2 Study
4-5 Squash 2-3 Statistics
5-7 Dinner 3-4 English Class
7-8 Watch TV 4-5 Badminton
8-9 Supper/Chat 5-6.30 Dinner
9-10 Study 6.30-8 Study
10-11 Read magazines etc. 8-8.30 Supper/Chat
11 p.m. Bed 8.30-9.30 Study
9.30-11 Read/Watch TV/Go to the pub
11 p.m. Bed
25
 Activity 3.3
1. How may study hours (i.e. excluding classes etc) do Bill and Jim
have each day?
2. They have each been given an essay on Monday morning to be
done by the following Monday.
‘I have a week to do the essay’. How many study hours does this
mean in each case?
3. Assume that the academic year lasts 40 weeks, and that Bill and
Jim do not change their daily routine. By the end of the year, how
many study hours will each of the students have put in?

Notice that the point of this exercise is not say that Bill is studying too little, or that Jim
spends too much time in the library. Perhaps Bill is extremely intelligent and does not
need to study as long as Jim. Perhaps Jim is not a very efficient student and does not
make the best use of the time he spends ‘studying’. The point is simply that ‘a year’s
work’ or ‘a week’s work’ may mean very different things according to your routine. It is
important for you to know how many hours you can and do spend on study in an average
week.

3.5.5. Study Hours Routine

If you have already made out a personal timetable as discussed earlier in this Lecture, you
should find the information you need here by simply referring back to that unit.

Go through each day of a normal week and write down how many hours you think you
have available for private study each day.

At the end of each day write down the actual number of hours you spent on private study
beside the possible hours. (Do not count ‘taught periods’, i.e. lectures, supervised lab
work etc.) Are there any differences between actual and possible hours? If there are,
make a note to explain why this is so. Whether it is because of:

a) the amount of work you had to do?

or

b) the fact that you under-estimated or (more likely!) over- estimated the
amount to time? If so, write down new, revised estimate and see if you can
keep to it next week.

26
Going through the ‘Study hours routine’ should give a more realistic idea of the amount
of time that you really have available for private study. Your next job is to establish how
you are going to use these hours.

Activity 3.4
1. What is the best use that can be made of private study hours?
Obviously some of the time (probably a lot of it) will be taken up with
doing prescribed work (essays etc). Are there any other useful ways
of using private study time? List them.

2. Discuss your ideas with the other members of the group.

Intext Question
Did you list ‘revision’ as one of the uses of private study time? It tends
to be pushed into the background, but is very important as we shall see.

27
 LECTURE FOUR
COPING WITH EXAMINATIONS
Lecture Outline

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3. Preparing for Examination and Assessment
4.3.1 Effective Revision
4.3. 2 Environmental Factors and Studying
4.3.3. Concentration and Motivation
4.4. General Strategies for Examination
4.5. Writing Examinations
4.5.1 Guidelines and Tips
4.5.2 Answering Essay Questions
4.5.3 With Multi Paragraph Answers
4.5.4 Incorporate Instruction pet ideas (Alternative Approach)
4.6. Preparing for Examination and Assessment
4.6.1 Effective Revision
4.6.2 Environmental Factors and Studying
4.6.3 Concentration and Motivation
4.7. Examination Techniques
4.7.1 Techniques in Written Examinations or Tests
4.7.2 Self – Assessment Questions
4.7.3 Exams
4.8. Swotting
4.9. The Final Run-up to Exams
4.10 Essay Length Answers
4.10.1 How to prepare for Exam Essays
4.10.2 At the Examination
4.11 Writing the Essay

28
4.1. Introduction
In this lecture, am going to talk about strategies for coping with Examinations or
examination techniques. Usually passing an examination is simply a matter of hard work
but not always sometimes good candidates do not do themselves full justice because they
neglect a basic aspect of examination strategy.

4.2.Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to
1. Identify general strategies for examinations
2. Prepare yourself for examinations
3. Undertake different types of your exams

4.3. Preparing for Examinations

As a student, note that studying is only part of the process of preparing for examination
and assessment situations. Once material has been mastered and understood the problem
becomes one of retaining control of the information so that it can be used in the
examination situation for which it was required. There are two methods of achieving
this:
1 Having reliable notes to refer to when necessary

2. The right kind of revision.

You can remember that in section 3 we dealt with taking and making notes
Now let’s look at the second point which is on the right kind of revision to undertake

4.3.1. Effective Revision

There are easier and better method of doing effective revision. The following are
guidelines on effective revision

1. A good student should not leave revision until the last minute if he does any at all.
If you read until midnight you will enter the examination room in a confused state
of mind and is more than lucky if he passes.

29
2. Effective revision is carried out continuously and progressively
- This means that every study session is followed by a short period of same
–day revision for the material that has just been studied.
- And of revision of everything else on that topic or subject that has been
learned so far. Therefore, the revision sessions will become longer and
longer, but up to a point, this is true.
- But the length of the revision session soon levels off.
Pattern of Revision

- Your will note that earlier study sessions require rather more attention
(note session 4 )
- Later ones require less because you are now aware of the pattern of
organization of the topic or subject, and a brief glance at the material, after
the second revision, is enough to maintain reinforcement of learning.
- One important point here is that when preparing your time plans (personal
timetables) you should remember to set sometime for continuous and
progressive revision.

Activity 4.1
On your personal timetable which you made under time management,
indicate your study periods.

Then divide that study periods into the subjects/topics that you study
and how much time you allocate to each

3. Group discussion and revision

Other than time spent on independent study, I would also advice you to discuss
the study materials with others who have also studied them
- The advantage is that you will gain a lot, your own understanding and
interpretation are reinforced or challenged and thus can be modified.
- So that the examination can be approached with greater confidence and
increased likelihood of success.
- Your group discussions need not be lengthy or formal.

30
 - They should preferably involve two or three people.
- Concentrate on those aspects you have experienced difficulty with.
- A reasonably relaxed atmosphere, perhaps with refreshments available
will tend to produce better results than one where there is to much tension
anxiety about whether or not the topic or subject has been properly
mastered.
- It is better also to try to arrange that there is at least a day or two between
the last such discussion and the examination, so that if a need for further
study of particular points is revealed, there is sufficient time for this.
- Two heads are usually better than one and several heads properly used,
can be even better still.

4.3.2. Environmental Factors and Studying

Under this, I can briefly mention the importance of good physical and mental health
to effective studying.
a) In addition to eating the right amounts of the right kinds of food and getting
adequate sleep, you should allow some time for physical exercise and other
leisure activities.
b) Certain general environmental factors need to be taken into account, at least
look for some quiet, or relatively quiet place so that your mind is not being
continually diverted from the task in hand.
c) It is also important to note that most people work better in the morning than
later in the day. Although evening maybe quieter, and has fewer sources of
distraction.
d) If you choose evening for the above reason, then make sure there is a
deadline since good sleep is essential if an acceptable level of efficiency is
to be achieved the following day.
e) Have all the materials ready that are likely to be needed. This makes the
study serious.
f) The lighting should be good and wherever possible you should work in
solitude.

31
 4.3.3. Concentration and Motivation
If you want to concentrate, exclude all distractions like the external, physical
sources of distraction.
- you can do this by taking yourself away from them and finding
somewhere quiet.
- Secondly the internal, psychological sources of distraction are removed by
generating enough interest in the study materials to enable you to become
totally absorbed in the task.
- Remember also that interest and motivation will be generated in your
materials.
- If it is not, some means must be found to create motivation.
- Remember the key to this creation of motivation lies in active
involvement.
- A study method such as PINCER will help create this sense of
involvement.
- Also the making of time and study plans especially where the objectives to
be achieved by the studying have been specified clearly.
- You can also hold discussions of the topic or subject with other students
- All that is really necessary is for you to refuse to be a passive recipient of
information.
- Then even the dullest and least promising study task can begin to be
attractive.

Activity 4.2
List all the revision strategies that I have mentioned above. Which
strategy best suits you and why?

4.4. General Strategies for Examination

Exams take many forms: written or spoken, practical or theoretical. This lecture gives
advice on how to make sure you do yourself justice in exams notably essay-type and
multiple – choice ones.

32
But remember I talked of continuous revision, therefore when the day of the exams
arrives, the exam is in a sense already nine-tenths over your results will be largely
determined by what you have done so far. It is on this that your performance hinges.
That crucial run-up, the months of swotting, and the entire year of class work, lecture
notes, and reading are very important at this stage.

No matter what kind of exam you are about to take, there are certain general points you
should remember. The following hints apply to most exams:

1. Try to Relax
A certain rise in your adrenalin level during an exam is perhaps useful to keep you alert,
and probably unavoidable. But panicking is obviously extremely unhelpful. If the
symptoms of panic or over-anxiety set in a racing pulse, a mind gone blank – try various
relaxation techniques.

Sit still and close your eyes. (if it is interview – type exam, apologise to the examiners,
and ask them to give you a few moments grace before the exam continues). Now
concentrate on your breathing, breathe in and out slowly and evenly. Count mentally
from one to seven as you breathe in again as you hold your breath, and you breather out.
This helps to stabilize the panic reaction in the body, and helps to damp down the
churning turmoil in the mind. Far better to take personal control of yourself than to
swallow a sedative.

Once your composure is reasonably restored, you might still have trouble collecting your
thoughts. Answers to simple questions may elude you. If so, take things slowly. Don’t
rummage frantically about in your memory, trying to picture the exact page in the
textbook. Instead, go back to first principles and try to arrive at the answer from that
direction.

Suppose, for example, a crucial equation just will not come to mind during a chemistry
exam. Try to reassemble it by building it from the individual chemical formulae going
back even to the periodic table and valency charts if necessary.

33
Once you have solved a puzzle or two in this way, your confidence will return and you
should calm down. If any question threatens to revive your anxiety, put it to one side and
go to the next one. You can return to the unnerving question later.

2. Thinking and Presentation

Think before you leap. Even in an oral exam, you can do some quick planning before
beginning your answer. Whether the question calls for a short objective answer (as in
multiple – choice tests) or a long thoughtful discussion (as in essay – type exams), resist
the temptation to blurt out or scrawl down the response that first comes to your mind.

Pause, and take stock. It maybe a trick question, or it may have unexpected depths and
angles.

Answer the question. The examiners are interested not just in the raw undigested
knowledge of the subject that you may have acquired, but in your ability to apply or
manipulate it.

If you are questioned about the results of the Battle of Waterloo, for instance, and you
respond with a brilliant account of the events of the battle, what is the examiner likely to
think? Not that you are a brilliant student…but that you are too dim to understand a
simple question.
1. Pace yourself properly. Suppose one of the set pieces in the practical piano exam
is the minute waltz to be played in one minute. The student, once started on it,
has better get cracking. No lingering lovingly over the opening theme… or else
the ending is going to be somewhat rushed. So too, in a written exam you had
better keep an eye on the clock. There is no point in answering questions 100 per
cent accurately if you answered only 49 percent of the required number.

2. Neatness helps, and diplomacy too. Naturally it is the content of your answers
that largely determines your results. But outward presentation can make a
difference too- such as that small difference between a pass and a fail.

Examiners are only human: the sign of a dirty T-shirt on a candidate in an oral exam
provoke just enough prejudice on the examiners part to sink the students chance of

34
success. A bleary eyed moderator will hardly feel favourable disposed towards a
smudged and cramped exam script that needs extra effort to decipher.

Similarly, don’t provoke examiners unnecessarily by doing or saying things likely to

annoy them. If you know or suspect, that the examiner is a stickler for detail, try to be
correspondingly precise in your answers. Note that you should avoid needless treading
on the examiner’s sensibility.

4.5. Writing Examinations

The written exam is the most prevalent means of evaluating student learning at the
university. So-- Be Prepared!

A large portion of the Learning skills Program can be applied to exam preparation, since,
in effect, everything you do in a course (except possible work on assignments) will
contribute to your performance on the final exam: this includes taking lecture notes and
reading, as well as more deliberate review and study strategies.

4.5.1. Guidelines and Tips

(1) Target Your Studying
Figure out what is important and will likely appear on the exam, by looking at old
exams and analyzing what the professor emphasizes in class. This includes not
only content, but also the level of learning of the questions, and the learning
channel.

(2) Practice Appropriate Activities

Studying for an exam should be seen as practicing the activities you will have to
perform in the exam, under exam conditions. For example, if you will have to do
problems, practice doing problems from memory, within a time limit. Or, if you
will have to write essays, practice writing essays from memory, within a time
limit.

(3) Keep Up Throughout the Term

Keeping in mind the two guidelines above, review regularly throughout the term.
Without regular review, you may have to re-learn a large portion of the course in
the week or two before the final – when you are most likely to be finishing up

35
 major assignments and studying for other courses. With regular review, you will
likely do well on the exam even if you do not have much time to study.

4.5.2. Answering Essay Questions

1. Make notes on back of exam sheet eg ACRONYMS.
2. Read directions carefully; eg. Should you answer all question?
3. Survey all questions before answering and note worth of each question
4. Mark key question words
5. Number all parts of the question.
4. Jot notes along side each question as you read it for the first time
5. Start with the easiest questions to gain confidence.
6. Before you answer, make sure you understand question with precision ASK the
instructor if you are unsure.
7. When beginning to answer a question, jot down any additional points and number
your points and ideas in the order that you will use them.
8. Your attitude when writing should be that this paper is targeted at someone who is
virtually ignorant of your topic and thus you should explain everything that falls
outside the realm of “common knowledge”.
9. Use facts and logic, not your feelings about something; exams are testing your
understanding of a subject matter.
10. Answer the question directly and forcefully in the first sentence and include some
of the words in the question to keep you focused.
11. Include only one main idea per paragraph –state your important idea clearly and
precisely, and then follow this statement immediately with supporting factual or
logical evidence.

4.5.3. With multi-paragraph answers:

1. Use transition words to give continuity;
2. Don’t save the best until last;
3. End with a summarizing statement or two.

36
4.5.4. Incorporate Instructor’s Pet Ideas
1. Be neat—research has shown that when same paper is written neatly or sloppily,
the graders on average rated the neat paper a letter grade higher.
2. Write on only one side of the sheet and leave a generous margin.
3. Double space to make later editing easier.
(Alternative Approach)

4.6. Preparing For Examinations and Assessment

Studying is only part of the process of preparing for examination and assessment
situations. Once material has been mastered and understood, the problem becomes one
of retaining and controlling of the information so that it can be used in the examination
situation for which it was required. One method of achieving this, of course, lies in
having reliable notes to refer to when necessary. Another lies in the study process which
poses so many problems of its own as to be worthy of separate consideration.

The poor student, as well as a number of good ones who have been lucky enough to
perform well in spite of the available evidence, leaves revision until the last minute if he
does any at all (as in the discussion referred to earlier in this chapter when having studied
and made his notes, he puts them on one side and does not look at them again until just
before the discussion begins). If such a student is following a course of study which
leads to a written examination of the traditional kind, he leaves all his revision until the
last week or so and then has to burn a lot of midnight oil to cover the ground. He enters
the examination room in a confused state of mind and is more than lucky if he passes. He
will certainly remember little of the material a week after the examination. He has passed
on false pretences and possesses a meaningless qualification. He is nothing more than an
academic confidence trickster.

It is hard to believe that people behave like this from choice, especially when there is an
easier, and better, way. A more likely answer is that they are simply unaware of methods
effective revision.

37
4.6.1. Effective Revision
1. Continuous and Progressive Revision
Effective revision is carried out continuously and progressively. This means that every
study session is followed by a short period of same day revision for the material that has
just been studied and of revision of everything else on that topic or subject that has been
learned so far. This sounds as if revision sessions will become longer and longer and, up
to a point, this is true. But the length of the revision session soon levels off. The pattern
of revision, then, begins to look like the following example.

Earlier study sessions require rather more attention (as given up to session 4): later ones
require less because you are by now aware of the pattern of organization of the topic or
subject and a brief glance at the material, after the second revision, is also likely that,
where there will be a large number of study sessions, as in following a college course, the
length of the same day revision session can be reduced.

38
One point that ought to be made is that, when preparing time plans (section 3.5.).
Account should also be taken of the need to set some time aside for continuous and
progressive revision.

2. Group Discussion and Revision

In addition to the time spent on private, independent revision, there is a great deal to be
gained from discussion of the study materials with others who have also studied them. In
this way your own understanding and interpretations are reinforced or challenged, and
can thus be modified, so that the examination can be approached with greater confidence
and increased likelihood of success.

These group discussions need not be lengthy or formal. They should preferably involve
two or three people and should concentrate on those aspects of the materials that group
members have experienced difficulty with. A reasonably relaxed atmosphere, perhaps
with refreshments available, will attend to produce better results than one where there is
too much tension and anxiety about whether or not the topic or subject has been properly
mastered. It is also better to try to arrange that there is at least a day or two between the
last such discussion and the examination, so that, if a need for further study of particular
points is revealed, there is sufficient time for this whenever the opportunity naturally
arises to talk about the topic or subject under consideration, the effective student will be
active in using the chance to test the accuracy of his own interpretations and to explore
the possible uses he can make of someone else’s approach. Packing other people’s brains
like this is not ‘cheating “, as it might be, say in a written examination if you copied
something someone else had written because it could be of use. Two heads are usually
better than one and several heads, properly used, can be even better still.

4.6.2. Environmental Factors and Studying

Under this heading we can briefly mention the importance of good physical and mental
health to effective studying. It is possible to be ill and yet to study successfully, but it is
still a handicap which should be avoided if possible. All work and no play” is the kind of
maxim that is relevant here and you should see to it that, in addition to eating the right
amounts of the right kinds of food and getting adequate sleep, you allow some time for
physical exercise and other leisure activities.

39
For the act of studying itself, certain general environmental factors need to be taken into
account. Despite the claims of some students to be able to work successfully on the tops
of buses, or with the radio and television switched on, or at all hours of the night, the
evidence accumulated from research studies would suggest otherwise. Quiet, or at least
relatively quiet environment, is needed, so that the mind is not being continually diverted
from the task in hand. Most people work better in the morning than later in the day.

Efficiency in the evening is usually at a low level, but can give an impression of being
much better because of the fewer sources of noise ad distraction at the end of the day.
This may be why some people prefer to study at night and why, even though the level of
efficiency is lower more is achieved because of the greater degree of concentration
permitted by silence. There should, however, be a ten or eleven o’clock deadline as good
sleep is essential if an acceptable level of efficiency is to be achieved the following day.

You should preferable sit at a desk or table and have all the materials to hand that are
likely to be needed. This helps to create a alight sense of occasion which may further
help concentration. The lighting should be good and wherever possible, you should work
in solitude. For those who find it difficult to work alone for long periods, study sessions
are perhaps best kept within a length of one to two hours, with extensions when interest
permits and reductions when it does not.

4.6.3. Concentration and Motivation

A number of things have already been said about ways in which concentration can be
improved. One way in which better concentration cannot normally be achieved is by
frowning and by trying to force your mind down into the material like a spade into earth.
All this achieves is a pain between the eyes. Good concentration comes from exclusion
of distractions, not from the intensive, hothouse approach of the frowner. First of all the
external, physical sources of distraction are excluded by taking yourself away from them
and finding somewhere quiet. Secondly the internal psychological sources of distraction
and removed by generating enough interest I the study materials to enable you to become
totally absorbed in the task.

Most of the time this interest or motivation will be present because you bring it with you
to the material. Sometimes the material itself will create it. But on those few occasions

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when occasions when something has to be studied which does to generate its own interest
and which you are not naturally interested in some means has to be found to create
motivation if this cannot be done then the difficulty of the study task becomes many
times greater.

The key to this creation of motivation lies I active involvement. A study method such as
PINCER will help create this sense of involvement. So will the making of time and study
plans. Especially where the objectives to be achieved by the studying have been specified
clearly. Discussion of the topic or subject with other students will help. All that is really
necessary is for you to refuse to be a passive recipient of information. Then even the
dullest and least promising study task can begin to be attractive.

4.7. Examination Techniques

Up to this point the principles of effective study have been more or less equally
applicable to all kinds of situations. When it come to dealing with specific examination
situations, however, differences of approach will be necessary. We shall take for our
purposes here the two kinds of examination situations used earlier: a written examination
or test of the traditional pattern and a meeting at which a topic is to be discussed and
analysed to provide a basis for recommendations or action.

4.7.1. Techniques in written examinations or tests

This can perhaps best be illustrated by an example of a step-by-step account of what an
effective student would do.
(a) He enters the examination or test room and takes his seat, calmly waiting for the
instruction to begin. He mentally reviews his time plan for the examination.
(b) When the instruction to begin is given, he reads through the examination paper as
a whole at least twice before he picks up a pen or does anything else. Time taken:
five minutes at the most.
(c) He goes through the paper ticking those questions which he knows he will be able
to answer well. If this does not provide him with the number he needs he will
complete his selection by marking those on which he will be able to come as
close as possible to a good answer. Time taken: five minutes at the most.

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(d) He will now begin to prepare his first answer, making rough notes appropriately
and then organizing these into the framework that the answer will follow. He will
write his first answer allowing the necessary proportion of examination time. For
example, a 2 ½ hours examination or test in which five question have to be
answered for twenty marks each will allow about twenty-five minutes per
question.
(e) He will work through the rest of the paper quickly, purposefully and
systematically, allowing the predetermined proportions of time to each question,
except where flexibility is called for (e.g. one question is more difficult for him
whilst another is easier and he can switch some time from one to the other).
(f) When he has answered the required number of questions. He will have a few
minutes left before the end of the examination. He will reread his answers
carefully; correction linguistic defects and effect such improvements as is
possible or necessary.
(g) When the end of the examination is signaled, he will just have completed all the
necessary work. He will hand in his paper and leave. The manuscript will be
neat and legible. He will discuss the paper with others to check whether his
approaches to the various questions were the right ones, even though he can now
do nothing about it. He will already be thinking a head to the next step, whether
this is likely to be a repeat of the process or a move to the next stage of the
educational process.
(h) The planning of answers in this kind of examination can be done in a similar way
to the method for note making described in Lecture 3. Once you have decided on
the main paragraph topics in your answer (a),(b), (c) etc) you can jot down the
points to bring into each on (i),(ii),(iii) etc). in this way you will avoid rambling
and discursive answers in which the same point may be returned to unnecessarily
several times.

“Inquests” on examinations
Many people dislike these because they feel that, having been put to the test, they
wish to forget about it and get back to normal as quickly as possible. But there are

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always lessons to be learned from a brief review and evaluation of what has
happened. In the case of a written examination, you can gain an idea of whether you
have passed or failed. You may have to wait up to two months to find out for certain,
but at least if you think you may have failed an |”inquest” will prevent you from
burning your books or even putting the subject out of mind altogether. You can begin
to learn to live with failure a point developed below. In the case of a meeting, any
failure will probably already be clear in the decisions the meeting has taken. A gain,
you can begin to use the failure to make future successes more likely.

Positive reactions to failure

Failure is discouraging. Failure is often more likely than success. It can, however, be
used to lay the basis for success.

These three statements contain most of the facts about failure that need concern us
here. All too often we realize the first fact, especially if we have recently experienced
a failure, but we rarely remind ourselves of the other two.

In many social situations in which we are likely to find ourselves at college, work or
elsewhere, the very nature of the situation is such that only a limited number of
people can succeed. In a race or competition there is often only one winner out of
many competitors. In many examinations the proportion of students who will pass is
often well below 50 per cent. In a game, only one player may win. Even in team
games half of the participants must lose and in knock out competitions between
several teams only one can win. Out of the thousands of people who play professional
football each year, only the members of one team will receive an F.A. Cup Winners’
medal. Sometimes, especially in meetings at which there is a majority known to
favour a certain point of view, failure will not only be likely but inevitable. So we
can add another statement about failure. There is nothing to be ashamed of in failing.

We can go further than this and move to our third fact, that failure can be used to lay
the basis for success. Analyse the reasons for failure and, more often than not, you
have the reasons for the victor’s success. It is also possible for you to achieve this
result.

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The first reaction of most people to failure is negative. Defeat brings disappointment
and, if it is repeated too often, despair. Despite the odds against succeeding,
therefore, we have to move as quickly as possible into a more constructive frame of
mind and consider how we must change our attitude and behaviour in order to have a
better chance of success. The first step in this process is detailed analysis of the
examination in which failure has just been experienced as the circumstances make
possible.

The next step is to prepare a plan of action for work to be done before the
examination or test has to be repeated or, perhaps, the date of the next meeting
arrives. In doing this, it is necessary to have an honest assessment of where the
weaknesses were so that greater attention may be given to them. This is why
discussion with others may often be more profitable than quiet self-analysis. That is
to say school and college students should discuss their problems with their tutors;
managers can discuss problems with others who are of like mind to themselves at
work. Whatever the method, the aim should be to plan for success on the next
occasion on which the opportunity will be presented.

4.7.2. Self-Assessment Questions

A0nswer all questions as quickly as possible by selecting the most appropriate option
to complete each statement. Do not turn back to the chapter until you have completed
this test.
1. Before a student begins to study he must: (a) discuss the course with other
students: (b) define his objectives: (c) set aside a regular time for study each day:
(d) have plenty of time for revision.

2. Successful students tend to be: (a) slow readers: (b) average readers: (c) flexible
readers: (d) fast readers.
3. A student needs: (a) very little sleep: (b) adequate amounts of sleep; (c) more
sleep than average; (d) as much sleep as he can get
4. A good note maker writes down: (a) the minimum necessary for understanding:
(b) a little more than he will actually need:

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The only deviation you should allow yourself is to draw the occasional pencil-line in the
margin to mark key points. You may vary the pace from time to time, but as a rule only
to go faster than your base rate, not to go slower; Across easy passages, or those you have
already grasped fully during the preview stage, you should move very speedily.

Across very difficult passages, curiously you should speed up as well: you are likely to
come back to them, after all, and the chances are that the difficulties will be resolved
anyway by some clarification later on. It is a common mistake to pull up short at
obstacles and attempt to dismantle them. Try just jumping right over them instead.

Finally the review and note-taking. Once you have reached the end of the reading task
you assigned yourself, take a few moments to go over it in your head,

4.7.3. Exams
If you study consistently throughout the course, you will enter the exam hall with
confident spring in your step and with your knowledge of the subject stored away in your
long-term memory.

If you cram in your exams, your knowledge of the subject resides( if you are lucky) in
your short-term memory- a notoriously shallow and unreliable reservoir.

Remember that Long-term memory draws on the basic resources:

 Clear understanding of the material
 Repeated familiarization with the material for example with repeated exposure to it.
 Anchoring or hooking of the material on to existing knowledge i.e try to relate the
material to your own life and surroundings rather than thinking of it as an abstract
self- contained body of knowledge.
 Use the daily regimen. A regular and conscientious programme of study will
produce good long- term memorization by drawing on all three of the sources
mentioned above but most of all on familiarization. This simply means that just as
your memory of a lesson is about to fade you can revive it by a brief revision.

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 4.8. Swotting
One of the commonest afflictions suffered by students is exam-time panic. Symptoms
like fatigue ness, red eyes, long face and even stress. This is nothing new and to be
ashamed of, just learn to recognize the signs of it in yourself and take steps to deal
with it

General strategies for survival during swotting

 First look after your health e.g
 Watch your diet e.g take a vitamin supplement if that is necessary.
 Take some exercise everyday
 Try to get your full quota of sleep.
 Then look after your psychological health.
 Try to find time for some leisure activity each day to disperse any tendency
towards obsessive ness in your swotting.
 Try to dissipate the tension by natural techniques rather than by medication.
e.g yoga, breathing exercises, medication, listening to records.
 Seek reassurance from your friends and family and advice from your tutors.
Don’t become a hermit: during times of stress, social contact is more
important than ever.

Particular strategies for surviving or even flourishing during those weeks of

swotting.

 Be positive.
Swotting can actually be very enjoyable giving you the chance to bring together
all the fragments of knowledge acquired during the course and to see the subject
whole at last. It is a marvelously rewarding feeling when it happens, the true
learning experience that educationists talk about.

 Don’t be scared of the approaching exam.

Otherwise you will only distract yourself from your swotting ,the shadow of the
exam room is hardly the shadow of the gallows. Do not have nightmares.

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  Don t be cynical about the exam.
If you do this you will stop taking your swotting seriously. Examiners are not
usually monsters: they are out to test you, not to trap you. Marking is not a
lottery, as your more cynical classmates might insist. Even in the most
‘subjective’ of subjects – literary criticism or political philosophy, say –
examiners do bring objective standards to bear in assessing your exam answers.
And your script will in any case often come under the scrutiny of a second or
external examiner-a common safety net to ensure consistent and fair marking.

Make time; First, clear your in-tray very quickly. Any class work outstanding-term
essays, belated laboratory reports, or whatever-should be dispatched as quickly as
possible, even if this means sacrificing the quality somewhat. Why take an extra week
over a minor research paper to score an A rather than a B, when you could use that week
to top up your revision for the major exam and thereby score an A rather than a B on
that?

Similarly, discharge all extramural responsibilities right away. Pay that visit now to your
aunt in hospital: send in those application from today. If you leave any of these chores
hanging over your head, the thought of then will distract you every now and then and
reduce your concentration.

Accept that the weeks of swotting will require some sacrifices on your part. You will
probably have to cut down on your social and leisure activities. It is all too easy to start
feeling sorry for yourself as a result, and to compensate by indulging in little treats-a
shopping trip here, an hour in front of the TV set there….until you actually end up
spending less time at your desk than usual.

Work-avoidance of this kind can have deep psychological roots. The most common of
these is fear of failure. Since failing an exam strikes a blow at one’s self-esteem, insecure
students often subconsciously prepare their excuses beforehand. If they can attribute
their failure to a lack of revision rather than a lack of ability, they can salvage their fragile
self-esteem and so they set about compulsively avoiding serious swotting.

If you recognize such temptations in yourself, guard against them as best you can.
Resolve to give your swotting priority over everything else treat it as an office job: no

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sneaking off during office hours. You will just have to arrange your shopping or visiting
to fit in with your work schedule.

Prepare a pre-exam timetable. And keep to it religiously. Establish the amount of work
you have to get through, and analyse it into small sections. Then, calculate how much
time you have, and assign a certain proportion of this time to each section of the material.
(for an example, see the panel on page 433)

No exact formula will serve: you may want to give more than their fair share of time to
those sections you fell least confident about, and also to any sections that seem most
likely to generate exam questions. (spotting questions in this way is quite acceptable) it
is just a matter of emphasizing some sections slightly more than others. But the cruder
kind of ‘spotting’ is inadvisable-concentrating exclusively on a few selected sections, and
neglecting almost entirely all the other sections. The risks are obvious.

Make sure to include a lot of cushioning in the timetable-leave free one study hour a day
and one day a week, and three successive days immediately before exams start. These
gaps will allow you to catch up if you fall behind, and to enjoy some bonus relaxation if
you manage to stay on schedule.

Plan each swotting session in detail. Your timetable will dictate the topic for revision:
the finer details will be decided during the first few minutes of each session. Glance
through the set of study notes to get some idea of the pace you will have to maintain to
get through them all then jot down very quickly some rough notes outlining your
knowledge of the subject-this will put you in the right frame of mind to read the study
notes themselves.

Engage these study notes aggressively: focus your mind sharply to ask constant questions
of the notes and to jump ahead of your reading and predict what the notes will be saying.
Remember, you learn and memorize far more effectively when you actively explore the
material in this way than when you just absorb it by passive reading.

A full swotting session might last an hour and a half or two hours. Break it up into at
least three subsessions, taking a distinct two-or three-minute break each time. this will
refresh you and prevent a decline in concentration. End each full session with a rather

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fuller review of the material-this time, jot down the main points very quickly once again
rather than just going over them in your head. Finally, tidy your study notes away, and
set out the study notes on the next topic in preparation for the following session.

Supplement your swotting with practice answers. To know your subject matter through
and through is one thing: to communicate that knowledge effectively during the exam is
another. You must get some practice at writing exams. If your tutor does not require you
to take a mock exam, then ask him or her to set you one and mark it. Or get hold of last
year’s paper and have a go through it.

This exercise will benefit you considerably: it will help you to sharpen or rearrange your
thoughts on various topics; it will help you to express your ideas succinctly and
coherently; it will help you to pace yourself properly so that you do not overwrite and run
out of time in the actual exam.

Try to involve your tutor or classmates in other study exercises as well. You could
arrange a late revision seminar with your tutor, for instance, or invite some classmates to
a group brainstorming session, focusing on various problem areas.

4.9. The Final Run-up to Exams

If you keep to your study timetable, you should be able to wind down the swotting in the
last few days. Some teachers actually recommend a three-day holiday before the first day
of exams. You may consider this an over casual and overconfident approach in your own
case. But for most people it is sensible to try at least to reduce the intensity of their
studying and to get some thorough relaxation as the countdown begins. They may find
themselves slightly less intellectually prepared, but they will be much better emotionally
and physically prepared for the rigours of the exam ordeal, no point cramming in extra
facts if you are too jaded or tense to put them to good use when the time comes.

Above all, get a good night’s sleep before each exam. If necessary, let your neighbours
know your exam timetable, and remind them on the day before to be especially quiet.
(while you are about it, ask them to make sure you are up in time the next morning you
do not want to risk oversleeping).

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Pack your bag the night before so as to avoid a rush in the morning. Make sure your take
along all necessary equipment-such as a calculator or dictionary if permitted, your
identity card or a note of your exam number if applicable, reserve pens or pencils, any
necessary geometrical instruments, some high-energy snacks and so on.

On the exam day itself, make all the necessary common-sense preparation. Dress
appropriately make sure you have an extra jumper, in case the exam hall is unheated. Eat
sensibly beforehand – a good breakfast before a morning exam, a moderate but not heavy
lunch (and no alcohol) before an afternoon exam.

Arrive in good time. If there is any danger of train delays, traffic jams, parking problems,
or the like take this into account. In the few minute before entering the exam hall, take
the opportunity of using the toilet so that you are not caught short midway through the
exam itself.

On the wisdom of last-minute revision and discussion, opinion is divided. A final

scanning of your condensed notes over breakfast can provide a useful refreshing of your
memory. But remember that you need an alert mind in the exam, not just a well-stocked
one so avoid, if you can waking up especially early to do extra swotting. And if you are
at all susceptible to panic, avoid discussing the forthcoming exam with your classmates
as you mill about outside the exam hall waiting to enter, likewise, avoid discussing the
paper immediately after an exam, if you have another exam coming up soon afterwards.
Don’t engage in post-mortems with yourself such discussions tend to be demoralizing
rather than reassuring and serve only to distract you from preparing for the exam ahead.

4.10. Essay-length Answers

You will frequently be asked to write an essay-length answer as part of a longer
examination. Occasionally, an exam may consist of a single essay, as in a test-out exam
at the end of a writing course.

Here is a typical essay question from an exam in an introductory course in linguistics. A

response to this question can be found on pages 560-61.

50
Account for the differences in American and British English by describing at least three
major influences that affected the way this country’s settlers spoke English. Give many
examples as you can of words derived from these influences.

The rest of this chapter discusses the features of a strong essay response and shows how
the writing process can be adapted to a test-taking situation.

4.10.1. How to Prepare For Exam Essays

Being able to write a good exam essay is the result of a certain type of studying. There
are times when cramming is probably unavoidable, but you should try to avoid this last-
minute crunch whenever possible. It prevents you from gaining a clear overview of a
course and a real understanding of a course’s main issues. In contrast, spaced study
throughout the semester gives you a sense of the whys of the subject, not just the who,
what, where, and when.
As you prepare for an exam essay, you should try to follow these steps:
 In light of the main concepts covered in the course, identify key issues that the
exam might logically address.
 With these issues in mind, design several exam essay questions.
 Draft an answer for each anticipated question.
 Commit to memory any facts, quotations, data lists of reasons, and so forth
that you would include in your answers.

Although you may not anticipate the exam’s actual question, preparing some questions
and answers can give you practice in analyzing and working with the course material. In
the process, you’ll probably allay some pre-exam jitters as well.

4.10.2 At the Examination

Survey the Entire Test
Look over the entire written-answer section of test before working on any part of it. Note
which sections are worth the highest point value and plan to spend the longest time on
those sections. Follow any guidelines that the directions may provide about the length of
the response. When “a brief paragraph” is all that is required, don’t launch into a full-
scale essay.

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If you’re given a choice about which exam questions to answer, read them all before
choosing. Of course, select those you feel best equipped to answer if it’s a toss-up
between two, you might quickly sketch out answers to both before deciding which to do.
To avoid mistakes, circle questions you plan to answer and cross out those you’ll skip.
Then give yourself a time limit for writing each response and with reason, stick with your
plan.

Understand the Essay Question

Once you’ve selected the question you’re going to write on, you need to make sure you
know what the question is looking for. Examine the question carefully to determine its
slant or emphasis. Most essay questions ask you to focus on a specific issue or to bring
together material from different parts of a course. Many questions use key directional
words that suggest an answer developed according to a particular pattern of development.
Here are some key directional words and the patterns they suggest
Key Directional Words Pattern of Development
Provide details about… Description
Give the history of ….
Trace the development of…. Narration
Explain…
List… Illustration
Provide examples of …
Analyze the parts of … Division-classification
Discuss the types of …
Analyze…
Explain how… Process analysis
Show how..
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of…
Show similarities and differences Comparison-contrast
Between…
Account for …
Analyze..
Discuss the consequences of…. Cause-effect

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Explain the reasons for…
Explain why…
Show the influence of …
Clarify…
Explain the meaning of…. Definition
Identify…
Argue…
Defend….
Evaluate… Argumentation-persuasion
Justify….
Show the failings or merits of…
Support….

The following sample questions show the way key directional words imply the approach
to take. In each example, the key words are italicized. Note that some essay questions
call for two or more patterns of development. The key terms could, for example, indicate
that you should contrast two things before arguing the merits of one.
1. Galileo, now recognized as having made valuable contributions to our
understanding of the universe, was twice tried by the Vatican. Explain the factors
that caused the church and the astronomer to fall into what one historian has
termed a ‘fatal collision of opposite philosophies.’ (Cause-effect)
2. Define the superego and explain how, according to Freud, the super ego develops.
(Definition; process analysis)
3. Explain the difference between “educational objective” and “instructional
objectives” Provide specific examples of each, focusing on the distinction
between students’ immediate and long-term needs. (Comparison-contrast;
illustration)

4.11. Write the Essay

The steps in the writing process are the same, whether you compose an essay at home or
prepare an essay response in a classroom test situation. The main difference is that

53
during a test the process is streamlined. Following are some helpful guidelines for
handling each writing stage when you prepare an essay as part of an exam.

Prewrite

Prewriting begins when you analyze the essay question and determine your essay’s basic
approach. We suggest that do your analysis of the question on the exam sheet: Underline
key directional term, circle other crucial words, and put numbers next to points that the
question indicates you should cover.

Then, still using your exam page or a piece of scratch paper, make notes for an answer.
(writing on the exam sheet means you won’t have several pieces of paper to keep track
of) jot down main points as well as facts and examples. If you feel blocked, try
brainstorming, free writing, mapping or another prewriting technique to get yourself
going.

What to Avoid. Don’t get over involved in the prewriting stage; you wont have time to
generate pages of notes. Try using words and phrases, not full sentences or paragraphs.
Also don’t spend time analyzing your audience (you know its your instructor) or
choosing a tone (exams obviously require a serious, analytic approach).

Identify Your Thesis

Like essays written at home, exam essays should have a thesis. Often, the thesis is a
statement answering the exam question. For example in response to a question asking
you to “Discuss the origins of apartheid”, your thesis might begin, “The South African
law of ‘separateness, or apartheid, originated in 1948, a result of a series of factors
that…”Similarly, the essay answer to a question asking you to “Discuss the process by
which nations are admitted to the European Community…”might start, Nations are
admitted to the European Community through the process of…”Note that these thesis
statements are somewhat informal. They state the subject of the essay but not the writer’s
attitude towards the subject. In a test-taking situation, these less-structured thesis
statements are perfectly acceptable. For more on thesis statements.

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Support the Thesis with Evidence
In the prewriting stage, you jotted down material needed to answer the question. At this
point, you should review the evidence quickly to make sure its adequate. Does it provide
sufficient support for your thesis? If not, make some additional quick notes. Also check
that support for your thesis is unified, specific, accurate, and representative.

Organize the Evidence

Before you start writing, devise some kind of outline. You may simply sequence your
prewriting jottings by placing numbers or letters beside them. Or you can quickly
translate the jottings into a brief, informal outline. However you proceed, go back and
review the essay question one more time. If the question has two or three parts, your
outline should tackle each one in turn. Suppose a question asks you to “Consider the
effects of oil spills on wildlife, ocean ecology, and oil reserves “Your answer should
address each of these three areas, with separate paragraphs for each area.

Also, focus again on the question’s and differences, your outline should draw on one of
the two basic comparison-contrast formats. Since many exam questions call for more
than one task (for example, you may be asked both to define a theory and to argue its
merits) you should make sure your outline reflects the appropriate pattern of
development.

Many outlines use an emphatic approach to organize material (discuss which factors are
most critical in determining whether a wildlife species will become extinct”). However,
when discussing historical or developmental issues (for example, in psychology), you
often structure material chronologically. In some fields (art history is one) you may
choose a spatial approach – for instance, if you describe a work of art. Quickly assess the
situation to determine which approach would work best and keep it in mind as you
sequence the points in your outline for more on, respectively, outlining and emphatic,
chronological, spatial, and simple-to-complex plans).

What to Avoid. Don’t prepare a formal or may-leveled outline; you’ll waste valuable
time. a phrase outline with two levels of support should be sufficient in most cases.

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Write the Draft
Generally, you won’t have time to write a formal introduction so its fine to begin the
essay with your thesis, perhaps followed by a plan of development. Write as many
paragraphs as you need to show you have command of the concepts and facts taught in
the course. Refer to your outline as you write, but if inspiration strikes, feel free to add
material or deal with a point in a different order. As you draft your response, you may
want to write on every other line or leave several blank spaces at the bottom of the page.
That way, you can easily slot in any changes you need to make along the way. Indeed,
you shouldn’t feel hesitant about crossing out material-a quotation you didn’t get quite
right, a sentence that reads awkwardly, a fact that should be placed elsewhere. Do make
these changes, but make them neatly.

When preparing the draft, remember that you’ll be graded in part on how specific,
accurate, and representative your evidence is provide concrete, correct, true-to-type
evidence. Make sure, too, that your response is unified don’t include interesting but
basically irrelevant information. Stay focused on the question. Using topic sentences to
structure your paragraphs will help you stay on track.

Your instructor will need transitions and other markers to understand fully how your
points connect to one another. Try to show how your ideas relate by using signal devices,
such as first, second, however for instance, and most importantly

As you near the end of the essay, check the original question. Have you covered
everything? Does the question call for a final judgment or evaluative comment? If so
provide it. Also if you have time you may want to close with a brief, one or two-sentence
summary.

What to avoid. Don’t write your essay on scrap paper and plan to recopy. You probably
won’t have enough time, even if you do, you may, in your haste lest out words, phrases,
or whole sentences. Your first and only draft should be the one written on the exam
booklet or paper. Also, unless your instructor specifically requests it don’t waste time
recopying the question in your exam booklet.

Instructors find it easier to evaluate what you know if you’ve used paragraphs. Dot then,
cast your answer as one long paragraph spanning three pages. If you’ve outlined your

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ideas, you’ll have a clear idea where paragraph breaks should occur. Finally, don’t cram
your response with everything you know about the subject. Most instructors can detect
padded answers in a second. Give focused, intelligent responses, not one rambling
paragraph after another.

Revise, Edit, and Proofread

If you’ve budgeted your time, you should have a few minutes left to review your essay
answer. (Don’t skip rereading it just so you can leave the room a few minutes early).
Above all, read your response to make sure it answers the question fully. Make any
changes that will improve the answer-perhaps add a fact, correct a quotation, tighten a
sentence. If you want to add a whole sentence or more, write the material in some nearby
blank space and use an arrow to show where it goes. If something is in the wrong place,
use an arrow and a brief note to indicate where it should go.

Instructors will accept insertions and deletions-as long as such changes are made with
consideration for their sanity. Use a few bold strokes to cross out not wild spidery
scribbles. Use the standard editing marks such as the caret to indicate additions and
other changes.

As you reread, check grammer and spelling. Obvious grammatical errors and spelling
mistakes-especially if they involve the subject’s key terms-may affect your grade. If
spelling is a problem for you, request permission to have your dictionary at hand.

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 SECTION TWO
LECTURE FIVE
INTRODUCTION TO READING SKILLS

Lecture Outline
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Objectives
5.3. Reading as Communication
5.4. The Psychology of Reading
5.5. The Reader you can Become
5.6. Summary

5.1. Introduction
This lecture acts as an introduction to reading skills as a part of the whole communication
course. It looks at the need to develop reading skills and how reading relates to the whole
communication process. It identifies the psychology that relates to the cognitive process
of reading and encourages the learner to develop this important skill while studying at the
university.

The renowned German literary artist Goethe had this to say about reading:

“The dear people do not know how long it takes to learn to read. I’ve been at all my
life and I cannot say I have reached the goal”

This he said after having been recognized as one of the most distinguished German
writers!
Reading also has a very fundamental role in development of a society as Melnik and
Merrit have to say:
“The quality of life of every nation and each individual is significantly affected by the
degree of reading comprehension achieved (Melnik and Merrit 1974)

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This section discusses the need to develop ourselves as efficient readers. The discussions
center around the fact that we can become such readers if we just develop enough interest
and understand the value of developing reading skills in general.

As a university student, you will need to develop reading skills for the following reasons:
 Basic comprehension and interpretation skills
 Memory skills
 Location of main ideas
 Understanding what is read and getting the most from academic texts
 Reading critically

The emphasis in this section is on increasing information output. Input and out put are
terms borrowed from computer science to refer to the taking in and giving out of
information. Input skills are concerned with how you can understand, absorb, organize
and store information so that you have maximum amount available when the time comes
for output , that is ,telling someone else what you know or think. The output skills we are
concerned with in this course are writing, oral presentation and taking examinations.
It is hoped that by the end of this section you will be thoroughly equipped to apply the
principles learned to become a scholar worth your salt.

Did you know that as a reader you are also a communicator? How exactly is reading
communication? This next section looks at how reading fits into the whole
communication process.

5.2. Objectives
By the end of this Lecture you should be able to:
1. Define reading skills
2. Recognize the concepts that are related to reading as
communication
3. Relate to the psychology of reading and to understand the cognitive
processes involved in it
4. Develop a positive attitude towards reading

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5.3. Reading as Communication
In any communication, you are either the sender or receiver of the communication. The
exchange is between two parties. In the case of reading the sender of the message is the
writer and the receiver is the reader.

The reader and the writer interact with each other by the reader interrogating the opinions
and the concepts of the writer. This is done because the author of the text is not
available. The reader actively struggles with unfamiliar vocabulary in order to
reconstruct the meaning. The writer on the other hand tries to understand who the readers
are in order to maximize the number of shared assumptions. He has to shape his text
accordingly. The writer is careful to make his meaning understood.

Interaction in reading and writing should therefore involve cooperation between the
reader and the writer. The author ensures that interaction takes place by structuring his
text effectively for the reader. He supplies the reader with clues that he so she can use to
tackle the text. The reader on the other hand has to read, think and reanalyze difficult
parts trying to make inferences, reconstruct assumptions on which the writing is based.
The writer strives to make himself clear but he is not always sure about where the will
experience problems. The message of the writer is like a do it yourself game in which he
supplies clues to the reader who then goes on to try and reconstruct the author’s initial
thought. The reader makes sense of the text by trying to use and fit in the pieces to create
the authors intended meaning. The clues the author uses are syntactic context, semantic
context, signal words, connective words and visual signposts.

If I’m to communicate with the writer in the way that has been discussed above, do I need
to know what goes on in my mind when I’m reading? Yes! Being in charge of my
reading requires that I at least have an understanding of how I function as a reader. This
next section discusses the psychology of

5.4 The Psychology of Reading

Reading is a difficult process to define. In vague global terms, reading has been defined
as the cracking of code or decoding a text in order to get meaning from it. This definition
may seem rather shallow and inadequate.

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Reading has been defined more as a psychological process that entails the processing of
information. The study of reading has conducted by psychologists especially in their
interest to study memory. Memory is the process by which information is acquired
processed and later stored in the brain (Sdorow 1994: 316) Memory research has been
driven by the so called cognitive revolution in psychology which views the mind as an
information. The handling of information at each memory stage has been compared to
information processing done by a computer, which involves, encoding (the conversion of
information into a form that ca be stored in memory, storage, (the retention of
information in memory and retrieval (the recovery of information from memory)

The information-processing model holds the view that the processing of information
revolves around these three components.

One of the founding fathers of psychology, William James ( 1850-1950) noted that
things are better impressed in our memories by active rather than passive retention.
The word elaborative reversal is used to describe the active organization of information
to make it more meaningful and integrating it with information already stored in our
memories.

Another theory of memory is the schema theory which postulates that long term
memories are stored as parts of a schema where there are cognitive structures that
organize knowledge about events and objects ( Alba and Hasher 1983). According to this
theory.

Of interest to reading comprehension is the understanding this theory brings into whaat
occurs in order for comprehension to take place in the mind of the reader. According to
this theory, the knowledge that the reader has stored interacts with the incoming
information and comprehension takes place when there is a correlation between the two.
This approach is what has come to be known as the top down or the conceptual driven
approach to processing.

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Reading is an integrative exercise that involves both speaking and listening. It involves
the deciphering of orthographic conventions fundamental to the acquisition of writing
skills. A college student differs from a high school student in that he is expected to find
out what he is expected to know from materials such as books and notes, periodicals,
magazines etc. Because of this the skills of reading take a different form in the process of
higher education. He needs to be able to read for gist, for facts and specific information,
and for manner in which the book is written. When reading it is important to identify the
purpose for which you are reading in order that you may become more efficient.

Afolyan divides reading into two main concepts. Reading efficiency and reading
comprehension.

Reading efficiency lays emphasis on speed and identifies four speeds ie: study or careful,
normal (medium to fast), rapid (medium fast), skimming and scanning (extremely fast).
Reading comprehension lays emphasis on recognition of reading level and the
appropriate techniques for understanding

5.5. The Reader You Can Become

The German literary artist Goethe once said the following:
The efficient reader gets what he or she wants from reading without wasting time and
effort. The efficient reader also varies his or her rate (speed) with purpose for reading.
Sometimes as a reader, you may want to read fairly slowly in order to understand
material thoroughly, but you may also want to read fairly quickly when you wish. You
may want to grasp the main ideas accurately and skip details when you choose. The chief
characteristic of an efficient reader is flexibility. Different situations call for different
kinds of reading. The efficient reader is able to read at different speeds and knows
different ways of reading. The efficient reader is also intent on achieving a particular
purpose.

The efficient reader reads for meaning rather than individual words. He or she reads wile
asking questions and communicates with the author by predicting the text, that is, he or
she not only thinks ahead about what he wants to find out, he or she also relate what they

62
are reading wt what they already know. This helps the reader to anticipate what the
author will say next. This speeds up comprehension and gives the reader a sense of
satisfaction.

Efficient readers find reading rewarding and does more of it. They have an interest to
move beyond textbooks to books of their own interest.

The readers vocabulary, use of English, general knowledge and critical judgment
improve in the best and most natural way.

5.6. Summary
It is hoped that this lesson has given you more insight into the process of
communication, the process of reading as communication and also the need
to develop reading skills.

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 LECTURE SIX
INCREASING READING EFFICIENCY OVERVIEW
Lecture Outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Increasing Reading Speed
6.4 Getting Rid of Bad Reading Habits
6.5 Matching Reading to Purpose
6.6 Summary

6.1. Introduction
This section is concerned with your ability as learner to understand yourself a reader.
You should be able to test your reading speed, understand the habits that hinder reading
speed and identify the purposes for which you read in order that you can be the flexible
reader that is in control of your studies.

6.2. Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be ale to
1. Explain the role of speed in reading efficiency
2. Assess the bad habits that have been acquired over time
3. Learn some skills that help in reducing bad habits
4. Identify the rate required to read different kinds of materials
5. Practice skills that help in increasing speed in reading

6.3. Increasing Reading Speed

Experts have come to a conclusion that there is a close relationship between reading
efficiency and speed. An efficient reader can grasp the meaning from a page at least twice
as fast as he can read the page aloud. Faster readers usually comprehend better than slow
ones. If you are aware of certain facts about how your eyes work when you read.

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There are three types of readers:
1. The motor reader
This kind of reader reads about 150 words per minute and is also called the vocalizer.
His reading speed is restricted to the mouth. This reader was taught to read this way
and tires very easily because he works very hard at reading. This kind of reader sees
each individual word and vocalizes it either by whispering, reading out loud or saying
the words in his head. This kind of reader definitely needs to improve his reading
habits
2. The auditory reader:
This kind of reader reads about 300 words per minute. This reader may not vocalize
but he or she concentrates on each word. He or she is not just a word thinker but a
word hearer. He concentrates on each word intently.
3. The visual reader
This kind of reader reads between 600 to 800 words per minute and is the kind of
reader we should all aspire to be. This reader reads rapidly and efficiently. Nothing
is said or heard; only seen. What hinders rapid reading is the number of fixations
made across a line of print. The fewer the fixations the better the reading.
Activity 6.1
1. Read the passage below in a normal way at your normal speed. Look at
your watch before you read. When you have finished reading, look again at
the time and subtract the difference to see how long it took you to read it.
2. Look at the table below and identify how many words per minute you are
reading.

Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM
1.0 615 2.0 310 3.00 205 4.00 155 5.0 125
10 525 10 285 10 195 10 150 10 120
20 460 20 265 20 185 20 145 20 115
30 410 30 245 30 175 30 140 30 110
40 370 40 230 40 170 40 135 40 110
50 335 41 215 50 160 50 130 50 105

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Now ask yourself what kind of a reader you are based on the different types of readers.
This next section will give you some tips on how you can get rid of the bad habits.

6.4. Getting Rid of Bad Reading Habits

We do not need to understand every word to understand the meaning of what we read. In
fact too much emphasis in individual words slows down your reading and reduces
comprehension.

Any habit that slows down your silent reading to the speed at which you speak, or read
aloud is inefficient. If you point to each work as you read or move your head, or form
words with your lips then you read poorly. Less obvious bad habits are those of saying
the words to yourself quietly.

It has been estimated that up to 75% of the words in English sentences are not necessary
for conveying the meaning. The secret to silent reading is to seek out those key words
and phrases, which carry the thought, and to pay less attention to words which exist only
for the sake of grammatical completeness.

An efficient reader can grasp the meaning from a page at least twice as fast as he can
read the page aloud. Unconsciously, he takes in whole phrases or thought unit at a time.
If he says or hears words to himself, they are selected ones, said for emphasis.
The assurance that not every word is necessary for meaning helps readers handicapped by
common another very common fault. Regression. A poor reader frequently lets his eyes
wander back over what he has just read. This usually indicates a lack of concentration.
He is too lazy to get the word s the first time. Or it may be that he lacks confidence in his
ability to understand without looking at every word. But regression really helps
comprehension. It usually makes it worse, because it interrupts the forward moving train
of thought

An efficient reader seldom goes back. He pushes actively forward from one idea to the
next, and he usually gets meaning the first time. He has learned from experience that a
missed word or idea can often be deduced from what follows.. He also know that
important ideas are sally repeated. If he does go back, it is with the purpose, to find the
answer to a definite question.

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Neither does a good reader interrupt his reading at each unfamiliar word to use the
dictionary. He often infers meaning from the context. Unless passage depends on the
word, he saves his checking up in the dictionary until the end.

A good reader’s eyes also see more words at a time. The eyes do not move continuously
along a line of print. They move in a series of jerks, and see only when they stop. About
90% of reading time is spent on the pauses or fixations between eye movements.

It is possible that a good reader and a poor reader spend roughly the same amount of time
on a pause. The difference is that the efficient reader needs fewer pauses than the poor
reader. Instead of focusing on every word, whether nr not it is needed for meaning, he
focuses on key words and takes in the words on either side with peripheral vision.

This means that in the same number of pauses- the same amount of time,- he can cover
more material than a poor reader. He goes faster and gets less tired because he is
concentrating on meaning rather than individual words. He also comprehends better.

Activity 6.2
Activity: upside down passage
Increasing eye span
6.5. Matching Reading to Purpose
Reading speed is not the only way we can develop efficiency in reading. The aim of
reading is to develop comprehension is the aim reaching speed is developed for the
purpose of being a flexible reader. The ability of a reader to adjust reading rate according
to purpose is what makes a reader efficient.

Afolyan and Newman (1996) discuss four basic reading speeds.

 Study or careful reading: This requires slow and thoughtful reading
 Normal reading: Medium to slow reading
 Rapid reading: Medium to fast
 Skimming: Extremely fast

An active reader asks himself or herself this question: “ why should I read this?”
An efficient reader always keeps in mind what the purpose for reading is.

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 Activity 6.3
The following are purposes for reading. From the four basic
speeds, Indicate the speed that you think you need required for
them;

i) To find reference and locate new materials------------------------------

ii) To review familiar material-----------------------------------------------
iii) To master content including detail---------------------------------------
iv) To appreciate literally style-----------------------------------------------
v) To find answers to specific questions------------------------------------
vi) To go through a book or magazine with speed and fair comprehension----------
----------------------------------------------------
vii) To go through a book or magazine with speed and comprehension---------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
viii) To read material with unusual vocabulary------------------------------
ix) To evaluate material-------------------------------------------------------
x) To read narrative material primarily for the plot-----------------------
xi) To get main idea or central thought--------------------------------------
xii) To answer specific questions----------------------------------------------
xiii) To get general ideas of a selection----------------------------------------
xiv) To read with the intention of going through it later--------------------
xv) To read with the intention of memorizing the detail-------------------
xvi) To locate specific points of details---------------------------------------
xvii) To note details---------------------------------------------------------------
xviii) To get general ideas of a section------------------------------------------
xix) To solve a problem---------------------------------------------------------
xx) To get details in a sequence as in following direction-----------------
xxi) To solve a problem---------------------------------------------------------
xxii) To review a familiar story------------------------------------------------
xxiii) To outline summarize or paraphrase----------------------------------

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 xxiv) To judge literary merits------------------------------------------------
xxv) To analyze the author’s presentation---------------------------------
xxvi) To obtain a bird’s eye view of many publications----------------------
xxvii) To grasp the relation of main idea to details----------------------------
xxviii) To read information for pleasure and relaxation-------------------
xxix) To get information for temporary use -----------------------------------
xxx) To follow the plot of a novel----------------------------------------------

Now group these into the different categories

You will begin to see a pattern emerging of the different purposes about the decision you
make abut what time you are likely to take with that particular text.

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 LECTURE SEVEN
TAXONOMY OF COMPREHENSION SKILLS
Lecture Outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Identification and Recall
7.4 Analytical Skills
7.5 Integrative Skills
7.6 Evaluate Skills
7.7 Developing Critical Thinking
7.8 Judging what you Read
7.9 Intellectual Journaling
7.10 Summary

7.1. Introduction
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain from the simple recall and
recognition of facts, as the lowest level to the highest level which is classified as
evaluation.

Of particular interest to reading comprehension, Bach and Ruddel have identified four
levels which are discussed in a taxonomy that is based on Blooms taxonomy.

In the Lecture, the categories are presented in ascending order to show what the lowest
level of comprehension you achieve and the highest level of learning you achieve when
you perform a certain reading activity.

7.2. Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Identify the levels of learning and comprehension you should
be achieving in the process of reading.
2. Practice comprehension skills at these different levels

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7.3. Identification and recall
This is basically memorization. 50% of study time should be spent trying to remember
what is learned. Memory skills are important. At university it is important to learn
through memory.
Recall is the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness. Recognition is a
measure of memory in which one need only identify previously learned information.
Relearning measures the amount of time saved when previously learned information is
leaned for a second time. Tests of recognition and relearning reveal that people
remember more than they can recall. Recognition tests of memory are easier because
they provide retrieval cues that serve as reminders of information that could otherwise be
recalled. Context effects indicate the importance of retrieval cues in memory. Emotions
also trigger memories.

The psychology of memory Insert. (Memory handout) How does that relate to
identification and recall? Discuss.
However memorization alone is not enough for learning you need ot go further into the
other levels

7.4. Analytical Skills

This is the second level of comprehension. This kind of reading involves the analysis of
the author’s intentions, key ideas and text structure to bring out the intended message.

Separating fact from non- fact and distinguishing fact from opinion. Reputed experts
make statements that are frequently treated as facts especially if they are put into print!
Many assertions are taken as facts but they are merely honest opinions of experts in the
field. Such statements must be carefully examined. The reader coming into a reading
situation must understand that not all people are rational. People tend to be motivated by
prejudices and illogical thoughts. Please refer to the section on logical loopholes in the
section on writing skill and you will be able to not only see them when reading but also
how to avoid it when writing. It is important for the reader to be able to check facts,

71
events and ides and to recognize propaganda, recognize unstated assumptions and
recognize causal relations.
Even though cause effect relationships will be discussed later when discussing rhetorical
organizational patterns, it is important the we discuss the logic of causal relations at this
point. When you get to that section of reading make sure you use these guidelines to
analyze texts that represents cause effect relationships.
The principle of multiple causation is discussed in scientific inquiry at a philosophical
level to indicate the levels at which cause and effect relations are analyzed. The
classification of causal relations is as following:

Necessary cause
Sufficient cause
Contributory cause

The following example will serve to show what we mean by this. Say there has been a
huge forest fire in the Amboseli national park. What caused it? One may be tempted to
blame the game warder that was seen throwing a cigarette butt into the forest. The
assumption may be made that the fire was caused by the cigarette butt. But the principle
of multiple causation requires an analytical approach that a reader recognize that for
there to be a fire, there has to be some combustible material for there to be a forest fire
such as dry grass and dry trees. A forest fire may not occur if it is during the rainy
season. A cigarette butt in the presence of combustible material is sufficient to cause a
forest fire only if there is combustible material. A strong wind may serve as a catalyst and
it is recognized as a contributory cause.
The recognition of these relations in very important for the reader as he learns to
recognize and define problems as well as analyze various sources of information

7.5. Integrative Skills

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This has to do with the reader’s ability to synthesize information, to create and generate
new ideas and to hypothesize. The reader does this by explaining what he or she reads.
The explanation is done through providing relevant and situated examples and
illustrations, making comparisons with what is already known, identifying relationships
between what he or she knows and what is being read, organizing those facts and ideas in
such a manner that can be presented to someone else in a logical way. This is a higher
order thinking skill that has to be developed for more sophisticated academic work. The
purpose of learning this at this level is to familiarize you as a learner to understand that
this is what is expected of you when you are in a tertiary institution. The exercises at the
end of this section should help you to start thinking independently and developing
creativity as a reader.

This comprehension skill expects you as a reader to be able to summarize ideas by,
inferring beyond given data, forming generalizations, drawing conclusions and predicting
outcomes.
Of great importance to you as a reader at this level is the ability to summarize thoughts.
This is because summarizing is the basic output skill for university and college work. All
the higher forms of speech and writing depend on it.
We will therefore focus more on summary when discussing integrative skills.

A summary is a short form of a longer passage that brings out the key ideas. The aim of
summarizing is to e brief and to the point.
To summarize effectively, you must pick out key words and ideas of a passage, a chapter,
a story a lecture, a discussion, or even a syllabus topic and then link them up in
continuous speech or writing for smooth transmission to someone else’s mind.

The skills have many applications and can be developed in many ways. For example
trying to sum what you have read or heard accurately, briefly and in your own words, is
an excellent way to test and increase your comprehension in study sessions, while
conversations and letter writing provide countless everyday opportunities for practice.
Essay or examination instructions to define, describe, list or explain are really asking you

73
to sum up what you know on some aspect of the course. More searching questions which
ask you to discuss, comment, on, compare, assess, criticize or justify require you first to
sum up the relevant facts and ideas, in order to interpret judge or apply them in some
way. To make responsible judgments based on facts, to discuss ideas intelligently or to
persuade other people to your point of view, you must be able to state what the key facts
are and express clearly the ideas you are discussing. Insert notes on summary

7.6. Evaluative Skills

Man is distinguished from other animals by his imaginative gifts- his ability to relate
what he sees to what he cannot see, move through time and pace simply by projecting
images within his mind, to visualize the past, to anticipate coming events and to plan the
future. The most highly prized of these gifts is his creative imagination. Involving all
your creative powers in reading, you make the experience more, memorable meaningful
and valuable. This is what gives depth to what you read.

7.7. Developing Critical Thinking

Many a time we have a hard time getting to this level of comprehension is our attitude to
what we read and the habits we have acquired through time.
Our drive to just pass exams may make us get into the trap of the banking system of
thinking.
The “banking system” of thinking is a trap that most of us find ourselves in when it
comes to reading. We only read so that we can reproduce the information in the exam
room. We in a sense “bank” the information so that we can withdraw it during exams.
The result of this is that the learning that takes place is at lower levels and the higher
levels are not sufficiently.

When we read we must develop a critical evaluative mind that questions the logic and
assumptions made by authors and also we must read to gain insight into a subject and of
course we must read to pass exam

7.8. Judging what you Read

When we read we must be able to judge what we read by doing the following tasks:

74
Appraising validity and reliability of facts events ideas and purposes.
We also read to assess the competence of the writer on certain subjects, rating their work
according to standards in the field.
You as a reader does this so that you can evaluate ideas and give possible solutions. You
should also be able at this level to test those solutions

7.9. Intellectual Journaling

Used to record ideas, insights, things you would like to explore further and anything else
which will help you to remember what held your thoughts at that time. This is helpful
when coming up with ideas for a term paper.

Activity 7.1
Personal response
Sit back and ask yourself what one thought during your study today that
was the most meaningful to you, most stirring, most worrying, most
wrong, most unexpected, or most important and jot it down. This page
is you. There are no right or wrong answers, so you cant be graded up or
down on content, but you can be graded up or down on thoughtfulness
of your thoughts. Try to be as specific as possible.

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 LECTURE EIGHT

PREWRITING TECHNIQUES AND GENERATION OF IDEAS

Lecture Outline
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Objectives
8.3. Free Writing
8.4. Listing
8.5. Questions
8.6. Clusters or Branches
8.7. Looping
8.8. Cubing
8.9. Outlining
8.10. Summary

8.1. Introduction
In this chapter I want to introduce you to a range of prewriting techniques. Knowledge of
these techniques will help you overcome the fearsome task of starting to write. Many
students feel afraid to put down a first sentence. Your mind may run from one idea to
another without being able to focus on any one, to enable you commit yourself to writing
on it.
Writing is a solitary and demanding task. One way to make the task easier is to use
invention techniques. These are techniques that will help you to explore your ideas on a
subject before you actually begin to write on it.

When you sit down to write you probably know vaguely what you want to say but not
exactly how to say it. Your ideas may seem chaotic because you may have a lot of
information and maybe strong feelings about a subject, but all this is stored in your brain
in a complicated way. As soon as you write something down, twenty more points may
come to your mind all at once, and all those points compete with each other for your

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attention. Invention techniques can help you get control of these chaotic thoughts and
examine them one at a time to see which ones are worth developing. When you use these
techniques, you are thinking on paper, just as you do in your mind or in your journal. In
fact, a journal entry may serve as an invention activity if you write a composition on one
of the subjects you explored in your journal. But there are several other ways of
approaching your topic.

In this section you will learn several invention techniques. You should experiment with
each of these techniques just to learn how to use them. On your own, try each one at
least once to see if that particular form of invention is helpful to you. Different
individuals have very different styles of creating. An invention technique that is
extremely fruitful for one person may produce nothing of interest for another person.
This why you should try the techniques while you are actually trying to produce a
composition. After you have experimented with each technique, select the ones that
work best for you and use those.

8.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of invention
techniques by generating ideas to your topic
using one invention technique.
2. Develop a working topic or outline as a result
of using a specific invention technique.
3. Appreciate challenges of academic writing.

8.3. Free-writing

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There are two kinds of free-writing. One type allows you to empty your mind
temporarily of everyday concerns so that you can concentrate on the task at hand. The
other type helps you begin to explore your ideas on a subject.

If you need to work on a writing assignment but cannot concentrate, the first type of free-
writing may help you to clear your mind. Take a sheet of paper and begin to write about
the thoughts on your mind at that moment. Write continuously for five minutes. This is
usually enough time to rid your mind of distractions. If you still feel distracted, continue
to write for another five minutes, or until you have gotten all distractions out of your
system.

If you have chosen a general topic to write about but have not yet decided what aspect of
that subject you wish to explore, the second type of free writing should help you. Write
your general topic at the top of a page. Then begin to write down everything that comes
to your mind on this topic. Write continuously for 10 minutes. Time yourself or have
someone else time you. Do not let your pen stop moving. If you cannot think of
anything to say, write “I can’t think of anything to say” until something comes to you
something will com so relax and keep writing steadily. If you cannot think of the word
you need in English, write the word in your own language or in some abbreviation or just
leave a blank and keep going. The point is to get down as much as you can about the
subject, no matter how disorganized.

Student example
Here is an example of one student’s free-writing

Indonesia is not popular as other places such as Thailand. Philippines, etc. - don’t know
the reason why-maybe it’s not publicized that much-especially in America, almost nobody
knows what or where Indonesia is. Sort of aggravating experience-feel embarrassed.
Lots of interesting sights-Australian people go to Indonesia very often but seldom see
American tourist. Bali is often visited-most popular place often call paradise Island
because of its beautifulness-many beaches-clean and refreshing. Java has many points of

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interest too. Yoga often called tourist city because of its many temples and again it has 3
beaches. Capital city is metropolitan city-filthy side and beautiful side all together-
Island of Sumatra-Mostly contains forests but on North side. Lake to be a beautiful
scenery.

Notice that this student did not worry about writing complete sentences or punctuating
the correctly. She only wanted to get her ideas down on paper as quickly as possible.
Here is a draft of the composition she eventually writes based on her free-writing.

Student example draft

Although many people in America have never been to Indonesia I think Indonesia is a
place they must visit at least once in a lifetime. Part of the reason the Americans seldom
visit Indonesia is because they do not think there is anything worth going for. But they
are wrong. In fact, there are many beautiful places in this country. For example, on the
island of |Bali there are two beautiful, white, and sunny beaches. Kuta is especially
beautiful when the sun sets and Janur has a spectacular view when the sun rises.
Another example is on the island of Java where there are two cities that are very popular
for their beautiful sites; they are the cities of Yogya and Jakarta. In Yogya there are
many ancient temples and in Jakarta there is a big play ground similar to Disneyland.
The last example of a tourist attraction is on the island of Sumatra; there is one most
particular point of interest there and that is lake Toba. When we see Lake Toba from the
mountains surrounding it, it creates a breathtaking view. These are just three of the
many beautiful places in Indonesia and I think it is a shame that more tourists don’t know
about them.

Note that this draft does not include everything that came up in the student’s free-writing.
Also notice that even this early draft contains things that did not appear in the free-
writing. Although the student added even more detail in her final draft. The free-writing
started her mind working on the subject and looking for ideas once she found some ideas,
she shaped them into a formal composition.

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When you do your own inventing, stop after 10 minutes, and reread what you have
written. Underline or circle the ideas and expressions you like. If you find an idea that
makes you think of something else you wanted to say, draw an arrow from that point and
continue writing until you have written everything you had to say about that idea.
Somewhere in what you have written you will probably find aspects of your topic you
can write about. If not, go on to another invention activity.

Imagine that you have decided to write a short composition about places of great natural
beauty in your country. Do 10 minutes of free-writing on this subject to see what ideas
you come up with. When you finish, include this free-writing exercise in your journal.

8.4. Listing
Once you have decided on an aspect of a topic to write about you need to find out what
you know about that topic and anything related to it. Listing is faster than free-writing
but operates on the same general principle. When you list, you write down everything
that comes to your mind about your topic, but you do not write sentences. Instead, you
write only words or quick phrases. Once again, you are trying to get down quickly as
much information as possible. Listing is particularly useful for getting examples or
specific information about a topic. This technique is also one of the most useful ways for
writers to get started again if for some reason their ideas dry up as they are writing a
draft. Here is of a student’s list.

Student Example
SUNDAY NIGHT, MASSEY HALL LOBBY
Noisy: everybody returning from weekends
Crowded
Parents, boyfriends
Floor wet and white, snow
Coke machine noisy
R.A at front desk bored, answers phone
Two guys playing Pac-man
Others waiting
One guy on the phone for a long time
Two others waiting to call
Couples sitting in lobby, laugh, talk, forbidden to go upstairs in this dorm
Employees from pizza delivering Sunday dinner

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Snowball thrown in from outside, becoming a water hole
Someone playing piano, several voices singing a carol
Change machine broken, I have been asked for change twice
Girls come down for Coke, laundry tickets, sweets
Suitcases everywhere
Elevator broken
Cold as a bus station
R.A’s pictures on the walls
On the opposite wall, announcements for parties, movies, free coupons, videos
Big blackboard in front of the doors, announcing that purple rain is playing poster
saying “Happy Birthday, Linda. We love you. “I don’t know her
Garfield Muppet on the table – forgotten by someone from the window see white smoke
from the heater system outside

Here is the final draft of a composition this student eventually wrote based on her list.
On Sunday afternoon, Massey Hall lobby looks as busy as a bus station. The
place is really crowded because the students are coming back from their
weekends away. Parents or boyfriends are carrying suitcases and standing
around speaking with female residents. At one end of the lobby, two boys are
playing a video game, “pac-man,” while some others are waiting for their
girlfriends. Other girls come down into the lobby very often to buy a Coke or
laundry tickets. Every ten minutes employees from Domino’s Pizza or m. Gatti’s
deliver pizzas for Sunday dinner. As in every public place, the lobby is very noisy.
Couples sitting on the blue sofas behind the front desk are laughing and speaking
animatedly; The Coke machine next to them is terribly noisy, and its difficult to
hear the piano in the small room close to the lobby. The telephone keeps on
ringing in the lobby office, and the R.A has to answer it every minute. Everybody
seems too busy to notice details in the lobby. Nobody is interested in the poster
announcing Linda’s birthday, nor in the announcements for parties and movies on
the wall opposite the front desk. The blackboard in front of the door, announcing
the movie purple rain for Monday night seems useless too. And people constantly
open the doors to come in or go out, so it’s cold. Just like in a bus station.

Activity 8.1
1. Look back at the students list, and then answer these questions.
(a) Did she include everything on the list in her composition?-------
----------------------

(b) What categories of details from her list did she include in her
composition?--------------------------------------------

(c) Can you detect a pattern in the details she included?--------------

--------------------

(d) What made her keep some details and eliminate others? ---------
--------------------

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 2. Writing Practice: Listing
Think of the first impressions you had of the community in which you
now live in the United States. Make a list of everything that comes
into your mind. Remember; try to get down as much as possible
quickly. Keep this list in your journal. You may want to expend it
into a composition someday.

8.5. Questions
When reporters write newspaper articles, they usually try to write the first sentence so
that it will answer the following questions: who, what, where, why, and sometimes how.
These questions can be used to generate ideas for your compositions as well. Asking
questions like these may help you to clarify exactly what subject you are going to discuss
in your composition. This technique, like listing, is also good for finding details about
your subject and for re-starting your writing if for some reason you get blocked. You are
the one who both asks and answers the questions. Think of as many questions as you
can. Here is an example of one student’s invention using wh-questions.

Student Example on Classical Ballet

What? Classical ballet, a stiff art from
When? Every time it is danced or when it is being performed or practiced
Where? In classes in the theater, everywhere it is being done why? This question is a
very ambiguous one. I could just talk and talk forever. But the very specific reason
Why is because it is done in a perfect placement of the body. Ballet is the only
dance from that accentuates the body to look right. This is the main reason why it is so
stiff.
How? Taught at the barre. You have to take classes hanging on to a barre while the
other side of your body is working.

From her invention writing, this student discovered that she wanted to explain why
classical ballet is so stiff. Here is the final draft of her composition.

Classical ballet is the only art form that uses a perfect placement of the body
when it is being performed and when it is being taught. Classical ballet is taught

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 in a classroom with mirrors on all the wells. The main reason for this is so
dancers can check their body weight well distributed, that is not too much weight
on one leg or the other one. Besides mirrors, there is a ‘barre’ that goes all
around the room. The main purpose of this barre is to help dancers learn how to
control one side of the body when the other is moving doing an exercise. The
dancer holds when the other is moving doing an exercise. The dancer holds on
the barre with one hand while the other one is accompanying the leg that is doing
the exercise. All of these facts make classical ballet a stiff art form. But the most
beautiful thing about classical ballet is that all of this work can be hidden by the
dancer when he or she is performing. And unless the people the audience are
familiar with the art form they have no way of realizing how hard the dancer is
really working.

Activity 8.2
Think of the last argument or disagreement you had with someone. Then
write a list of questions about the argument and answer them. Write as
many questions as you can (what kind of… Under what
circumstances….Whose…. What cause… What effect… and so on). Did
writing the questions and answers force you to consider any aspect of that
argument you had not thought of before? Put this invention writing in your
journal for possible future use.

8.6. Clusters or Branches

The human mind seems to store information partly by associating new information with
information already stored. As a result, calling up one piece of information may trigger a
whole series of other memories. For example, have you ever been eating something you
hadn’t eaten in long time and suddenly felt almost transported back into another time and
place? That experience is an example of your associational memory at work. You can
make good use of the mental capacity to associate when preparing to write compositions.
Write the subject of your composition in the middle of a piece of paper, and then write
down all the things you associate with it then continue the process by finding associations
for each of the things you have written down. Continue to do this as long as you can find
associations. Then look at all the associations you have written down. Try to group
items into clusters or categories.

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8.7. Looping
Looping is similar to free-writing, but it is more focused. It is especially useful when you
have many ideas in your mind all at the same time. Looping can help you focus your
thought on a subject, find the core or center of your thought, and pinpoint a main idea on
which to elaborate.

To use this technique, begin by writing down the subject you want to consider. Keep that
subject in the front of your mind as you write continuously for five minutes. It is
important to keep the pen moving and to keep your mind focused on the subject. If you
get distracted, just keep writing. Anything you think of until ideas on your subject come
again. As with free-writing, do not worry about grammar or punctuation. If you cannot
think of the word you want in English, write the word in your own language of leave a
blank. Feel free to use abbreviations or your own personal shorthand forms of spelling.

At the end of five minutes (time yourself or have someone else time you) read what you
wrote. Then write down one complete sentence that summarizes the essence of what you
just wrote. You may find an actual sentence in your writing that seems to be the most
important idea of the writing that seems to be the most important idea of the writing, or
you may have to create one. In either case, write that sentence down. This is the end of
your first loop.

Now begin a second loop by focusing on your summary sentence. Try to keep this
sentence in your mind as you write continuously for another five minutes. When you
finish the second five minutes of writing, read what you have just written. Look for the
main idea or core toward which all the other ideas are turned. Summarize that core
toward which all the other ideas are turned down. This is the end of your second loop.

Follow the same procedure for your third loop. At the end of your five minutes of
writing reed the third text and summarize it in one sentence. For most writers, this last
sentence usually captures the gist of what they have to say no their subject. If your last
sentence is still not satisfactory, you should probably try another invention technique.

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 Writing Practice: Looping
At the top of a piece of paper, write the word tradition. Then write about that subject
continuously for five minutes. When you have finished, summarize your text in a
complete sentence and write that sentence down. Repeat this process twice more. If
you find an interesting idea, keep it for later use in a composition.

This technique, like any invention technique, can be used at any time in the writing
process. It can be especially useful when your ideas seem chaotic and you need to find a
clear approach to your subject or an “angle,” of the subject to write about.

8.8. Cubing
Cubing involves looking at an idea from six different points of view, each representing
one of the six sides of a cube. You will look quickly at your subject from these six angles
so that you have several perspectives on the subject available to you. You should spend
three to five minutes examining your topic from each of the following angles:
1. Describe it. (What does it look like? What do you see?)
2. Compare it. (What is it similar to? What is it made of? What are its parts?)
3. Analyze it. (What is it made of? What are its parts?)
4. Associate it. (What does it remind you of? What do you associate it with?)
5. Apply it. (What can you do with it? What can you use it for?)
6. Argue for or against it. (Take either position. Give any reasons, even crazy
ones.)

When you have finished, reread what you wrote to find ideas that you like. Write those
ideas down and look them over. Perhaps one of them is particularly interesting and may
be a good perspective for a composition on the subject.

Writing Practice: Cubing

To show you how powerful cubing can be in helping you find something to say,
practice the technique using a candy bar as your subject. First, go and buy a candy
bar. Then consider your candy bar from all six points of view. When you have

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 finished, jot down the ideas you found that you like. Did cubing help you find
anything interesting to write?

Use cubing either at the beginning of a writing project, to find an angle for your
composition, or during a writing project, when you run out of things to say on your
subject.

8.9. Outlining
An outline is a structured method of exploring your thoughts on a subject. Some writers
like to use the freer invention strategies to generate ideas. Then they make an outline to
organize their ideas. Thus, outlining can be a transition between inventing and writing a
first draft. When used this way, the outline functions as a plan for writing. It is
extremely helpful in dividing up the big task of writing a formal paper into the much
more manageable task of writing small parts that will eventually make a unified and
organized whole.
Other writers like to make an outline of their paper

8.10. Summary
In this lecture you have been presented with an explanation of
different invention techniques that are to help you overcome the
initial stage in the process of writing, which is generating ideas.
These are:
FreeWriting
Listing
Questions
Clusters or Branches
Looping
Cubing
Outlining

If you have faithfully studied them, you have also had the opportunity to
write in response to practice questions asked after each.

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 LECTURE NINE
CHOOSING TOPICS
Lecture Outline
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Objectives
9.3. Choosing a Topic
9.4. Broad Topics
9.5. Areas of Inquiry
9.6. Determining your Purpose, Audience, Tone and Point of View
9.6.1. Purpose
9.6.2. Audience
9.6.3. Zone
9.6.4. Point of View
9.7. Limiting of the Topic
9.8. Factors Affecting the Choice of Topic
9.9. Stating your Topic
9.10. Summary

9.1. Introduction
In this lecture you will be begin the process of writing by acquainting yourself with the
process of formulating topics for writing a research paper.

9.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Formulate a topic suitable to your interests for your
research paper
2. State such a topic as a question, a hypothesis, and as a
thesis statement
3. Demonstrate arguability by providing an arguable topic for
your research paper

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9.3. Choosing a Topic
The choice of a topic involves identifying a general subject area, defining the topic,
narrowing it, and stating the topic as a question or hypothesis. As you gather information
through research, you will want to reconsider all of these decisions and eventually to
formulate a thesis statement. When you think you have enough evidence, write out a
tentative thesis statement but avoid considering it final until you have written through the
entire paper. A misstated or inaccurate thesis statement left in place can thwart your
efforts to write.

9.4. Broad Topics

An instructor or adviser sometimes specifies a broad area of study. The instructor may
assign a particular topic, provide a list of possible topics, or give the writer a free choice
of topics. You can begin to consider possible topics for a research paper at the moment
you decide to take the course. When taking notes on the lectures and readings you can jot
down subjects of interest. Graduate students can begin to compile a list of possible thesis
or dissertation topics early in their academic careers, perhaps selecting graduate classes
that will contribute to their knowledge of these subjects and trying out ideas in seminar
presentations or papers.

9.5. Areas of Inquiry

Even in the fields that seem to have been well covered by other scholars sometimes
suggest undiscussed areas of inquiry or unresolved controversies in their own work; this
kind of information often appears in the notes and the conclusions. Also, commonly held
but unsubstantiated conclusions or new ways of testing the basic assumptions in a field
can provide subjects for research. Consideration of the terminology in your discipline
can yield innovative ways to illustrate it or even new definitions. Recently published
books or developments in current events can afford new insight in to existing theories and
thus lead to opportunities for research; contradictions or disjunctions among the various
books also suggest possible topics.

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9.6. Determining Your Purpose, Audience, Tone and Point of View.
Once you understand the requirements of a writing assignment you are ready to start to
start thinking about writing. What is your purpose? For what audience will you be
writing? What tone and point of view will you use? Later on you may modify your
decisions about these issues. But you need to understand the way these considerations
influence your work.

9.6.1. Purpose
You should start by clarifying to your self your essays broad purpose. What do you want
the essay to accomplish? The papers you write in college are usually meant to inform or
explain, to convince or persuade, and sometimes to entertain.

In practice writing often combines purposes. You might for example write an essay to
convince people to support a new trash recycling program in your community. But before
you win readers over you most likely would have to explain something about current
waste disposal technology.

When purposes blend in this way, the predominant ones influence the essays content,
organization, pattern of development, emphasis and language. Assume you are writing
about a political campaign, if your goal is to entertain, to take a gentle poke at two
candidates you might use comparison-contrast to organize your essay. You might for
example start with several accounts of one candidate “foot and mouth disease” and then
describe the attempts of the other candidate, a millionaire, to portray him a Joe. Your
language, full of exaggeration, would reflect your objective. But if your primary
objective is to persuade readers that the candidates are incompetent and shouldn’t be
elected, you could adopt a serious, straightforward style. Selecting the argumentation-
persuasion pattern to structure the essay, you might use one candidates gaffes and the
other’s posturing to build a case that neither is worthy of the office.

9.6.2. Audience
Writing is a social act and thus implies a reader or an audience. To write effectively you
need to identify who your reader’s are and to take their needs and expectations into

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consideration. An essay about the artificial preservatives in the food served in the campus
cafeteria would take one form if submitted to chemistry professor and a very different
form if written for your campus newspaper. The chemistry paper would probably be
formal and technical, complete with chemical formulations and specific data.
“Distillation revealed sodium benzoate particles suspended in gelatinous medium.” But
such technical material would be inappropriate in a newspaper column intended for
general readers. In this case you might provide specific examples of cafeteria foods
loaded with additives –“those deliciously smoked cold cuts are loaded with nitrates and
nitrites, both known to cause cancer in laboratory animals”—and suggest ways to eat
more healthfully—“pass by the deli counter and fill up instead on vegetable pizza and
fruit juices.
The more you knew about your readers, the more you can adapt your writing to fit their
needs and expectations.

9.6.3. Tone
Just as your voice may project a range of feelings, your writing can convey one or more
tones, or emotional states: enthusiasm, anger, resignation, and so on. Tone is integral to
meaning. It permeates your writing and reflects your attitude towards yourself, your
purpose, your subject and your readers.

In every day conversations vocal inflections facial expressions gestures help convey tone.
In writing how do you project tone without the use of these aids? You pay close attention
to sentence structure, and word choice. Determining your tone should come early in your
writing because the tone you select influences the sentences and the words you use later.

Sentence structure refers to the way in which your sentences are shaped. Although two
paragraphs that follow each other deal with exactly the same subject, note how
differences in the sentence structure create sharply dissimilar tones.
Example
1. During the 1960’s, many inner-city minorities considered the police an occupying
force and an oppressive agent of control. As a result violence grew against the
police in poorer neighborhoods, as did the number of residents killed by police.

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 2. An occupying force. An agent of control. An oppressor. That’s how many inner
city minorities in the 60’s viewed the police. Violence against the police soared.
Police killings of residents mounted.

Informative in its approach the first paragraph portrays the neutral, almost dispassionate
tone. The sentences are fairly long and clear transmissions (During the sixties, as a result)
mark the progression of thought. But the second paragraph with it’s dramatic, almost
alarmist tone, seems intended to elicit strong emotional response; its short sentences,
fragments, and abrupt transitions reflect the turbulence of earlier times.

Word Choice also pays a role in establishing the tone of an essay. Words have
denotations (neutral meanings) and connotations, emotional associations that go beyond
the literal meaning. The word beach for example, is defined in the dictionary as “ nearly
level stretch of pebbles and sand beside a body of water.” This definition however does
not capture individual responses to the word. For some, beach suggests warmth,
relaxation; for others, it calls up images of hospital waste and sewage washed up on a
once clean stretch of shoreline.

Since ‘tone’ and ‘meaning’ are largely intertwined you must be sensitive to the emotional
nuances of words. Think about some of the terms denoting adult human female: woman,
fox, broad, member of the fair sex. While all of these words denote the same thing, their
connotations, the pictures they conjure up are quite different. Similarly in a respectful
essay about police officers, you would not use cop’s, karau, mapai if you Kenyan and
speak sheng.

9.6.4. Point of View

When you write you speak to your audience as a unique individual. Point of view reveals
the person you decide to be as you write. Like tone, point of view is closely tied to your
purpose, audience and subject. The most individualized is the first person (I, me mine,
we, our). Because it focuses on the writer the first person point of view is most
appropriate for narrative and descriptive essays based on personal experience. It also suits
other types of writing such as causal analyses and process analyses.

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The first person may however sound informal for a serious research paper where what
and how you write is definitely more important than who says it. And for this reason you
may already have been warned about its use as it waters down your essay depriving it of
the much needed formality. In a paper voicing an opinion, most first person expressions
are unnecessary as the point of view stated is assumed to be the writers’ unless another
source is indicated. Second, in a paper intended to be an objective presentation of an
issue, the first of an issue, the first person distracts from the issue by drawing
unwarranted attention to the writer.
Example:
1. I think its most important to realize that most violent crime in this country is
directly related to substance abuse.
2. Most violent crime in this country is directly related to substance abuse.

In some situations writers use the second person (you, your, yours) alone or in
combination with the first person. In fact we often use forms of ‘you’ in this learning
booklet. It simplifies the style and engages the reader in a more personal way. The
implied speaks to the reader directly and lends immediacy to the directions. Despite this
immediacy the second person use isn’t always appropriate to college writing where more
formal, less conversational writing is called for.

The third person is by far the most conventional one used in academic writing. It gets its
name from the distance it conveys, that of an outsider or ‘third person’ observing and
reporting on matters of primarily public rather than private importance: “the international
team of negotiators failed to resolve the border dispute between the two nations.” In
discussions of historical events, scientific phenomena, work of art, and the like, the third
person point of view conveys a feeling of distance and therefore objectivity. When you
write in the third person though, do not adopt such a detached stance that you end up
using a stiff, artificial style.: “on this campus, approximately two thirds of the student
body is dependent on bicycles as the primary mode of transportation to class.” Aim
instead for a more natural and personal quality. “Two thirds of the students on campus
ride their bikes to class.”

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 Activity 9.1
1. Compare discussions of the same topics in two or more textbooks in
your field to see if you can discern any areas of disagreement.
2. Study the notes of an article related to your subject to see whether the
author suggests any avenues for additional research on the subject.

9.7.Limiting of the Topic

Once you have a good grasp of the assignment’s boundaries and have determined your
purpose, audience, tone and point of view, you are ready to focus on a limited subject of
the general topic. Because too broad a subject can result in a diffuse, rumbling essay. Be
sure to restrict your general subject before stating to write.

The following examples show the difference between general subjects that are too broad
for the essay and limited subjects that are appropriate and workable.

GENERAL SUBJECT LESS GENERAL LIMITED SUBJECT

Education Computers in Education Computers in elementary
School Arithmetic Classes

Transportation Low cost Travel Hitch hiking

Work Women in the workforce Women’s success as managers

It is also common in argumentation to have a researchable topic that shows a causal

relationship between two variables.

Example:
Women’s success as managers is hampered by their preoccupation with equal
rights.
Variable one: Women’s success as managers
Variable two: Preoccupation with equal rights
Causal Relationship: is hampered by

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Topics may also be focused on elucidating a concept, for example a definition. In this
case it is not necessary to adhere to the rule of two variables in a causal relationship.

Activity 9.2
Because the contemporary world is difficult and even dangerous, parents
understandably worry about their children. Using this as your broad topic
limit it to a narrower researchable one?

As you make decisions leading to your final topic, you should also consider such factors
as your interest in the subject, your ability to be objective (especially if the topic is
controversial,) and the time available for completing the assignment. Evaluate the
possibilities according to the following criteria: importance and interest, manageability,
and availability of resources. You do not want to begin working on a topic that will not
hold your interest, that is not significant, that is not practical under the circumstances, or
that cannot be completed within the time allotted for the assignment.

9.8. Factors Affecting the Choice of Topics

i. Importance and interest
Naturally, you will want to devote your time to a topic of considerable importance
and interest to your readers. To a certain extent, importance and subjective
judgments that depend on the nature of the assignment and the requirements of
the instructor. Also, a topic that seems trivial to persons in one field of study
might hold great significance for specialists, in another. Your instructor or
adviser should confirm the importance of your topic, and your paper should make
a good topic if the extensive public debate hampers your ability to make an
original contribution or if your strong feelings prevent you from at least
examining opposing viewpoints and reaching fair conclusions.

ii. Manageability
Careful limiting of a topic will help you conduct research successfully. If a topic
is too vague or broad, too narrow, or too specialized, you may not be able to find
enough suitable material. A topic that is too broad will not give sufficient

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 direction to research and probably will necessitate superficial treatment of the
subject. A topic that is too narrow will yield inadequate information, limiting
your ability to reach a valid conclusion. If a topic is too specialized or too
technical, it may demand knowledge you cannot acquire in the time allotted for
your project. For example, you probably would not want to choose a topic that
requires extensive statistics unless you have some background in mathematics or
can consult with a statistician, ultimately, of course, readers will judge the
manageability of your topics by the treatment you give it because a good paper
defends not only its content but also its scope.

iii. Availability of Resources

Even if a topic is worthwhile and manageable, it may not be suitable if the
necessary research materials are not available. The resources of the library in
which you are working, as well as your access to other libraries or to electronic
materials, should help guide your choice of topic. If your research paper entails a
survey or an experiment, you need to determine whether you can collect the
required data within the time limits of the assignment.

9.9. Stating Your Topic

You might wish to state your topic as a question or as a hypothesis, depending on the
nature of the subject and the assignment.

i.Questions
Formulating the topic as a question prevents you from settling on a thesis without
having tested it sufficiently with exploratory research.
Example
1. Does the extensive use of e-mail communication affect the organizational
hierarchy in a business?
2. Should any nation that explodes a nuclear device be admitted to the so-called
nuclear club?

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Most professional researchers identify their primary motives solving problems and
discovering new information. Ideally, then, your question should be one to which
you really would like to know the answer, and the answer should not be simple or
obvious.

As you gather information, you may discover that you have asked the wrong
question or that you are more interested in answering a related question. If so, you
can revise your question. You will also be able to narrow your question as you
work. A question about the psychological effects of computer assisted instruction
might be narrowed to focus on instruction in foreign languages, perhaps even on
one specific language, possibly even on one particular program for learning that
language. Even in early stages of work, you can begin to formulate possible
answers to your question in the form of preliminary thesis statements, which may
have to be abandoned or refined as you continue exploring your topic.

ii. Hypothesis
For some fields of research, particularly those involving empirical or descriptive
research, you may want to state your topic as a hypothesis, that is, a tentative
explanation or argument that you will test, either with your own empirical research
or a survey of data collected by others.

Example of Topics stated as hypotheses

1. The preponderance of evidence suggests that the planet is experiencing
the phenomenon known as global warming.
2. Television programs aired in prime time should (should not) be
censored for sex and violence.
Drawing on the facts and ideas you find by doing research, you will test the
hypothesis, and you will revise it as many times as your information warrants.
For example, the writer of the sample paper “Are Books obsolete” began with the
hypothesis that given rapid developments in computer technology, electronic

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materials will quickly replace printed books. After doing some research, she
concluded that her initial hypothesis was wrong.

iii Thesis Statement

Your answer to the question or your revised hypothesis will become the thesis
statement, or what some instructors call the controlling idea, of your paper. The
thesis statement is a complete sentence that carries the controlling idea of the
paper and also indicates the author’s point of view.

Arguability of your topic, especially in argumentation, has got to be ascertained.

If your topic is obviously a common belief, or something that can be believed
without questioning on the part of a thinking person, then it is unsuitable for
argumentation. Some controversy needs to surround your thesis statement. Some
neglected aspects, or some new out come for an old cause, or a new cause for a
common outcome gives conflict to a topic for argumentation.

Example.
Training of salesmen increases sales.
A good hypothesis can also become your thesis statement.

Activity 9.3
Identify a broad area that you would want to write a research paper on.
Such broad topics may be such as education, working women etc. Follow
the examples given here and narrow down your topic to something
manageable. Identify the variables in your topic and formulate a complete
statement that expresses your topic as you would research on it.

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 9.10. Summary
In this chapter we have taken you through the process of choosing topics
for research paper writing.
 You have familiarized with the following processes.
 Choosing topics
 Examining different areas of inquiry
 Formulating limited topics from broad topics
 Determining the audience, purpose and tone of your paper
 Limiting the topics
 Identifying affecting factors
 Stating your topics

In the event that you are not yet clear on any of the factors, you may reread and practice
with ideas from your own experience.

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 LECTURE TEN
THE PARAGRAPH AS A RHETORICAL UNIT
Lecture Outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Characteristics of Paragraphs
10.4 Paragraphing
10.5 Advantages
10.6 Summary

10.1. Introduction
After pre-writings, deciding on a thesis developing and organizing evidence, you are then
ready to write the 1st draft. Before beginning to develop the supporting paragraphs, you
must ensure that a clear thesis is developed and key words underlined at the top of the
writing to keep yourself focused.

10.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Write opening/topic statements for paragraphs that determine
the development pattern intended
2. Develop paragraphs from such topic sentences that
demonstrate an understanding of the characteristics of a
complete paragraph
3. Compose a short piece of writing which comprises of the
various types of paragraphs learnt

10.3. Characteristics of Paragraphs

Drawn from the main sections of your essay outline, each supporting paragraph should
develop an aspect of essay thesis. Although there are no hard and fast rules, strong
supporting paragraphs are

 often focused by topic sentences

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  organized around one or more patterns of development
 unified
 specific
 adequately supported
 coherent

A 1st draft is a rough, provisional version of your essay. During this stage, you should
concentrate on providing paragraphs that support your thesis. At the same time try to
include all relevant examples, facts and opinions, sequencing this material as effectively
as you can. You need evidence to develop your thesis. Such evidence forms major points
each focusing on related but separate aspects of the thesis, and eventually become the
supporting paragraphs of your thesis.

The main point or central idea of a paragraph in English is often explicitly or directly
expressed near the beginning of the text. Each paragraph contains an idea

10.4. Paragraphing
A finished academic paper usually begins with a general idea and gives details that
support that generalization and finally returns to another general statement on the same
topic. These are typically known as the:
 Beginning: A Generalization – Introduction
 Middle: specific that allocate you to make the generalization – Body
 End: return to a general more abstract level-conclusion. i.e. from General
to specific.

This statement is traditionally called the THESIS. In addition, if the article has several
paragraphs, the main point of each paragraph is traditionally called the TOPIC
SENTENCE of the paragraph. This is often expressed where near the beginning of the
paragraph (main ideas in a composition) e.g you label boxes to know what is where when
moving houses. Similarly, a thesis helps the reader understand immediately what the
basic content of a composition will be.

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A topic sentence near the beginning of a new paragraph helps the reader see in which
direction the author intends to move in that paragraph.

NB:- what you say in a thesis or in a topic sentence will make your reader expect to read
certain things in your discussion.

Main idea of the Whole paper (THESIS)

Main idea of the 1st paragraph. (topic sentence 1)
(it explains the thesis
 Explanation of topic 1
Main ideas of the 2nd paragraph (topic sentence 2) (it explains the thesis)

 Explanations of topic 2 e.t.c ……

 Concluding ideas
NB: The main ideas of a paragraph (topic sentence) the writer makes a kind of
promise to the reader about the content of the paragraph to come.

- the readers always tends to trust the writer to fulfill this promise.
- If the writer goes off in another direction and discusses something else,
reader becomes confused and even frustrated, finding it difficult to follow
the writers train of thought.
Examples

Read the following sentences. If each was the topic sentence in a paragraph what do you
think a reader would expect the paragraph to explain or illustrate?

1. Psychologist working together with medical doctors have developed a number of

ways to relieve tension and stress caused by overwork, anxiety and
poverty……….
2. The legal profession like many other professions has now been given the label of
‘thieves’………
3. My interest in studies in Law comes from both my personal experience and my
educational background…
4. Since I started learning Law, I have noticed several areas that indicate that most
Kenyans are ignorant about rights.
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 5. Sedition is one aspect of criminal law which is difficult to define and
understand…
6. There is a clear division between Criminal Law and Civil Law in the statute and
common law of Kenya….

Questions to ask one self

1. What was the main idea you wanted to develop in your writing?
2. Do the first few sentences express the main idea you developed in your writing?
3. How well do the sentences predict what appeared in the rest of the writing?

10.5. Advantages

Main Ideas and Text

Formulating a thesis sentence or a topic sentence that exactly fits your discussion is
difficult.
- You do these to focus more clearly and sharply.
- Once you know more or less what your main idea is, or what you intend your
composition to explain or prove, keep this idea in mind as you gather
information and write or reread your draft.
- Keeping your main idea in mind will help you to select what to include in your
paper and also to recognize what is irrelevant.
- On the other hand, you may find as you gather information or write your draft,
that your main idea changes or becomes clearer to you in different terms.
- Just change your thesis or topic sentences so that they become good summary
statements of the idea as you discuss in the writing or paragraph.
- Then reread your paper and remove any statements that are now irrelevant to
your new main idea.

Benefit of Explicit Theses and Topic Sentences

Explicitly stating your main idea is useful for two reasons:-

- For the writer: it helps you control your writing by helping you decide what to
include in your writing and how to organize your ideas.
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 - A clear statement of your idea forces you to think through fully what you want
to say and to crystallize it into a few words.
- For your reader: A clear explicit statement of the main idea helps your reader
know quickly what direction you intend to take in the writing and within the
paragraphs of the writing.

- This efficiency and clarity is especially important in case your audience needs
a quick overview of what you will communicate in a report you submit.

NB: These is no rule in English that says a statement of the main idea must appear
near the beginning of a paper. (In some, like editorials or journal it sometimes
appears at the end).

- But in most academic writing readers appreciate being told early what the
main idea will be.

General Vs Specifics
The typical pattern that English writers follow is to say something fairly general and
then to give more specific information e.g. to prove, illustrate or explain that general
statement.

NB: Student writers have difficulty with this easy pattern because it is not always so
obvious to them what is more general and what is more specific e.g which is most
general and most specific
Waving hands G (specific)
Using gestures G1 (gemeral)
Using hands G2 (mid)
Giving money to the poor 2
Being generous 1 – general
Donating one hundred
Thousand to the parking boys 3 – specific
Karumaindo 3 –specific
An ethnic restaurant 1 –general
A kikuyu restaurant 2

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NB: So in writing we begin with a general assertion then to the specific ideas.
- In specific, the writer is usually expected to do the work of explaining, showing
and proving. (except in fiction works)
- Without specific support or proof or explanation the reader is unlikely to believe a
writer’s generalization or assertion.

NB The writing moves back and forth between telling the reader something (an
asserting) and then showing the reader that the statement is true (the evidence).

It is said “Telling alone is not believable.

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 LECTURE ELEVEN
ARGUMENTATION
Lecture Outline

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Objectives

11.3. Definition of Argumentation

11.4. Techniques for Writing Argument

11.5. Claims for Written Argument

11.6. Claims of Facts

11.7. Claims about Cause and Effect

11.8. Claims about Value

11.9. Claims about Solutions and Policies

11.10. Appeal for Written Argument

11.10.1. Appeal to Reason

11.10.2. Appeal to Character

11.10.3. Appeal to Emotion

11.10.4. Combined Appeals

11.11. Rogerian Argument

11.1. Introduction
In the last lecture, we discussed a paragraph as a rhetorical unit. In this Lecture
we will discuss argumentation. We shall look at the definition, techniques for
writing argument, claims in argumentation, appeal for argumentation and
Rogerian argumentation.

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 11.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be ale to:
1. Define argumentation
2. Describe the premises of argumentation
3. Analyze excerpts of texts using one of the
models learnt

11.3. Definition of Argumentation

When people argue with each other, they often become highly emotional or
confrontational. Remember the last heated argument you had with a friend or family
member: At the end of the argument, one person stomped out of the room, slammed the
door and didn’t speak to the other for days. In the aftermath of such a scene, you felt
angry at the other person and angry at yourself. Nothing was accomplished. Neither of
you came close to achieving what you wanted when you began the argument. Rather than
understanding each other’s point of view and work out your differences, you effectively
closed the lines of communication.

When writers construct arguments, however, they try, through reason and use of
evidence, to avoid the emotional outbursts that often turn verbal arguments into displays
of temper. Strong feelings may energize an argument – few of us make the effort to argue
without emotional investment in the subject – but written argument stresses a fair
weighing of pros and cons. While you advocate one position, you keep the lines of
communication open by acknowledging and evaluating opposing arguments. Because
written arguments are public, they take on a civilized manner. They implicitly say, “Let’s
be reasonable about this. Let’s look at the evidence from both sides. Let’s not shout or
fight; let’s be as objective as we can.”

As writers construct written arguments, they carefully consider their audiences. Does the
audience know about this controversy, or does it need background information/ Do the
readers hold an opposing viewpoint, or are they likely to listen to both sides and decide
what to believe? What arguments will they find most persuasive? A written argument

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creates an atmosphere of reason, which encourages readers to examine their own views
clearly and dispassionately. When successful, such argument convinces rather than
alienates an audience. It changes people’s minds or persuades them to adopt a
recommended course of action.

An academic argument is not like an argument or disagreement over an issue like

abortion or capital punishment. In those cases, our positions are often based on personal
moral codes; these codes themselves, we believe, are enough to prove or justify our
position. A change in opinion would occur only after deep rethinking of the moral code.
An academic argument, on the other hand, is characterized, for the most part, by its lack
of emotional appeals. Instead, an academic argument appeals to logic. It is more like a
marshalling of evidence in support of an intellectual position. Academic arguments tend
to surround intellectual issues and to appeal to facts and logic for support rather than to
emotions or to ethics. Although it may seem strange to you, a professor reading your
paper may be less interested in what position you take in how you argue for your
position. What evidence you have to support it, and what logic you use to defend it.

Controversial issues, like abortion, capital punishment, or questions of religion or

politics, are difficult subjects for academic argument because people often have very
deeply held convictions on these subjects. Therefore, you are unlikely to persuade anyone
of your opinion in a short essay, or perhaps even in a long book. Furthermore, unless you
are an expert on these subjects, you will not have anything new to say that might change
someone’s mind or add to the discussion.

11.4. Techniques for Writing Argument

A written argument is similar to a public debate – between attorneys in a court of law or
members of Congress who represent different political parties. It begins with a debatable
issue: Is this a good bill? Should we vote for it? In such debates, one person argues for a
position or proposal, while the other argues against it. The onlookers (the members of
Congress, the jury, or the public) then decide what to believe or what to do. Written
argument imitates this situation by examining the opinions both for and against a position
and then advocating one of the positions or proposing a solution. Written argument

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evaluates the conflicting positions and then uses reasons and evidence to support the
writer’s claim. The writer represents the opposing arguments, responds to them and
advocates his or her own position. A sound written argument uses the following
techniques:
 Focusing on a debatable proposition or claim. This claim becomes your thesis.
 Analyzing the audience. Knowing what your audience believe will help you
convince them of your position or persuade them to act on your thesis.
 Representing and evaluating the opposing points of view on the issue fairly
and accurately. The key to a successful arguing paper is anticipating and
responding to the most important opposing positions.
 Arguing reasonably against the opposition and for your claim. State and
refute opposing arguments. Present the best arguments supporting your claim.
Argue reasonably and fairly.
 Supporting your claims with sufficient evidence. Use firsthand observations;
examples from personal experiences; statistics, facts, and quotations from your
reading; and results of surveys and interviews.

In an article entitled “Active and Passive Euthanasia,” James Rachels claims that active
euthanasia may be defensible for patients with incurable and painful diseases. The
following paragraphs from that article illustrate the key features of argument:

The distinction between active and passive euthanasia is thought to be crucial for medical
ethics. The idea is that it is permissible, at least in some cases, to withhold treatment and
allow a patient to die, but it is never permissible to take any direct action designed to kill
the patient. This doctrine seems to be accepted by most doctors.

However, a strong case can be made against this doctrine. In what follows I will set out
some of the relevant arguments, and urge doctors to reconsider their views on this matter.

To begin with a familiar type of situation, a patient who is dying of incurable cancer of
the throat is in terrible pain, which can no longer be satisfactorily alleviated. He is certain
to die within a few days, even if present treatment is continued, but he does not want to

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go on living for those days, since the pain is unbearable. So he asks the doctor for an end
to it, and his family joins in the request.

Suppose the doctor agrees to withhold treatment, as the conventional doctrine says he
may. The justification for his doing so is that the patient is in terrible agony, and since he
is going to die anyway, it would be wrong to prolong his suffering needlessly. But now
notice this. If one simply withholds treatment, it may take the patient longer to die, and so
he may suffer more than he would if more direct action were taken and a lethal injection
given. This fact provides strong reason for thinking that, once the initial decision not to
prolong his agony has been made, active euthanasia is actually preferable to passive
euthanasia, rather than to reverse. To say otherwise is to endorse the option that leads to
more suffering rather than less, and is contrary to the humanitarian impulse that prompts
the decision not to prolong his life in the first place.

11.5. Claims for Written Argument

The thesis of your argument is a debatable claim. Opinions on both sides of the issue
must have some merit. Claims for a written argument usually fall into one of the four
categories; claims of fact, claims about cause and effect, claims about value, and claims
about solutions and policies. A claim may occasionally fall into several categories or may
even overlap categories.

11.6. Claims of Fact

 Grades do not measure intelligence or achievement.

 Polygraph tests do not accurately detect lies.
 Women face serious discrimination in the job market.

These claims are about matters of ‘fact” that are not easily measured or agreed upon. If I
claim that Lhasa apso was an ancient Chinese ruler, you can check a dictionary and find
out that I am wrong. A Lhasa apso, in fact, a small Tibetan dog. There is no argument.
But people do disagree about some supposed ‘facts”: Do grades measure achievement?
Are polygraph tests accurate? They also disagree about matters of “degree”: Sexual
discrimination exists in the marketplace, but is it “serious?” How prevalent and extreme

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are the economic inequities? What is “discrimination,” anyway? Definition is a key to
claims of fact: What do we mean by “detect lies”? Does ‘accurate” mean one hundred
percent of time? Ninety percent? Eighty percent? What does ‘serious discrimination’
mean? Does the fact that female workers currently earn only seventy-three cents for
every dollar that male workers earn qualify as ‘serious discrimination”?

In an excerpt from a Newsweek column entitled ‘A Case of Severe Bias,” Patricia

Raybon makes a claim of fact when she argues that the news media’s portrayal of black
America is inaccurate, biased, and stereotyped:
This is who I am not. I am not a crack addict. I am not a
welfare mother. I am not illiterate. I am not a prostitute. I
have never been in jail. My children are not in gangs. My
husband doesn’t beat me. My home is not a tenement. None
of these things defines who I am, nor do they describe the
other black people I’ve known and worked with and loved and
befriended over these 40 years of my life.
Nor does it describe most of black America, period.

Yet in the eyes of the American news media, this is what

black America is: poor, criminal, addicted and dysfunctional.
Indeed, media coverage of black America is so one-sided, so
imbalanced that the most victimized and hurting segment of
the black community – a small segment, at best – is
presented not as the exception but as the norm. It is
insidious practice, all the uglier for its blatancy.

In recent months, often times in this very magazine, I have

observed a steady offering of media reports on crack babies,
gang warfare, violent youth, poverty and homelessness – and
in most cases, the people featured in the photos and stories were black. At the
same time, articles that discuss other aspects of American life – from home buying
to medicine to technology to nutrition – rarely, if ever, show blacks playing a
positive role, or for that matter, any role at all.

Day after day, week after week, this message – that black
America is dysfunctional and unwhole – gets transmitted
across the American landscape. Sadly, as a result, America
never learns the truth about what is actually a wonderful,
vibrant, creative community of people.

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11.7. Claims about Cause and Effect
 Cigarettes cause lung cancer.
 Capital punishment does not deter violent crime.
 Rock music weakens the moral fiber of America’s youth.

Unlike the claim “Grades affect admission to college,” these claims about cause and
effect are debatable. The claim that cigarettes cause lung cancer is, of course, less
debatable than it was twenty years ago, before the evidence demonstrating the link
became overwhelming. The deterring effect of capital punishment is still an arguable
proposition with reasonable arguments on both sides. The argument that rock music
weakens the moral fiber of youth is certainly debatable; the writer would have to counter
the argument that rock music sometimes raises social consciousness and fights world
hunger.

In a selection from her book The Plug-In Drug: Television, Children and the Family,
Marie Win argues that television has a negative effect on family life. In her opening
paragraphs, she sets forth both sides of the controversy and then argues that the overall
effect is negative:
Television’s contribution to family life has been an equivocal
one. For while it has, indeed, kept the members of the family for dispersing, it has
not served to bring them together. By its
domination of the time families spend together, it destroys the
special quality that depends to a great extent on what a
family does, what special rituals, games, recurrent jokes,
familiar songs, and shared activities it accumulates.

Yet parents have accepted a television-dominated family life

so completely that they cannot see how the medium is
involved in whatever problems they might be having.

11.8. Claims about Value

 Boxing is a dehumanizing sport.
 The Ford Edsel is the ugliest automobile ever built in America.
 Toni Morrison is a great American novelist.

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Claims about value lead to evaluative essays. All the strategies discussed in Chapter 8
apply here, with the additional requirement that you must anticipate and respond to
alternate or opposing arguments. The argumentative essay that attempts to prove that
boxing is dehumanizing must respond to the argument that boxing is merely another form
of competition that promotes athletic excellence. Arguing that Morrison is a great
American novelist requires setting criteria for great American novels and then responding
to critics who argue that Morrison’s work does not reach those standards.

In ‘College is a Waste of Time and Money,” teacher and journalist Caroline Bird argues
that many students go to college simply because it is the “thing to do”. For those students,
Bird claims, college is not a good idea:

Nowadays, says one sociologist, you don’t have to have a reason for going to college; it’s
an institution. His definition of an institution is an arrangement everyone accepts without
question; the burden of proof is not on why you go, but why anyone thinks there might be
a reason for not going. The implication is that an 18-year old.. . should listen to those
who know best and go to college.

I don’t agree. I believe that college has to be judged not on what other people think is
good for students, but on how good it feels to the students themselves.

I believe that people have an inside view of what’s good for them. If a child doesn’t want
to go to school some morning, better let him stay at home, at least until you find out why.
Maybe he knows something you don’t. It’s the same with college. If high school
graduates don’t want to go, or if they don’t want to go right away, they may perceive
more clearly than their elders that college is not for them. It is no longer obvious that
adolescents are best off studying a core curriculum that was constructed when all
educated men could agree on what made them educated, or what professors, advisors, or
parents can be of any particular help to young people in choosing a major or a career.
High-school graduates see college graduates driving cabs and decide it’s not worth going.
College students find no intellectual stimulation in their studies and drop out.

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11.9. Claims about Solutions or Policies

 Pornography on the Internet should be censored.

 The penalty for drunk driving should be a mandatory jail sentence and loss of
driver’s license.
 To reduce exploitation and sensationalism, the news media should not be allowed
to interview victims of crime or disaster.

Claims about solutions or policies sometimes occur along with claims of fact, cause and
effect, or value. Because grades do not measure achievement (argue that this is a fact),
they should be abolished (argue this claim of value); therefore, boxing should be banned
(argue for this solution). Claims about solutions or policies involve all the strategies used
for problem solving (see Chapter 9), but with special emphasis on countering opposing
arguments: “Although advocates of freedom of speech suggest that we cannot suppress
pornography on the Internet, in fact, we already have self-monitoring devices in other
media that could help reduce pornography on the Internet.”

In When Society Becomes an Addict, psychotherapist Anne Wilson Schaef argues that
our society has become an “Addictive System” that has many characteristics in common
with alcoholism and other addictions. Advertising becomes addictive, causing us to
behave dishonestly; the social pressure to be “nice” can become addictive, causing us to
lie to ourselves. Schaef argues that the solution for our social addictions begins when we
face the reality of our dependency:
We cannot recover from an addiction unless we first admit that we have
it. Naming our reality is essential to recovery. Unless we admit that we are
indeed functioning in an addictive process in an Addictive System, we
shall never have the option of recovery. Once we name something, we
own it…. Remember, to name the system as addict is not to condemn it: it
is to offer to the possibility of recovery.

Paradoxically, the only way to reclaim our personal power is by admitting our
powerlessness. The first part of Step One of the AA (Alcoholics Anonymous)
Twelve-step Program reads, ‘We admitted we were powerless over alcohol.” It is

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 important to recognize that admitting to be powerless as a person. In fact, it can be
very powerful to recognize the futility of the illusion of control.

11.10. Appeals for Written Argument

To support claims and respond to opposing arguments, writers use appeals to the
audience. Argument uses three important types of appeals: to reason (logic and evidence
support the claim), to character (the writer’s good character itself supports the claim), and
to emotion (the writer’s expression of feelings about the issue may support the claim).
Effective arguments emphasize the appeal to reason but may also appeal to character or
emotion.

11.10.1. Appeal to Reason

An appeal to reason depends most frequently on inductive logic, which is sometimes
called the scientific method. Inductive logic draws a general conclusion from personal
observation or experience specific facts, reports, statistics, testimony of authorities, and
other bits of data.

Experience is the best teacher, we always say, that experience teaches inductively.
Suppose, using biologist Thomas Huxley’s famous example, you pick a green apple from
a tree and take a bite. Halfway through the bite you discover that the apple is sour and
quickly spit it out. But, you think, perhaps the next green apple will be ripe and will taste
better. You pick a second green apple, take a bite, and realize that it is just as sour as the
first. However, you know that some apples – like the Granny Smith – look green even
when they are ripe, so you take a bite out of a third apple. It is also sour. You are
beginning to draw a conclusion. In fact, if you taste a fourth or fifth apple, other people
may begin to question your intelligence. How many green apples from this tree must you
taste before you get the idea that all of these green apples are sour?

Experience, however, may lead to wrong conclusions. You’ve tasted enough of these
apples to convince you that all these apples are sour, but will others think that these
apples are sour? Perhaps you have funny taste buds. You may need to ask several friends
to taste the apples. Or perhaps you are dealing with a slightly weird tree – in fact, some

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apple trees are hybrids, with several different kinds of apples grafted onto one tree.
Before you draw a conclusion, you may need to consult an expert in order to be certain
that your tree is a standard, single-variety apple tree. If your friends and the expert also
agree that all of these green apples are sour, you may use your experience and their
testimony to reach a conclusion – and to provide evidence to make your argument more
convincing to others.

In inductive logic, a reasonable conclusion is based on a sufficient quantity of accurate

and reliable evidence that is selected in a random manner to reduce human bias or to take
into account variation in the sample. The definition of sufficient varies, but generally the
number must be large enough to convince your audience that your sample fairly
represents the whole subject.

Let us take an example to illustrate inductive reasoning. Suppose you ask a student, one
of fifty in a Psychology I class, a question of value: “Is Professor X a good teacher?” If
this student says, “Professor X is the worst teacher I’ve ever had!” what conclusion can
you draw? If you avoid taking the class based on a sample of one, you may miss an
excellent class. So you decide to gather a sufficient sample by polling twenty of fifty
students in the class.

But which twenty do you interview? If you ask the first student for a list of students, you
may receive the names of twenty other students who also hate the professor. To reduce
human or accidental bias, then, you choose a random method for collecting your
evidence: As the students leave the class, you give a questionnaire to two out of every
five students. If they all fill out the questionnaires, you probably have a sufficient and
random sample.

Finally, if the responses to your questionnaire show that fifteen out of twenty students
rate Professor X as an excellent teacher, what valid conclusion should you draw? You
should not say, categorically, “X is an excellent teacher.”

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Your conclusion must be restricted by your evidence and the method of gathering it:
“Seventy-five percent of the students polled in Psychology I believe that Professor X is
an excellent teacher.”

Most arguments use a shorthand version of the inductive method of reasoning. A writer
makes a claim and then supports it with reasons and representative examples or data:

Claim: Professor X is an excellent psychology teacher.

Reason No.1: Professor X is an excellent teacher because she gives stimulating lectures
that students rarely miss.
Evidence: Sixty per cent of the students polled said that they rarely missed a lecture.
Three students cited Professor X’s lecture on ‘assertiveness” as the best lecture they’d
ever heard.

Reason No.2: Professor X is an excellent teacher because she gives tests that encourage
learning rather than sheer memorization. One student said that Professor X’s tests always
made her think about what she’d read. Another student said he always liked to discuss
Professor X’s test questions with his classmates and friends.

11.10.2. Appeal to Character

An appeal based on your good character as a writer can also be important in argument.
(The appeal to character is frequently called the ethical appeal because readers make a
value judgment about the writer’s character.) In a written argument, you show your
audience – through your reasonable persona, voice, and tone – that you are a person who
abides by moral standards that your audience shares: You have a good reputation, you are
honest and trustworthy, and you argue ‘fairly.”

A person’s reputation often affects how we react to a claim, but the argument itself
should also establish the writer’s trustworthiness. You don’t have to be a Mahatma
Gandhi or a Mother Teresa to generate a strong ethical appeal for your claim. Even if
your readers have never heard your name before, they will feel confident about your
character if you are knowledgeable about your subject, present pros and cons fairly, and
support your own claim with sufficient, reliable evidence.
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If your readers have reason to suspect your motives or think that you may have
something personal to gain from your argument, you may need to bend over backward to
be fair. If you do have something to gain, lay your cards on the table. Declare your vested
interest but explain, for example, how your solution would benefit everyone equally.
Similarly, don’t try to cover up or distort the opponents’ arguments; acknowledge the
opposition’s strong arguments and refute the weak ones.

11.10.3. Appeal to Emotion

Appeals to emotion can be tricky because, as we have seen, when emotions come in
through the door, reasonableness may fly out through the window. Argument emphasizes
reason, not emotion. We know, for example, how advertising plays on emotions, by
means of loaded or exaggerated language or through images of famous or sexy people.
Emotional appeals designed to deceive or frighten people or to misrepresent the virtues of
a person, place or object have no place in rational argument. But emotional appeals that
illustrate a truth or movingly depict a reality are legitimate and effective means of
convincing readers.

11.10.4. Combined Appeals:

Appeals may be used in combination. Writers may appeal to reason and, at the same time,
establish trustworthy characters and use legitimate emotional appeals. The following
excerpt from Martin Luther King, Jnr’s ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail” illustrates all three
appeals. He appeals to reason, arguing that, historically, civil rights reforms are rarely
made without political pressure. He establishes in his integrity and good character by
treating the opposition (in this case, the Birmingham clergy) with respect and by showing
moderation and restraint. Finally, he uses emotional appeals, describing his six-year old
daughter in tears and recalling his own humiliation at being refused a place to sleep. King
uses these emotional appeals legitimately; he is not misrepresenting reality or trying to
deceive his readers.

One of the basic points in [the statement by the Birmingham clergy] is that the action that
I and my associates have taken in Birmingham is untimely. Some have asked: “Why
didn’t you give the new city administration time to act?” The only answer that I can give

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to this query is that the new Birmingham administration must be prodded about as much
as the outgoing one, before it will act. We are sadly mistaken if we feel that the election
of Albert Boutwell as mayor will bring the millennium to Birmingham. While Mr.
Boutwell is a much more gentle person than Mr. Conoor, they are both segregationists,
dedicated to the maintenance of the status quo. I have hoped that Mr. Boutwell will be
reasonable enough to see this without pressure from devotees of civil rights. My friends, I
must say to you that we have not made a single gain in civil rights without determined
legal and nonviolent pressure. Lamentably, it is an historical fact that privileged groups
seldom give up their privileges voluntarily. Individuals may see the moral light and
voluntarily give up their unjust posture; but, as Reinhold Niebuhr has reminded us,
groups tend to be more immoral than individuals.

We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the
oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed. Frankly, I have yet to engage in a
direct-action campaign that was “well-timed” in the view of those who have not suffered
unduly from the disease of segregation. For years now I have heard the word “Wait!” It
rings in the ear of every Negro with piercing familiarity. This ‘Wait” has almost always
meant “Never.” We must come to see, with one of our distinguished jurists, that “justice
too long delayed is justice denied.”

We have waited for more than 340 years for our constitutional and God-given
rights….Perhaps it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation
to say, “Wait.” But when you have seen vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at
will and drown your sisters and brothers at whim; when you have seen hate-filled
policemen curse, kick, and even kill your black brothers and sisters; when you see the
vast majority of your twenty million Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of
poverty in the midst of an affluent society; when you suddenly find your tongue twisted
and your speech stammering as you seek to explain to your six-year old daughter why she
can’t go to the public amusement park that has just been advertised on television, and see
tears welling up in her eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to colored children…
when you take a cross-country drive and find it necessary to sleep night after night in the
uncomfortable corners of your automobile because no motel will accept you; when you

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are humiliated day in and day out by nagging signs reading “white” and “coloured”;
when your first name becomes “nigger,” your middle name becomes “boy” (however old
you are) and your last name becomes “John”… - then you will understand why we find it
difficult to wait. There comes a time when the cup of endurance runs over, and men are
no longer willing to be plunged into the abyss of despair. I hope, sirs, you can understand
our legitimate and unavoidable impatience.

11.11. Rogerian Argument

Traditional argument assumes that people are most readily convinced or persuaded by a
confrontational ‘debate” on the issue. In a traditional argument, the writer argues
reasonably and fairly, but the argument becomes a kind of struggle or “war’ as the writer
attempts to “defeat” the arguments of the opposition. The purpose of a traditional
argument is thus to convince an undecided audience that the writer has “won the fight”
and merged “victorious” over the opposition.

In fact, however, there are many situations in which a less confrontational and less
adversarial approach to argument is more effective. Particularly when the issues are
highly charged or when the audience that we are trying to persuade is the opposition,
writers may more effectively use negotiation rather than confrontation. Rogerian
argument – named after psychologist Carl Rogers – is a kind of negotiated argument
where understanding and compromise replace the traditional, adversarial approach.
Rogerian, or nonthreatening argument, opens the lines of communication by reducing
conflict. When people’s beliefs are attacked, they instinctively become defensive and
strike back. As a result, the argument becomes polarized: The writer argues for a claim,
the reader digs in to defend his or her position and no one budges.

Crucial to Rogerian argument is the fact that convictions and beliefs are not abstract but
reside in people. If people are to agree, they must be sensitive to each other’s beliefs.
Rogerian argument, therefore, contains a clear appeal to character. While Rogerian
argument uses reason and logic, its primary goal is not to “win” the argument but to open
the lines of communication. To do that, the writer must be sympathetic to different points
and willing to modify his or her claims in response to people who hold different

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viewpoints. Once the reader sees that the writer is open to change, the reader may
become more flexible.

Once both sides are more flexible, a compromise position or solution becomes possible.
As Rogers says, “This procedure gradually achieves a mutual communication. Mutual
communication tends to be pointed toward solving a problem rather than toward
attacking a person or group.” Rogerian argument, then, imitates not a courtroom debate
but the mutual communication that may take place between two people. Whereas
traditional argument intends to change the actions or the beliefs of the opposition,
Rogerian argument works toward changes in both sides as a means of establishing
common ground and reaching a solution.

If you choose Rogerian argument, remember that you must actually be willing to change
your beliefs. Often, in fact, when you need to use Rogerian argument most, you may be
least inclined to use it – simply because you are inflexible on an issue. If you are
unwilling to modify your own position, your reader will probably sense your basic
insincerity and realize that you are just playing a trick of rhetoric.

Rogerian argument is appropriate in a variety of sensitive or highly controversial

situations. You may want to choose Rogerian argument if you are an employer requesting
union members to accept to a pay cut in order to help the company avoid bankruptcy.
Similarly, if you argue to husbands that they should assume responsibility for half the
housework, or if you argue to Anglo-Americans that Spanish language and culture should
play a larger role in public education, you may want to use a Rogerian strategy. By
showing that you emphathize with the opposition’s position and are willing to
compromise, you create a climate for mutual communication.

Rogerian argument makes a claim, considers the opposition, and presents evidence to
support your claim, but in addition, it avoids threatening or adversarial language and
promotes mutual communication and learning. A Rogerian argument uses the following
strategies:
 Avoiding a confrontational stance. Confrontation threatens your audience
and increases their defensiveness. Threat hinders communication.

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  Presenting your character as someone who understands and can
empathize with the opposition. Show that you understand by restating the
opposing position accurately.
 Establishing common ground with the opposition. Indicate the beliefs and
values that you share.
 Being willing to change your views. Show where your position is not
reasonable and could be modified.
 Directing your argument toward a compromise or workable solution.

Note: An argument does not have to be either entirely adversarial or entirely Rogerian.
You may use Rogerian techniques for the most sensitive points in an argument that is
otherwise traditional or confrontational.

In his essay ‘Animal Rights Versus Human Health,” biology professor Albert Rosenfeld
illustrates several features of Rogerian argument. Rosenfeld argues that animals should
be used for medical experiments, but he is aware that the issues are emotional and that his
audience is likely to be antagonistic. In these paragraphs, Rosenfeld avoids threatening
languages, represents the opposition fairly, grants that he is guilt of speciesism, and says
that he sympathizes with the demand to look for alternatives .He indicates that his
position is flexible: Most researchers, he says, are delighted when they can use
alternatives. He grants that there is room for compromise, but he is firm in his position
that some animal experimentation is necessary for advancements in medicine.

It is fair to say that millions of animals – probably more rats and mice than any other
species - are subjected to experiments that cause them pain, discomfort, and distress,
sometimes lots of it over long periods of time…. All new forms of medication or surgery
are tried out on animals first. Every new substance that is released into the environment,
or put on the market, is tested on animals….

In 1975, Australian philosopher, Peter Singer wrote his influential book called Animal
Liberation, in which he accuses us all of: “speciesism” – as reprehensible, to him, as
racism or sexism. He freely describes the “pain and suffering” inflicted in the tyranny of

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human over nonhuman animals” and sharply challenges our biblical license to exercise
‘dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living
thing that moveth upon the Earth.”

Well, certainly we are guilty of speciesism. We do act as if we had dominion over other
living creatures. But domination also entails some custodial responsibility. And the
questions continue to be raised: Do we have the right to abuse animals? To eat them? To
hunt them for sport? To keep them imprisoned in zoos – or, for that matter, in our
households? Especially to do experiments on these creatures who can’t fight back?

Hardly any advance in either human or veterinary medicine – cure, vaccine, operation,
drug, therapy – has come about without experiments on animals…I certainly sympathize
with the demand that we look for ways to get the information we want without using
animals. Most investigators are delighted when they can get their data by means of tissue
cultures or computer simulations. But as we look for alternative ways to get information,
do we meanwhile just do without?

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 LECTURE TWELVE
CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISES
Lecture Outline
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Objectives
12.3. Understanding Critical Thinking
12.4. Engaging in Critical Thinking
12.5. Steps in the Critical Thinking Process
12.6. Fallacies in Argument

12.1. Introduction
This chapter shows you how to participate actively in the ongoing exchanges of ideas and
opinions that you encounter in college and beyond. To participate, you need to
understand critical thinking as a concept and as an activity, critical reading as a
concept and as an activity, writing critically, and reasoning critically.

12.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Identify and challenge assumptions
2. Differentiate between clear and faulty reasoning
3. Desist from an ‘attack’ approach in reasoning and accept
correction more readily

12.3. Understanding Critical Thinking

Thinking is not something you choose to do, any more than a fish chooses to live in
water. To be human is to think. But while thinking may come naturally, awareness of
how you think does not. Thinking about thinking is the key to critical thinking. When
you think critically, you take control of your conscious through processes. Without such
control, you risk being controlled by the ideas of others. Indeed, critical thinking is at the
heart of a liberal (from the Latin word for free) education.

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The word critical here has a neutral meaning .It does not mean taking a negative view or
finding fault, as when someone criticizes another person for doing something wrong. The
essence of critical thinking is thinking beyond the obvious – beyond the flash of visual
images on a television screen, the alluring promises of glossy advertisements, the evasive
statements by some people in the news, the half-truths of some propaganda, the
manipulations of slanted language and faulty reasoning.

Critical thinking is an attitude as much as an activity. If you face life with curiosity and a
desire to dig beneath the surface, you are a critical thinker. If you do not believe
everything you read or hear, you are a critical thinker. If you find pleasure in
contemplating the puzzle of conflicting ideologies, theories, personalities, and facts, you
are a critical thinker.

Activities of the mind and higher-order reasoning – the core of a college education – are
processes of contemplation and deliberation. These processes take time. They contrast
with the glorification of speed in today’s culture: fast foods, instant mixes, self-
developing film, short-spurt images in movies and videos. If you are among the people
who assume that speed is a measure of intelligence, consider this true anecdote about
Albert Einstein. The first time that Banesh Hoffman, a scientist, was to discuss his work
with Albrert Einsten, Hoffman was speechless and over-awed. But Einstein instantly put
Hoffman at ease by saying, “Please go slowly. I don’t understand things quickly.”

12.4. Engaging in Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a process that progress from becoming fully aware of something to
reflecting on it to reacting to it. You use this sequence often in your life, even if you have
never called the processes critical thinking. You engage in it when you meet someone
new and decide whether you like the person, when you read a book and form an opinion
of it, or when you learn a new job and then evaluate the job and your ability to do the
work.

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Applied in academic settings, the general process of critical thinking is described in the
Chart below. That process holds not only for thinking critically but also for reading
critically and writing critically.

2.5. Steps in the Critical Thinking Process

1. Analyze: Consider the whole, and then break it into its component parts so
that you can examine them separately. By seeing them as distinct units, you
can come to understand how they interrelate.
2. Summarize: Extract and restate the material’s main message or central point at
the literal level (see 5d. 1). (For a discussion of the differences between
summary and synthesis, see 5f; for guidelines on writing a summary, see 31e.)
3. Interpret: Read “between the lines” to make inferences (see 5d.2) about the
unstated assumptions implied by the material. Also, evaluate the material for
its underlying currents as conveyed by tone, slant, and clarity of distinctions
between fact and opinion (see 5d.3); by the quality of evidence (see 5h); and
by the rigor of its reasoning (see 5i and 5 j) and logic (see 5k).
4. Synthesize: Pull together what you have summarized, analyzed, and
interpreted to connect it to what you already know (your prior knowledge) or
what you are currently learning. Find links that help you grasp the new
material to create a new whole, one that reflects your ability to see and explain
relationships among ideas (see also 5f).
5. Assess critically: Judge the quality of the material on its own and as it holds
up in your synthesis of it with related material.

As with the writing processes (see 2a), the steps of the critical thinking processes are
not rigidly in place. I describe each element separately in this handbook to help you
understand the separate operations, but in reality the elements are intertwined. Expect
sometimes to combine steps, reverse their order and return to parts of the process
needed anew. Synthesis and assessment, in particular, tend to operate concurrently.
Still, stay aware that they are two different mental activities: Synthesis is making
connections, and assessment is making judgments.

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 ALERT: Summarizing (step 2 in Chart 30) and synthesizing (step 4) are two
different processes. Be careful not to think that your summary is a synthesis. For
fuller discussion of the differences, see section 5f!

12.6. Fallacies in Argumentation

As you read earlier, some of your professors may be more interested in how you develop
your argument than in what position you take, but are important. In order to construct a
strong and logical argument, these are some common flaws to avoid:

Exaggeration and unsubstantiated generalizations

Oversimplification of your argument or of the opposing argument
Logical flaws
Appeals to inappropriate authorities
Emotionally charged words
Out-of-date facts

1. Exaggeration and Unsubstantiated Generalizations

The ability to generalize from facts or examples is important in academic writing
and particularly important in argumentation. If you use a generalization to support
a position or an opinion, it must be valid generalization, not a sweeping,
unsubstantiated generalization. In other words, you must be careful not to
exaggerate the meaning of a fact or an example. For example, if you observe
middle-class North American families and compare them to middle-class families
in Latin America, you may come to the conclusion that Latin Americans spend
more time with members of their extended families than North Americans do.
This is probably a valid generalization. It can be directly supported with statistics
showing the amounts of time each group spends. If you use that information to
generalize that North American family members do not love one another, you are
making a sweeping, unsubstantiated generalization, or jumping to an unwarranted
conclusion. These kinds of generalizations weaken your argument. You can
correct the problem by substantiating or limiting or qualifying the generalization.

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Sweeping generalization: Foreign students study all the time; Americans go out
and have fun.

Substantiation: Of the students at the library on Saturday night, 60 percent are

foreign students even though they make up only 1 percent of the student
population.

2. Oversimplication
Be careful not to oversimplify your own position or the opposing position.

Oversimplification: The reason so many people receive welfare is that they would
rather not have to work for a living.
There are many reasons why people need public assistance. A statement such as
this reveals ignorance of the subject and makes the writer seem incapable of
dealing with complex causes and results.

False Dilemma
This error is a form of oversimplification. The writer seems to claim that there are
only a limited number of ways of looking at a situation.

The United States will have to choose between increased military spending or the
very real possibility of foreign invasion.

With this kind of reasoning, the writer seems to be trying to trick the reader into
believing these two possibilities are the only ones that exist. An intelligent
discussion would attempt to explore other options. While predicting the
consequences of an action is a good technique for supporting your position, do not
exaggerate the consequences.

False Analogy
Here the writer compares two situations and insists that they are alike or that what
happened in one case will happen in the other.

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Being a surrogate mother is like being a prostitute; you let another person use
your body for money.

When you use an analogy; be careful that the two cases really are similar. In fact,
analogies do not prove anything; rather they are mainly useful in helping the
reader to understand your explanation or position.

3. Logical Fallacy/Law: Arguing in a Circle

Be careful not to use what you are trying to prove as your evidence.

Using drugs like marijuana or cocaine weakens your willpower. People who use
these drugs do so because they are weak and need help from artificial sources to
survive.

In trying to prove that drugs weaken willpower, the writer states that people who
use drugs are weak. It is impossible to tell which is the cause (people take drugs
because they are weak) and which is the effect (drugs make people weak) the
writer is trying to establish.

4. Logical Fallacy/Flaw: Irrelevancies

The evidence you use to support your position must be clearly related to that
position.

Women say they want economic equality, but they still want men to carry
packages for them and let a woman sit down. This shows that women do not
really want equality with men. They want the benefits of equality but not the
disadvantages.

In this case, the writer is discussing economic equality. Carrying packages and
giving up seats are social issues and have nothing to do with economic equality.
Therefore, it is illogical to use these examples to argue about economic equality.

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5. Logical Fallacy/Flaw: Non Sequitur
A non sequitur is a conclusion that does not logically follow the evidence.

Foreign students criticize United States foreign policy and the ignorance of the
American public about world issues .It is obvious from their behaviour that these
students are not grateful for the education they are receiving here.

There is no logical connection between these two sentences. Opinions foreign

students may have about the United States or about Americans have nothing to do
with their gratitude in one way or the other.

a. Logical Fallacy/Flaw: After, therefore, because

Be careful not to say that one event caused another merely because it happened
before the other.

Several years ago school systems in this country began offering sex education in
classes. We now see the results. What these children learned in sex education
classes they put into practice, and we find ourselves in a true crisis: a tremendous
rise in the number of teenage pregnancies. This tragic increase in the number of
teenage pregnancies is the result of the sex education classes these children had in
school.

The fact that sex education classes were instituted at some time before the
increase in teenage pregnancies does not mean these classes caused or even
contributed to the increase. This kind of reasoning is superficial and illogical.

7. Inappropriate Authorities
When you refer to an authority, make sure that it is a legitimate authority (see
page). Also, determine whether your audience is likely to accept the authority you
mention. A valid academic argument about the secular world would not use the
Bible, for example, or the Quran’s as an authority. Celebrities are also not good
authorities unless they are known to be knowledgeable or experienced in the area
you are discussing.

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8. Bandwagon
Occasionally, writers urge readers to believe something or do something because
others believe it or do it. The simple fact that others do something is not sufficient
support for an argument, although this approach is widely used in advertising.

Drink New York Seltzer: Everyone else does.

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 LECTURE THIRTEEN
ARGUING FROM WRITTEN SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Lecture Outline
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Objectives
13.3. Professional Writing
13.4. Student Writing
13.5. The Audience
13.6. The Writer’s Credibility
13.7. Tone
13.8. Summary

13.1.Introduction
In the last Lecture, we discussed critical thinking. This lecture will discuss issues
related to professional writing and the factors that determine it.

13.2.Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
4. Differentiate between main points and
supporting evidence
5. Paraphrase the main points of the excerpts
6. Compare and contrast the opinions and
feelings of the different authors
4. Respond to these arguments according to their personal
positions

13.3. Professional Writing

It’s Tough to be a Woman
Women in this country are getting the short end of the salary stick. Although Congress
passed the Equal Pay Act in 1963 (“equal pay for equal work”), women still are paid far
less than their male counterparts.

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Accordingly to the latest Labor Department statistics, women working full-time were
paid an average of $224 a week in 1981, compared to $347 a week for men, a difference
of 35.3%. For every $100 a man earned, a woman earned just $64.70.

Some economists have long held that women earn less because they are relatively
inexperienced and do not hold down the highest paid positions. The 1981 Labour
Department study shows, however, that women were paid considerably less than men in
the same occupations.

For example, men averaged $190 – a difference of 48%. Where male salaried lawyers
averaged $574 a week, females averaged $407. Men cooks averaged $202 a week,
women cooks $148. Men service workers (janitors, cleaners, etc) were paid: $238 a
week, but women only $170 a week.

Worse yet, the poorest people in the U.S. are women. They have, in fact, become our
“nouveau poor”. According to a 1980 study, fully 90% of those receiving minimum
Social Security benefits are women; 69% of food stamps are issued to households headed
by women; and 80% of households receiving money from the Aid to families with
Dependent Children program are headed by women.

Three out of every four Americans living in poverty are women.

Should Housewives Be Paid?

Although women all over this country work full time jobs as housewives, probably very
few of these households have even considered the idea that the housewife should be paid
for her work. Yet according to a study done in 1974 by sociologists at Cornell University,
it would cost an average middle-class house-hold at that time consisting of husband, a
wife, and four children approximately $9,400 a year to hire someone to do the work of
the housewife. Why shouldn’t the women who do this work get paid for it just because
they are doing it inside their homes? Federal guidelines for minimum wages are meant to
protect the workforce. Why are housewives excluded?

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Even stranger is the fact that regardless of how much work they may do in their homes
because these housewives do not pay taxes, they are not eligible for social security.
Under normal circumstances a worker pays into the social security system, and the
worker’s employer is obliged to contribute a fair share toward that worker’s retirement.
Yet housewives are denied this benefit. Wilbur. J. Cohen, former Secretary of Health,
education, and Welfare, has pointed out the irony in this situation. ‘If you work as a go-
go girl (a dancer in a night club) you can qualify for Social Security, but if you stay at
home and raise a family, nobody will give you credit for it. “We pay lip-service to the
importance of the home and family, and yet, in a society where prestige is closely linked
to how much money a person makes, it seems that taking care of a home and family is the
least honored of all jobs.

13.4. Student Writing

No Equal Pay
In the U.S. people discuss whether women should get equal pay with men. I don’t believe
they should in most cases. First of all women, at least in Switzerland, don’t get as good
an education as the men do. This is because they know from the time they are very young
that eventually they will get married and have children and then it will be up to their
husband to support them. They will be in charge of the house; that is their job. Their
husband’s job is to earn money to take care of the family financially. Since women know
this from the time they are young, they do not try to get as much education as the men
get. If they are not as educated as the men, I do not see why they should get the same pay
as the men even if they do the same job.

The next point is that women are not as reliable as men. One reason is that they have their
first responsibility to their family. This means that even if the woman is working and her
child gets sick at school, the school will not call the father to come and take care of the
child. They will call the mother. That means that the mother must leave work and take
care of her child even if her job needs her that day too. In other words, if a man is
working for a company, his priority is his job. If a woman is working for a company, her
priority is still her family and she will drop the job to take care of them. Thus, the women
are not as reliable.

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I believe people should be treated fairly but we all have our roles to play in society. Each
role is important, but the role men play benefits the society as a whole whereas the role
women play basically benefits their families. For this reason, women do not deserve the
same pay.

Spend 10 minutes freewriting about your general reaction to what you have just read.
This freewriting will help you put together the next Writing Assignment.

When you have finished reacting to the essays, analyze each one objectively. Each essay
makes an argument, although it is easier to see the position Weiss takes than to see the
position of the other two writers. Summarize Weiss’s argument in one sentence.

Weiss argues that_________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Compare your sentence with those of your classmates and try to come to an agreement on
her basic argument. Now list at least two main ideas she uses to support her argument;
next to each one write your reaction:

Weiss’s points Your reaction

1. _________________________ _________________________

2. _________________________ _________________________

Next look at the essay “Should Housewives Be Paid?” How do you think the writer wants
to the reader to answer the question?

It is fair/unfair that housewives are not paid for their work in the home.
Now list at least two points used to support the writer’s position: next to each one write
your reaction:

Supporting points Your reaction

1. __________________________ _________________________

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2. __________________________ _________________________

Finally, look at the Shearer article. What is Shearer’s position? Shearer argues that:
_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Compare your sentence with those of your classmates and try to agree on Shearer’s
position. This selection presents a number of statistics. Find three main categories of
statistics and note your reactions to each group.

Shearer’s supporting evidence Your reaction

1. _____________________________ __________________________

2. _____________________________ __________________________

3. ____________________________ __________________________

Activity 13.1

Writing Assignment: Women Working

Now that you have analyzed the positions in the three essays, use this
information to help you formulate an argument on the subject of women
and wages. Decide what your basic position will be in your discussion.
You may agree to disagree with Weiss’s position, you may answer the
question of whether women who work at home should be paid, or you
may react to the statistics in the first selection. Take a position and defend
it by referring to the logic, statistics, or facts in the selections and by
adding information from your own experience or reading.

Your audience is your class classmates, some of whom are certain to have
had a different reaction from yours. Remember that you want to adopt the
tone of an academic argument. Yet you may have strong feelings about the
subject. If you do feel strongly about your position, spend 10 to 15
minutes writing your emotional reaction to these issues without making
any particular argument at all. Call your opponents names; make illogical,
unsupported generalizations; let your writing scream. Getting the emotion

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 out of your system in this way should make it easier to adopt the objective,
logical tone needed for your paper.

If you quote or use material from any of the selections, be sure to give
proper credit and to include a bibliography on a separate sheet of paper at
the end of your paper.

Constructing Your Own Argument

We formulate and express opinions constantly based on what we see, hear or read. In
writing an argument in an academic context, you must be particularly careful to be clear
and logical. To get you thinking about the positions you take on various issues, consider
writing on the following suggestions.

Activity 13.2
Writing Assignment: Controversial Issue
In this assignment, you will choose a controversial issue and write an
essay stating your point of view. Here are some examples of general
topics that students have chosen in the past.
1. What rights do animals have relative to humans?
2. Should life be sustained artificially?
3. Are food additives really bad?
4. Should children with AIDS be allowed in classrooms?
5. Should employees be tested for drugs or for genetic abnormalities?
6. Why don’t women hold more managerial positions?
7. Is surrogate mothering moral?
8. Should developing countries build nuclear power plants?
9. Should rock-and-roll lyrics be censored?

10. Do arranged marriages have any place in the modern world?

13.5. The Audience

In persuasive writing, or in writing in which you are trying to demonstrate the validity of
a position, the question of audience even more important than usual. When you write
privately in your journal or in your invention writing, your primary focus is on yourself,
your feelings, your ideas. When you write publicly, your focus shifts away from you and

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toward your subject and the audience for your writing. In analyzing an object, an event,
or an idea, your focus is on that object, event, or idea, and you must concentrate on
communicating information. As you move from analysis or exposition toward
argumentation, your focus shifts again, this time in the direction of your audience.
Information on your subject is still important, of course, but in persuasive writing the
importance of the relationship between writer and reader increases.

1. Private writing focus: writer

2. Public writing
a. exposition focus: subject
b. persuasion or focus: audience
argumentation

You have been considering your audience in all the writing you have been doing, but in
writing to influence the audience’s opinions on a subject, it is particularly important to
know who that audience is. To judge your audience, answer the following questions:
 How much does your audience already know about this subject?
 How much does your audience care about this subject one way or the other?
 Does the audience probably agree with you on this subject? If so, why about it?
To give additional information or support the audience had perhaps not thought of
before?
 Does the audience probably disagree with you on this subject? If so, what are the
chances of getting them to agree with you/ How can you get this audience to
change?
 If you expect to change your audience’s mind, how much of a change can you
reasonably expect? For example, if you are writing about Islam for a Christian
audience, you are unlikely to get them to change religions. On the other hand, it
might be possible to get them to understand better and therefore respect Islam
more.

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13.6. The Writer’s Credibility
In the previous chapter, Bruno Bettelheim made the statement that a bored child is an
anxious child. Did you believe or agree with that statement when you read it? When you
were a child, were you ever bored? Do you think your boredom was only a symptom of
anxiety/ If your personal experience contradicts Bettelheim’s statement, you probably did
not believe him. Why is Bettelheim’s statement at least worth considering? For many
readers, the mere fact that this statement appears in print is not enough to convince them,
especially if their personal experience contradicts it. On the other hand, Bettelheim is a
well-known child psychologist who has studied and written on child psychology for
many years. Because of this fact, most readers would not immediately dismiss his
statement, even if they were quite surprised by it. Bettelheim has credibility because of
his education and professional experience. In persuasive writing, it is particularly
important to establish your credibility, that is, to convince your reader that you know
what you are talking about. You can establish your credibility by showing that your
knowledge of the subject is based on:

Education, training, or both.

Extensive personal experience or observation
Reading or other contact with authorities on the subject.

Because writer credibility is so important, ask yourself as you write or prepare to write
what makes you enough of an authority on the subject to convince an audience to believe
you. What in your experience or education makes you an expert on this subject?

If your expertise comes from reading, you must consider the source of your information.
Who can be considered an authority on a given issue? A legitimate authority would have
education, training, or experience in the subject. Also, a legitimate authority’s point of
view is objective, not biased by self-interest. For example, if a fast-food restaurant claims
to serve the best hamburgers in town, self-interest in promoting its hamburgers makes
this claim biased and not objective. Therefore, the restaurant is not a good source of
information. Finally, a legitimate authority must be reliable, not known to distort the
truth.

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 Activity 13.3
What kind of person would you consider an authority on the following
subjects?
1. Animal rights_______________________________
2. Sustainable life_____________________________________
3. Food additives_____________________________________
4. AIDS____________________________________________
5. Drug/genetic abnormality testing______________________
6. Women in managerial positions________________________
7. Surrogate mothering_________________________________
8. Nuclear power plants________________________________
9. Censorship________________________________________
11. Arranged marriages_______________________________

13.7. Tone
Academic arguments are characterized more by logical appeal than emotional or ethical
appeals. Students sometimes become very involved with their subjects and make the
mistake of using too many emotional or ethical appeals. As a result, their writing sounds
more like political speechmaking than academic arguments. Be especially cautious about
using rhetorical questions in argumentation. This is the type of question to which the
person asking believes there is only one reasonable answer; politicians regularly use such
questions in speeches.

Is this the kind of attitude we want to develop in our children?

What kind of a society is this that allows…?
Will we never understand that…?
These kinds of questions can be very effective because they appeal to emotions and
ethics. Before you ask such a question, however, you must be very sure audience already
agrees with you about the answer. In general, these questions are more appropriate in
impassioned speeches than in academic essays. Concentrate on keeping your tone object.

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 LECTURE FOURTEEN
COMMON METHODS OF ESSAY DEVELOPMENT
Lecture Outline
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Objectives
14.3. Common Methods of Essay Development
14.3.1. Description
14.3.2. Narration

14.1. Introduction
In the following lecture, I am going to talk about the various patterns of Essay
development used to develop and organize ideas. These patterns of development,
argumentation, narration, description, and so on are used as strategies for generating
developing and organizing ideas for essays.

In our previous lectures on the process of writing you learnt about the various forms of
writing. Most types of writing combine two or more patterns, although the dominant
pattern provides the organizational framework. It is also important to note that the
writer’s purpose and audience determine the pattern to use and the blending of the
patterns.

14.2. Objectives
At the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Practice developing ideas using the rhetorical patterns learnt
2. Appraise given excerpts for rhetorical pattern
3. Synthesize rhetorical patterns for more effective persuasion

14.3. Common Methods of Essay Development

Patterns of development are not just mechanical formulas, on the contrary they are
practical strategies that open up options in every state of the composing process. Because
each pattern has its own distinctive logic, the patterns encourage you to think about new
ways.

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The following chart summarizes for you the broad purpose of each pattern. The chart
will also show the way each pattern could generate different raw material for the limited
subject of an essay on ‘Eradication of poverty in rural Kenya.
Pattern Purpose Raw Material
Description To detail what a person, Detail the sights and
place or object is like sounds of a poverty
ridden home

Narration To relate an event Recount what happened

when you try to survive

Illustrate To provide specific Offer examples of

instances or examples poverty situations

Division Classification To divide something into Identify components of

parts or to group related poverty e.g. when do you
things in categories say one is poor

Process - analysis To explain how Discuss one of the

something happens or process of poverty
how something is done

Cause-effect To analyze reasons and Explain the causes of

consequences poverty in rural areas and
the effect it has on the
people

Definitiion To explain the meaning What is meant by poverty

of a term or concept and what is eradication

Argumentation To win people over to a Convince the state holder

Persuasion point of view that they can star
eradicate poverty in rural
areas

14.3.1. Description
In this lecture, I want to discuss one of the patterns of developing essays called
description.

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14.3.1.1. What is Description?
Description can be defined as the expression, in vivid language, of what the five senses
experience. A rich description usually freezes a subject in time, evoking sights, smells,
sounds, textures and tastes in such a way that readers become on with the writers world.

Description can be a supportive technique that develops part of an essay, or it can be the
dominant technique used throughout an essay.

N.B. In each case the essays overall purpose would affect the amount of description
needed.

N.B. Your readers also influence how much description to include. As you write ask
yourself, “do my particular readers need to know to understand and experience keenly
what I am describing?”

“What descriptive details will they enjoy most?” Your answers to these and similar
questions will help you tailor your description to specific readers.

Therefore, while your purpose and audience define how much to describe, you have great
freedom deciding what to describe.

For example:
You can describe objects, machine a person, an animal, a place, a time, and a phenomena
or concept.

Activity 14.1
1. Write an effective description of a car you admire
2. Description of a friend you would like to emulate.
3. The dogs in your neighborhood.
4. The kitchen of a fast-food restaurant
5. A period when you felt most anxious or stressed.
6. Response to danger, the famine, El-nino floods the day of the
referendum.

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Examples of the way description can help you meet the objective of an essay be
developed chiefly through another pattern of development:

Causal analysis essay

Showing the ‘consequences of rural poverty’ you might describe the desperate
appearance of a starved child in Turkana.

Argumentation essay
‘Urging more vigorous control of crime in Kenya you might start with a description of a
distraught family that experienced violent robbery that ended in a murder

Process analysis
Explaining the process of building a machine, you might want to describe one part of the
machine vividly.

Narrative essay
Recounting a day in the life of a rural woman you might describe the women’s energy
and the appreciation of passerby.

Description Can Be Divided Into Two Types;

(a) Objective and (b) Subjective

14.3.1.2.Objective description.
You describe the subject in a straightforward and literal way, without revealing your
attitude or feelings. Reporters, technical and scientific writers, specialize in objective
description. They give detail experiences without emotional bias. For example a report
on a township meeting that ended in a fistfight. Oral biologist may write a report
describing the way sea mammals are killed by the plastic refuse that humans throw into
the ocean.

14.3.1.3. Subjective description

In contrast, when writing subjective description you convey a highly personal view or
you are subjective and seek to elicit a strong emotional response from your readers.

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Such subjective descriptions often take the form of reflective pieces or character studies.
e.g. in a character study of your teacher, you might describe her stern appearance and
gentle behaviors, hoping that the contradiction will move readers as much as it moves
you.

Tone
The tone of a subjective description is determined by your purpose, your attitude towards
the subject and the reader’s response you wish to evoke. If your goal is to make readers
admire the teacher, your tone will be serious and appreciative. If you want to criticize the
teacher’s high-pressure tactics and create distaste for her management style your tone will
be disapproving and severe.

Language
The language of a descriptive piece also depends to a great extent, on whether your
purpose is primary objective or subjective it the description is objective, the language is
 Straightforward
 Precise
 Factual
 Denotative (or dictionary meaning)
e.g –“Large crowd of fans”
- “Mass movement in the field”

Subjective
“Swelling mob” and “rowdy stampede onto the field”
Language used is connotative emotionally charged so that readers would share your
feelings.
Note: sometimes subjective and objective descriptions often overlap. E.g a single
sentence contains both objective and subjective elements. For example, “Although his
hands were large and misshapen by arthritis, they were gentle to the touch, inspiring
confidence and trust”.

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 Activity 14.2
Choose a subject to Describe e.g. photograph, possession, animal, object,
place, time period or phenomenon.
1. What is your predominant purpose? (inform, to evoke emotional
response)
2. What audience are you writing for?
3. What tone and point of view will serve your purpose and your readers?

14.3.1.4.. Strategies for Using Description in an Essay

The following suggestions will be helpful whether you use description as a dominant or
supportive pattern of development.
1. Focus a descriptive essay around a dominant impression. Like other kinds of
writing, a descriptive essay must have a thesis, or main point. In subjective
description, the thesis usually centres on the dominant impression you have about
your subject. Suppose you want to describe your subject lecturer Mr. Otieno.
How flamboyant and unconventional he is. Therefore you will focus on a
dominant impression e.g how insensitive he can be to students. What is important
is to establish the dominant impression you intend to convey immediately.
2. Select the details to include. The power of description lies on your ability to select
from all possible details, only those that support the dominant impression of
others no matter how vivid or interesting it must be.

You must also be selective in the number of details you include having a dominant
impression helps you eliminate many details, gathered during prewriting, but there still
will be choices to make. For example, it would be inappropriate to describe in exhaustive
detail everything in a junkyard.

Readers will also be reluctant to make through such undifferentiated specifics.

Infact, such excessive detailing dilutes the essay’s focus, so you end up with useless
specifics than with a word picture.

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 Activity 14.3
Write one paragraph description of a scene you admire. Remember to
select the details to include.

3. Organize the descriptive details

As a writer remember it is important to select the organizational pattern (or
combination of patterns) that best supports your dominant impression. The
paragraphs in a descriptive essay are usually sequenced:
a) Spatially (from top to bottom, interior to exertion, near to far)
b) Chronologically (as the subject is experienced in time)
c) Emphatically (ending with your subjects most striking elements)
d) Sensory impression (first smell, then taste then touch, and so on)

Examples
 Spatially e.g University of Nairobi as you approach it.
 Chronologically e.g your first day in a new place like Nairobi.
 Emphatically e.g describing an attack of Malaria that you experienced.
 Sensory impressions e.g a neighbourhood garbage dump (it sights, smell,
sounds etc)

Take note
Regardless of the organizational pattern you use, provide enough pattern,
provide enough signal devices (about, next, worst of all) so that readers can
follow the description easily.

14.3.2. Narration
Narration means telling a single story or several related stories.

The story can be a means to an end, a way to support a main idea or thesis.

For example to support the point that the University loaning system should be improved,
you could tell the tale of a student struggling to survive in the halls of resident.

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Narration is powerful. Every public speaker, e.g. politician, teacher or preachers knows
that stories capture the attention of listeners as nothing else can. In narration;
a. People’s experiences shed light on our own lines.

b. Lend force to opinion

c. Triggers places, times, and

d. Evokes places, times, and people in ways that are compelling and affecting.

Narratives are not only found in novels or short stories but also in essays, as a
supplemental pattern of development.
For example a paper defining good teachings, you might keep readers engaged including
satirical anecdotes about a helpless instructor, the antithesis of an affective teacher.

If your purpose is to persuade readers that security in Kenya is laxed, then you might give
stories of incidences of robbery next to police stations.

If your purpose is to discuss the effects of a corrupt judicial system, to involve the
readers, one can give a dramatic account of the way one clearly guilty murderer plea –
bargained his way to freedom. In addition to providing effective support in a section of
the paper.
e. Narration can also serve as an essay’s dominant pattern of development. A
single narrative can convey a central point and share with readers your view
of what happened.

E.g. narrate your childhood life, the nagging of your roommate.

Take Note
Although some Narratives relate unusual experiences, most tread on
familiar ground, and common emotions experienced during life. For
example joy, love, loss, fear, frustration, despair, sadness etc.
Narratives can take the ordinary and transmit it into something significant,
even extraordinary.

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 Activity 14.4
What event evokes strong emotion in you and is likely to have a
powerful effect on your readers.

14.3.2.1. Strategies for Using Narration In An Essay

The following suggestions will be helpful whether you use narration as a dominant or
supportive pattern of development.

1. Identify the point of the narrative conflict.

Most narratives center around a conflict when you relate a story, its up to you to
convey the significance or meaning of the event’s conflict.
For example, does the novel’s richness lie in its ‘motives’ and ‘morals’?

Similarly, when recounting your narrative, be sure to begin with a clear sense of your
narrative point, or thesis. Then either state that point directly or select details and a
tone that implies the point you want readers to take away from your story.

For example suppose you decide to write about the time you got locked up in the
office at night. Your narrative might focus on the way the office block looked after
hours and the way you struggled with mounting terror. But you could also use the
narrative to make a point.
 For example to emphasize that fear can be instructive.
 Or what offices have a disturbing, surreal underside.

2. Develop only those details that advance the narrative point

Do not write a story with non-essential details.

When telling the story, you maintain an effective narrative pace by focusing on
your point and eliminating any details that don’t support it. A good narrative
depends not only on what is included, but also on what has been left out.

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Having a clear sense of your narrative point and knowing your audience is crucial to
helping you know what to include.

Therefore, as you are writing, keep asking yourself;

- Is this detail or character or snippet of conversation essential?
- Does my audience need this detail to understand the conflict in the situation?
- Does this detail advance or intensify the narrative action?
- Try to limit narrative commentary i.e. statements that tell rather than show what
happened. Since remarks interrupt the narrative flow.
Focus instead on the specifics that propel action forward in a vigorous way.
- Use dramatic license i.e. your current perspective as a guide to add or reshape
details to suit your narrative point.

3. Organize the Narrative sequence

A narrative begins somewhere, presents a span of time, and ends at a certain point.
Frequently, you will want to use a straightforward time order, following the event
chronologically from beginning to end: first this happened, next this happened, finally
this happened.

But sometimes, you may want to disrupt chronology. Plunge the reader into the
middle of the story, and then return in flashback to the tale’s beginning. In
flashbacks, you return to an earlier time.

Narratives can also use flash forward. This means you give readers a glimpse of the
future e.g. (the main character being jailed) before the story continues in the present.
The events leading to the arrest.

Take Note
1. These techniques shift the story onto several planes and keep it from
becoming a step-by-step, predictable account. However, reserve
flashbacks and flash forwards for (uncial incidents only, since breaking
out of chronological order acts as emphasis). Examples of flash backs
and flash forwards
2. Try to limit the time span covered by the narrative. Otherwise, you’ll
have trouble generating the details needed to give the story depth and

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 meaning.
3. Regardless of the time sequence you select, organize the tale so it
drives toward a strong finish.
4. Be careful that your story does not trail off into minor, anticlimactic
details.
5. Be sure to use time signals when narrating a story. Words like now,
then, next, after and later ensure that your reader won’t get lost as the
story progresses.
6. Vivid sensory description is, therefore, an essential part of an effective
narrative.

4. Make the narrative easy to flow

Describing each distinct action in a separate paragraph helps readers grasp the flow of
events. Although narrative essays do not always have conventional topic sentences,
each narrative paragraph should have a clear focus. Often this focus is indicated by a
sentence early in the paragraph that directs attention to the action taking place. Such
a sentence functions as a kind of informal topic sentence; the rest of the paragraph
then develops that topic sentence.

5. Make the narrative vigorous and immediate

Put the reader in the ‘arena’. A compelling narrative provides an abundance of
specific details. These details make the readers feel as if they’re experiencing the
story being told. Readers must be able to see, hear, touch, smell and taste the event
you’re narrating.

Specific sensory details make writing:

(a) Pleasure to read and also give the narrative the stamp of reality. The specifics also
convince the reader that the event being described actually did, or could, occur.

Activity 14.5
Compare the following excerpts from a narrative essay. The first version
is lifeless and dull; the revised version, packed with sensory images,
grabs readers with its sense of foreboding.

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 Take Note
Sensory language enlivens narration, but it also slows the pace. Be sure
that the slower pace suits your purpose. For example, a lengthy description
fits an account of a leisurely December Christmas vacation but is
inappropriate in a tale about a frantic search for a misplaced wallet.

(b) Another way to create an aura of narrative immediacy is to use dialog while telling a
story. Conversational exchanges allow the reader to experience characters directly.
Compare the following fragments of narrative noting how much more energetic the
second version is.

(Refer excerpts pg 191)

Take note
When using dialog, you begin a new paragraph to indicate a shift from one
person’s speech to another’s.
Dialog can also be used to convey a person’s inner thoughts. Like conversation
between people, such interior dialog is enclosed in quotation marks.
 Make each character’s speech distinctive and convincing in dialog.
What sounds most natural is often a compressed and reshaped version
of what was actually said.
 With narrative details, include only those portions of dialog that serve
your purpose.
 Fit the mood you want to create and reveal character.

(c) Another way to enliven narratives is to use varied sentence structure. Do not start
sentences with the same predictable pattern that put readers to sleep. Experiment with
your sentences by varying their length and type; mix long and short sentences, simple and
complex. Compare the following original and revised versions to get an idea of how
effective varied sentence structure can be in narrative writing.

(d) Vigorous verbs also lend energy to narratives. Use active verb forms e.g. the boss
yelled at him
He was yelled at by the boss.

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 She was a good tennis player.
But
She played basketball well.

6. Keep your point of view and verb tense consistent

 No matter which point of view you select (1st, 2nd and 3rd), stay with that
vantage point throughout the entire narrative.
 You must also know whether to use the past or present tense:
I walked into the house.
I walk into the house

In most narration, the past tense is dominant since it enables the writer to span a
considerable period or time. The present tense is only powerful for events of
short durations, and if the event is intense and fast-paced.

Take Note
Whichever tense you choose, avoid shifting midstream,

Activity 14.6
1. Once you have a draft of the essay you’re ready to revise the following
questions , they with help you revise a narrative.
(a) What is the essays narrative point?
(b) Is it stated explicitly?
(c) If so, where?
(d) If not, where is it implied?
(e) Could the conflict be made more dramatic? How?
(f) From what point of view is the narrative told?
(g) Is that the most effective point of view for this essay?
(h) Why or why not?
(Continue page 193-194)
2. Write a narrative about a time you faced disturbing conflict and ended
up doing something you later regretted.

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 LECTURE FIFTEEN
WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER
Lecture Outline
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Objectives
15.3. General Strategies for the Writing Process
15.4. Gathering and Planning
15.5. Organizing and Outlining (Scratch Outline)
15.5.1. Organizing
15.5.2. Beginning and Ending Draft
15.6. Arrangement of Supporting Material
15.7. Summary
15.8. Conclusion
15.9. Paragraphing
15.10. Writing 1st Draft (Discovery Draft)
15.11. Revising
15.11.1. Why Revise?
15.11.2. How to Revise
15.11.3. Revising Guidelines
15.11.4. What to Revise
15.12. Outlining or Structural Sketch
15.13. Summary

15.1.Introduction
Research paper writing is a complex (solitary, demanding) activity. It is therefore divided
into stages (process of writing) so that we can master it more readily. When you become
skilled you can forget the stages. These stages are highly variable and do overlap.
The way the writer proceeds from initial stage to finished manuscript depends a great
ideal on his/her mental habits. So the following is a likely breakdown of the stages
involved in the process of writing.

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 1. Invention stage (planning)
2. Gathering and collecting information.
3. Writing a draft (need to do so, target audience)
4. Organizing and outlining.
5. Revising (rephrasing, moving texts around, deleting etc)

15.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Prepare an outline of your research paper with clear
sections
2. Write a sample introduction and conclusion to your
paper (or merely outline them)
3. Relate the knowledge on formats and terms to your
paper

15.3. General Strategies for the Writing Process

Before you begin to draft a report or speech about a topic, you first need to figure out
what you know and want to say;
- You need to generate some ideas about the topic.
- The stage of generating ideas about a topic has traditionally been called
invention or pre-writing stage.
- In the study of communication, to invent means to ‘come upon’ or ‘to find’ an
argument or the idea, often which the writer has already been exposed to but does
not necessarily ‘spring to mind’
- Invention is act of creating something new e.g. for a journal article or a final
report the prewriting stage may take months and will probably involve a lot of
interactions with other people.
- Stage where we need to find way of retrieving or finding already known
information as well as information which is not already known but which is
relevant to the topic.

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15.4. Gathering and Planning
After invention (or trying ideas for your paper) then the next step is to gather together as
much as you need to know and write about that topic.
The stage of Retrieving or getting details about the topic.
- The chief source gathering area in academics is the University Library
(Interviews and other Libraries). (This is why it is important not only to know
your Library i.e where it is, but also how to go about getting a book in the
Library. I.e. the Kardex or card catalogue. (refer to Library skills).
Also!
1. Linear
2. Patterned
- The skill of notes taking is also very important at this stage. (No mixing notes).
- The best way to take notes is using note-cards
- The notes can be direct Quota ting summaries, and even paraphrases.
Documentation – later on.
N.B. This area needs a lot of emphasis and concentration so I will deal with it under
writing Research paper and Documentation.
What goes into the note-cards?
Corruption
Definition of Corruption

“Corruption can be defined as impairment of integrity, virtue,

or the main body or the moral principle, or a departure from Label or
what is pure, correct or moral. Macdonald John, Principle of Identifying
life 1970). The reference or source p.g. 14 MA Phrase.

Too general a definition Ideas that flash in The main body

need to look at another source. your mind. Or the note
The Reference of source

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 - Assume you are writing on constitutional Review, gender, justice, and capital
punishment. Law e.g sedition, perjury or Treason etc.

Gathering and Planning

- Obviously your introduction will carry.

Definition of Sedition A description label or

“Sedition can be defined briefly identifying phase
as conduct which threatens or
exites, disaflection against the
Government……….. The main body of the note
Todar Jackson, The Law of Kenya
(1976) M.A pg. 104.

The reference or source

8 inches by 5 inches
6 inches by 4 inches
- The labour of taking notes requires discipline and strict organization.
- A single-note is taken on each note-card (each card contains only one idea).
- The benefits of using note-card
1. They can be rejected just pulling out
2. Re-arranged
3. They can be inserted (new ones)

Take Note
1. If an idea flashes through your mind as you are extracting notes
from another writer, you note it on the card by putting your
initials to separate yours and writers e.g.. MA – Too general, a
definition needs to consult another writer.
2. If it is a piece of writing that does not need reading or consulting
other authorities. You merely use the note – cards to organize you
own ideas.

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 3. You might have used interviews too for your writing. Then your
note cards will be divided according to the content of you
interviews and the personalities being interviewed.
4. Some writers take short cuts to gather information about their
topics by using 5ws and H. Grid.
- The questions you generate lead to understanding and getting as
much as possible from the books sources.

Questions
What- Criminal law (what it involves)
Where – Kenya (East Africa)
Why-Educational, Informative, controversial
When-year, period, time.
Who-Common man, Lawyer etc…
How – Conducted, involves and improvements etc…
NB: You can use this as a checklist at the end of your works.
NB: We will talk more on selection and evaluation of references when we talk about
Research paper.
But 1st organizing the writing

15.5. Organization and Outlining (Scratch outline)

This stage does not differ much from Invention and Information Gathering stage
(remember the overlapping interrelation factor).

- To organize something is to arrange its components in a sensible systematic and

pleasing manner, to maintain coherence and thorough development.
- If you do not organize your work, most of the time you forget something
important or you lack clarity and coherence.

NB: The way you organize your piece of writing depends considerably on the type of
writing (topic) you plan to write e.g. the organization of an experience you had when
playing a game would differ substantially from the organization of a piece of writing that
explains how to play a game or describes the game. The role of a lawyer or advocates in a

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society is different from court procedure. All in all, we know our invention writing plus
our collected notes are probably a mixture of general and specific statements and ideas.
So before you write your 1st draft it may help you to consider what English-speaking
readers generally expect when they read a text. (How organized? In terms of
organization.
NB: These are not rigid rules, but they may help you find a way to approach your draft.
Note: (We will consider these ideas in more detail in the next topic of paragraphing and
beginning and end draft.

15.5.1. Organizing
English-Speaking Readers Particularly in academic writing seem to expect this typical
three- part pattern:
1. A brief but definite beginning that serves these functions:-
- Announcing the subject of the paper
(a) Announcing the direction the discussion will take. (e.g. a viewpoint thesis
statement)
(b) Hooking
(c) Background information e.g. starting information in. This beginning is a
kind of General summary of what the whole paper is about and what it
will discuss.
(d) Thesis statement. (Positive writer/est. a view point).
2. A larger middle section (discussion of the topic) Here the writer usually:
(a) Explains

(b) Illustrates or (refer to paragraphing)

(c) Proves
What the beginning announced or asserted by describing, comparing, giving
examples or showing supporting evidence (paragraphing).
3. A relatively brief conclusion. Here the writer:
(a) States the implications of the discussion.
(b) Links the specific discussion to broader issues or
(c) Summarizes the most important ideas in the text.

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NB: We will come back later to these ideas: In Paragraphing, however, look at your
Invention Writing again and answer the following questions in relation to the
organization:
1. What is the subject of this draft? What is the main thing I want to say about this
subject?
2. As I explain the subject, what kinds of things do I want to be certain or bring up?
(Remember the circled section of your invention writing).
3. Can I group these ideas in some way so that I can discuss them one group at a
time? i.e. what would be the clearest or most logical order in which to discuss
these ideas?
4. What conclusions do I want my reader to reach about my subject after reading my
draft?
5. Finally although revising this is not the final draft, there are certain formal
conventions we usually follow when writing in English e.g. paging margins,
indentation etc… (these we will look at under Revising).

Note: When we talk of organization, we are talking of paragraphing also which we

will deal with later.

15.5.2. Beginning and Ending Drafts

Term papers, formal essays, articles, thesis, dissertations and books typically include an –
introduction and a conclusion set apart from the discussion of the topic and middle
(paragraphs)

1. Introduction
It is strange that many writers do not begin writing with the introduction at all.
- Even though the introduction is the first part the reader reads.
- Infact some writers write the conclusion first, then develop their ideas, after the
draft is already finished.
- You may find this suits you as well.

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Example of General and Specific
Every culture has its own rules about non-verbal communication among the members of
its societies and the Africans are no exception (General).
1. The Africans believe that shaking hands is the warmest way you can receive
someone, whether they are strangers or friends (more specific)
2. For example the Africans consider that it is rude to tell someone hie and just pass.
(Most specific)
NB: Writing well is not writing general and abstract statements.
We need to explain what we mean specifically. Selecting Supporting Material
2. Types of Specifics
The use of specifics makes writing easier to understand
Writers explain their generalizations in the following ways:-
1. Using examples to illustrate a point or to show how a generalization works in a
representative or typical case.
2. Using reasons, causes or effects related to the generalization to make it
understandable.
3. Using descriptive details to allow the reader to imagine the generalization better.
4. Using the familiar to explain the unfamiliar.
5. Discussing a subject step by step.

NB: All these examples and anecdotes are meant to help a reader understand a
generalization by showing how it operates in a specific instance.
- Understanding a specific instance makes the abstract notion easier to understand.
E.g. in classes students often ask professors for examples in order to make a
concept clearer.
- But it is not enough for writing to be clear.
Perhaps more importantly a writer must convince the reader of the validity of his or her
assertion by giving evidence to support those statements.
- Typically, writers support their generalizations with data: For example:
Using: Facts or statistics that bring objective evidence to prove a point.

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 Personal experiences, representative cases, observations, or anecdotes means to
prove that a generalization is true because it is based on a specific, real incident.

- We will come to these areas in detail when we are dealing with persuasive
writing because it is important to Lawyers and their legal language (e.g.
persuading the judge or magistrate that your client is innocent or guilty).

References to recognize authority or experts in the subject.

3. Summary
Deciding which specific to include depends very much on your audience (1) and
purpose (2) as well as on your main idea (3) or generalization e.g. if you are writing a
term paper on “Ethnic discrimination in allocation of jobs in your country” or
Nepotism.
- We would use the following types of support:
- Fact or statistics e.g. in reports and themes
1. Personal experience or anecdotes
2. References to authority (a little)
Examples
1. Reasons and effects
2. Descriptive details
3. Familiar situations to explain
4. Unfamiliar ones
5. Step by step explanations

NB: note also that in an explanation of our ideas, consider your participation in
writing context (4) e.g. – is it formal or informal?
- Public (a newspaper article) or a relatively private material.
- Are you an authority in that area or will you need more objective evidence to
make your point?
NB: Keeping your answers to these questions in mind will help select most effective
support for your ideas.

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4. Unity
The two most important requirements for selecting material to prove or explain your
point are:
1. The support must be pertinent
2. There must be sufficient support.
3. Pertinent means the support must be directly related to the generalization or the
main idea you are trying to explain.
- A common problem by student writers is making irrelevant statements- ones not
directly pertinent to the main idea. (i.e. they are irrelevant).
- Students’ writers try to include every detail they know about a topic even though
that information may not be relevant to their particular audience or purpose.
- Or they may lose direction or go on the target.
NB: Sometimes what seems like irrelevant information might actually be relevant but
the writer has failed to interpret it to show how it is linked to the main idea or is
significant for the audience or purpose of the text.
- So a writer must not only give pertinent (relevant) supporting information but
also interpret that information for the reader when necessary to show exactly
how it helps explain or support the main idea.
5. Amount
How much support is enough?
- The answer to this question depends very much on who the audience is and what
the purpose of the text is
- Sometimes a single example or an especially striking anecdote is enough to
explain a point clearly.
- Sometimes 3 or 4 are needed in one paragraph for a point to be convincingly
made.

NB: As a writer you must judge your audience and use your intuition and feedback
from your readers to determine how much support is needed to explain your point. Eg.
(facts, statistics, examples or anecdotes or combinations of types will be most effective in
accomplishing your purpose with a specific audience.

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15.6. Arrangement of Supporting Material
Once you have enough pertinent, specific material to support your point, you must
decide how to arrange it.
- Select, group your material, and decide in what order to present the material.
- The most common types of arrangements are:-
(a) Least to Most:
Begin with the least significant or powerful information and then move to the
more convincing or important ideas.
(b) Most to least
To attract reader’s attention quickly.
(c) Known to Unknown (Accepted to controversial).
- Begin by establishing common ground with the reader and then
move to the new material you are trying to explain or prove.
(d) Step-by-step
- Use chronological order (what happens first, second etc…)
- Or spatial order (describe one part at a time).
(e) By categories or Divisions
Divide your subject into parts or separate your supporting material into
categories and describe one part or category at a time.
(f) For Comparisons:
Discuss all the feature of one item first, then all the corresponding features of
the other item.

- Or discuss one feature of each item, then the next feature of each item.

NOTE:- In any piece of writing, keeping in mind the audience and purpose of the text,
the author must decide on an overall organizational plan and on some arrangement for
ideas in each paragraph.
- Most texts include some combination of the methods described here.
15.7. Summary
Readers expect a writer to:- (distinguish vs generalize)
1. Use specific supporting material.

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 2. Relate that material to the main idea (generalization) – using illustration
3. Arrange that material – appropriately
Flow – or material in paragraphs.
Depends on the relevant Discourse markers you use e.g last week we talked of
however, firstly, nonetheless etc…

15.8. Conclusions
NB: We have done middle part (paragraphs) and beginnings (introduction)
- The last of the three parts of a typical essay in English is the conclusion.
- As with the introduction the conclusion may be reduced or non-existent in some
writing situations.
- Particularly in an exam.
- Normally in essay, article or research paper without a conclusion sounds strange.
- A good conclusion leaves the reader feeling that the writer has all the important
points on the topic laid out in the these statements and that is:
On the society (people)
On the individual
On the country
Solutions
From the society
Individual
As a whole
Globally
Middle part – Internal organization

15.9. Paragraphing
Approach
1. Focusing on main ideas (Thesis Topic)
2. Developing and shaping ideas – General Specifics
3. Beginning and ending drafts
Final Draft – Revised – Content

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 Move on to internal organization (detailed)
Generalization – Introduction-Thesis statement
Specifics
Generalization
General Vs Specifics
The typical pattern that English writers follow is to say something fairly general and then
to give more specific information e.g to prove, illustrate or explain that general statement.
NB: Student writers have difficulty with this easy pattern because it is not always so
obvious to them what is more general and what is more specific e.g which is most
general and most specific
Waving hands G3 (specific)
Using gestures G1 (general)
Using hands G2 (mid)
Giving money to the poor 2
Being generous 1 –general
Donating one hundred
Thousand to the parking boys 3 – specific
Karumaindo 3 – specific
an ethnic restaurant 1 – general
a Kikuyu restaurant – 2

NB: So in writing we begin with a general assertion then to the specific ideas.
- In specifics, the writer is usually expected to do the work of explaining, showing
and proving. (except in fiction works).
- Without specific support or proof or explanation, the reader is unlikely to believe
a writer’s generalization or assertion.
NB: The writing moves back and forth between telling the reader something (an
asserting) and than showing the reader that the statement is true (the evidence).

It is said “Telling alone is not believable.

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15.10. Writing 1st Draft (Discovery Draft)
Now gather all your materials together (the collected material – notes). Invention
materials and the pre-draft questions) and them write your 1 st draft.
A few suggestions to make life easier are:-
1. Begin your first draft when you feel you are ready and need to do so (you feel you
have collected enough information).
2. Try to follow the three – part pattern most English-speaking readers expected.
Beginning, middle and end.
3. First write for content (concentrate on) more than for organization or style i.e.
just try to get your ideas down on paper first, do not worry too much about the
correct grammar, spelling, punctuation or vocabulary.
- You will have plenty of opportunity later to change this draft (this is just the 1 st
draft).
- If you get stuck or blocked as you are writing and find that you do not know what
else to say or exactly how to say it, try any of the invention techniques you
learned to start you up again.
NB: Refer always to your pre-writing materials.
- They will make the actual composing a first draft proceeds smoothly.
- As you are writing keep your reader in mind at all times.
- Once you forget, you are writing for other people, them you risk lapsing into
irrelevancy
NB:- Who was in the back of your mind as you wrote?
- Did that audience change as you wrote?
- (Use the self Analysis questions). Pre-draft questions (self analysis)
1. Who is your audience right now?
- What special terms or concept might you use that you will have to explain to this
audience?
NB:- Remember that you may eventually change your mind about your audience.
3. What is your purpose in writing about the subject?
- What do you want to communicate to your audience?
- Why do you want to communicate this information to this audience?

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NB:- Your purpose may be to inform your lecturer /classmates about a subject you think
they do not know about but should (e.g. the many things in law we do not know about e.g
manslaughter, Law on Theft and handling stolen goods, perjury sedition etc…a lot on
criminal law.)
- Or you may want them to know an experience you have had.
- Or you may want to show what you have learnt about the subject you are
discussing/
So: Your purpose may change eventually but try to decide what you want to
accomplish right now.
4. Read your invention writing again.
- List what you think you will have to concentrate on to shape that invention
writing into a good draft.
NB: Think in terms of which ideas you want to express.
- How much you want to say
- The order you want to represent your ideas.
- Do not worry about grammar etc
- This will come in the Revision.
15.11. Revising
You now have several first drafts and maybe reactions to your drafts from your
colleagues:
- What will you do with these?
- You can improve your writing skills faster by acting on the feedback and revising
your first draft.
- We always ask ourselves:-
15.11.1. Why Revise?
Revising is a very important stage in the process of writing. Even professional writers
revise. It involves:
- Re-reading what they wrote
- Crossing out sections
- Re-reading again and moving idea from one section to another.

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 - Constantly comparing what they have in paper to an image in their minds of what
they want to communicate.
NB: revising is not a punishment for writing a bad text.
- All experienced writers revise.
- Infact revising can be quite pleasurable, easier, and even more interesting than
writing the first draft.
- Think of revising as a game or puzzle that you control and manipulate.
- Now here are Guidelines on how to revise.
15.11.2. How to Revise
Adding, Deleting and Moving Text
The three common forms of revision are:
1. Adding text
2. Deleting
3. Substituting text or
4. Moving text around (ideas)
Continues…..

Comments on a draft
I think you should include more details……
I do not think you need the part about….
When attempting to revise, analyze your draft using the following
Questions as a guide:
1. Who is your audience? What interest do they have in this subject?
What do they already know about this subject?
5. Rephrasing –or making a sentence clear and to the point
-Once you are satisfied with the ideas you have expressed and the order in which you
expressed them, it is time to concentrate on improving smaller sections of your paper.

- Your main concern will be how you say something rather than what you say.

- Some of your sentences may need rephrasing and or editing.

- Rephrasing has to do with making a sentence clearer and more to the point
(shorter)

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- Editing means making sentences grammatically and mechanically correct.(
punctuation, spelling, paragraphing,

NB: A Good Sentence in English is clear and direct and does not use extra
unnecessary words to express an idea..

- e.g a sentence might be awkward, does not fit well between other sentences, the
language might be informal, or the relationship among the ideas in the sentences
is not directly shown, or too many words were used to express the ideas in the
sentence so the sentence can be rephrased to make it fit better.
6. Sentence variety
The style of a sentence maybe monotonous because every sentence begins the same
way: e.g

Subject and verb.

-Add more variety.

7. Showing the relationship between ideas.

- Writers must use Logical Connections like Transitional expressions and
subordinators to link ideas and paragraphs.
- They are guideposts for the reader.
- They tell the reader how the information in another sentence is linked to the next.
- Thus the sentences are linked in some way that makes reading easier.
- E.g although. On the other hand, furthermore, another problem, moreover, in
addition to, besides, and, also, likewise, in the same way , similarly, however, in
spite of, on the contrary, yet, but, nevertheless, despite, for example, for instance
etc…
- NB: Although these transitional expressions, subordinators and coordinators help
the reader follow the logic of a text, it is not necessary to use an explicit logical
connection in every sentence.
- Infact overuse of these devices can be distracting and even more confusing for the
reader.
- No one will tell how many logical connectors should appear in a piece of writing.

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8. Linking ideas using given to new
Using logical connections is not the only way to link ideas in a piece of writing.

-The flow of writing in English is often from given (already known or already
introduced information) to new.

-In writing a new sentence, the writer nearly always refers back in some way to
previously expressed ideas.

-e.g by repeating key words, or using pronouns or demonstratives e.g this, these, that,
those, such, she, her

- These help the reader to see your text as a unified structure instead of a series of
unrelated sentences.
9. Editing
- Correcting grammatically and mechanically (punctuation, paragraphs)
- Careful editing is extremely important.
- Otherwise the readers may form a negative impression of a writer Because of the
many errors.
- Many errors in a final draft can be distracting.
- If you evaluate your audience as people who value correctness, then you must do
your best to produce a grammatically correct text.
- Editing is the last task in the paper.

How to correct Errors in your own writing

- Correcting errors (editing) in someone else’s writing is easy but not yours
- Here are suggestions that may help you to edit better.
15.11.3. Revising Guidelines

A very important stage in the writing process which most writers ignore.

Guidelines:

(a) Once you have written the 1st draft, let it ‘COOL’ first before you revise
later. This will help you see your writing objectives.

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- if you leave your writing 5-10 minutes or 2 days then you will see it differently,
and objectively (explain)
(b) Revise your draft as though you are a member of your target audience.
Revise your draft to fit your new audience or purpose or to express ideas
you thought of as you were writing.
(c) Double-check the assignment guidelines to ensure that the draft has
accomplished all the assignments demanded e.g. describe, discuss,
reflect, explain the procedure etc….
(d) Proof-read – (Editing)
- Check for any mechanical errors e.g in punctuation, grammar, spelling, language
usage, sentence construction and paragraphing.
NB: (we do not teach these except paragraphing)

- Revising is to improve accuracy, readability, unity and development.

Note: Revising can take place wherever you want it to but the most efficient time for
it to occur is after you have completed the preliminary draft.

(e) Re-read your draft several times and analyze it as you read. Keep a
pencil in your had to mark any sections you may want to change.
- Look at the ideas you expressed.
- Ask yourself if you have said everything you wanted to say, if the ideas flow
smoothly and logically from one to the next. If everything you said fits your
audience your purpose and your main part.
- Change whatever you want to. Give the draft to one or more people to read and
comment on.
(f) Read the comments, and then set the whole pile of papers aside for a
while.
(g) After a day or two (even just an hour if that is all you have) re-read the
draft, your reader comments, and perhaps you own self-analysis.
(h) NOTE: Revising is both re-reading and re-writing.

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 - This re-reading is very important:-
1. Because it allows you to compare what you wrote with what you want to
communicate.
2. Furthermore, re-reading is necessary because each section of the writing that you
cross out, add, or move around must be smoothly reconnected to or integrated
into, the text around it.
3. When you re-read, begin at the beginning of your paper, or at least several
sentences before the spot you want to change so that you can get a clear mental
picture of the parts you are fairly satisfied with before you get to the part you
want to improve.
15.11.4. What to Revise
Different writers have different styles of composing and revising.
1. Some write a great deal in their drafts and revise by cutting material out
(deleting).
- Their drafts are often long and disorganized, going off in many directions.
2. Other writers prefer to get basic ideas down in sketchy drafts and then to expand
on the ideas (adding).
- Which type of writer are you? Becoming conscious of your own writing habits
will help you focus on specific problems you have and on possible solutions.
- Whatever type of writer you are, do not be afraid to experiment by adding,
deleting, or moving parts of your text around.
- Sentence variety

- Relationship of ideas (connectors)

- Rephrasing

- Editing

Function of Introductions Include:

1. Hooking readers and convincing them to take their time to read the article, essay
or book.
2. Giving whatever background information may be necessary to understand the
article.

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3. Stating the information or argument the reader will find in the articles essay or
book (sometimes also how it will be discussed)
4. Hooking (getting attention) of Reader
A writer can use dramatic description, narration, striking words, a quotation and a
question to attract the readers attention e.g topics on:

AIDS

“No man really knows about other human beings”, John Steinback wrote.

“The best he can do is to suppose that they are like himself”………

Meaning in the Child’s language

How do children learn the meanings of words? The words they hear are all new to
them……

Nairobi Bomb Blast

It was the darkest and saddest day in Nairobi.
NB: Here, most writers believe they have something worthwhile to say and will try to
get the reader at least to begin reading the article.

- Although the hook is often fun to write because it is short and sometimes dramatic
or entertaining. It is probably the least important part of the introduction in an
academic paper
- In an Academic paper, it is in fact missing in most.
- If it appears in an academic paper, it is usually a fairly serious:
- Quotation
- Statistic an
- Interesting fact
- But not a joke or story
- NB: (i.e there is no need to entice your lecturers to read your paper, they will do
so whether you use hook or not).
(1) Giving (function) the Background
After getting the reader’s attention the writer now wants to move towards his/her
main purpose for writing the essay.

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- But the reader may first need some background information to be able to follow
the author’s thoughts. Sometimes that background information is simply a
reminder of information, the reader probably already knows. It therefore
established a common ground of understanding between the writer and the reader.
E.g Aids- briefly, where figures etc or argument (starting the information in the
paper)
(2) Establishing a Viewpoint
The third part of an introduction is usually a fairly clear statement of the position the
writer will take in the paper.
- Mostly, the statement appears towards the end of the introduction although it may
appear at the beginning as well – particularly if the introduction is short.
- It is traditionally called thesis statement.
- It is a one or two sentence summary of the entire article.
- It is meant to enable the reader to anticipate quickly just what the writer plans to
show or argue or discuss and perhaps how the writer plans to organize discussion.
So it should be specific enough to summarize that particular essay. (refer to topic
sentence of thesis statement)

15.12. Outlining Or Structural Sketch

1. Then make an outline to organize these ideas.
2. An outline helps you to divide up a subject.
3. An outline is not an end in itself – it is merely a tool to help you produce an
organized discussion or to help you verify that the discussion you have produced
is organized
4. Thinking systematically about a topic.
5. It is a structural method of exploring your thoughts and subject
- So we use the freer invention strategies to generate ideas.
- The make an outline to organize these ideas.
6. Outlining can be a transition between inventing and writing a first draft.
7. An outline functions as a plan for writing.

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- It is extremely helpful in dividing up the big task of writing into small parts that
will eventually make a unified and organized whole.
- E.g the topic corruption will be numbered as below:
Definition of corruption
Stipulative definition
Other writers
Types of corruption
Bribery
Nepotism
Stealing
Favourism
Effects of corruption
- Everything promised at the beginning has been said.
A Conclusion often begins either

i. With a comment referring to the last point made.

ii. Transition expression announcing the conclusion e.g. so, finally, in
summary
iii. A conclusion may also quickly summarize the main ideas or main
points made in the discussion.
iv. Interpret the discussion or explain why the discussion is important and
what it suggests.
v. It may also link the main idea of the text to the future or to some
broader issues not specifically covered in the article.
vi. Length- varies with presentation of writing
The conclusion in a short piece of writing may be on sentence in a longer
piece, it is often a paragraph of several sentences. In a book the conclusion is
often a separate section or chapter.

Examples of concluding statements:

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 1. (Use transition) so each country has its specific rules of social behaviors
and a foreigner has to become used to non-verbal communication if he or
she wants to get integrated into a different culture.
2. These examples demonstrate that the greatest advances in science are most
likely to be made by geniuses.
3. These are some of the big differences between African languages and
European languages….
NB: 2 & 3 begin with a reference to something previously stated.

- In long essays or speeches, the writer may use a transitional phrase as “In
conclusion, or in summary but”
- In short essays or paragraphs the conclusion is announced less dramatically with
expressions such as:
o Thus
o Therefore
o As we have seen
o In short
- These expressions signal the beginning of the conclusion especially when the
conclusion summarizes, repeats or shows the results of whatever has been
discussed….
- Conclusions also commonly begin by simply repeating a key word or phrase from
the beginning of the text to link the beginning more closely to the last sentences.
For example in the topic AIDS, a probable conclusion would read:
“Still people realize that they now face their toughest adversary. Prevention and
cure of AIDS”.

15.13. Summary
Things to avoid in any conclusions that you write:-

1. Avoid beginning new points to support or illustrate your main

idea or thesis.
- If you have such new points, add new development paragraphs
and then write the conclusion.

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 2. Avoid awkward concluding announcements such as, in
conclusion (politician’s speech). Use…….
……….From the above, etc….

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 LECTURE SIXTEEN

DOCUMENTATION SOURCES
Lecture Outline
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Objectives
16.3. Using and Acknowledging Sources (Documentation of sources)
16.3.1. Introduction
16.3.2. Using Sources
16.4. Quoting
16.5. Paraphrasing and Summarizing
16.6. Acknowledging Sources

16.1. Introduction
After completing the discussion on writing a Research paper in the last lecture, we
want to look at this documentation sources and how to use them in our writing.

16.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Recognize, take note of, and eliminate any plagiarism from
your writing
2. Write a summary of a given excerpt
3. Paraphrase given statements
4. Cite appropriately following quoting, summarizing and
paraphrasing
5. Prepare a bibliography for your research paper

16.3. Using and Acknowledging Sources (Documentation of sources)

16.3.1. Introduction
Much of the writing you will do in college requires you to use outside sources in
combination with your own firsthand observation and reflection. Any time you get
information and ideas from reading, lectures, and interviews, you are using sources.

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Using sources is not only acceptable, it is expected in college. No matter how original
their thinking, educated people nearly always base their original thought on the work of
others. In fact, most of your college education is devoted to teaching you two things: (1)
what Matthew Arnold called “the best that has been thought and said,” and (2) ways to
analyze the thoughts and words of others, integrate them into your own thinking, and
effectively convey your thinking to others.

Writers – students and professionals alike – occasionally misuse sources by failing to

acknowledge them properly. The word plagiarism, which derives from the Latin word
for “kidnapping,” refers to the unacknowledged use of another’s words, ideas, or
information. Students sometimes get into trouble because they mistakenly assume that
plagiarizing occurs only when another writer’s exact words are used without
acknowledgement. Keep in mind, however, that depending on your topic and audience,
you may need to indicate the source of any ideas or information you have taken note of in
your research rather that copied down direct quotations.

Some people plagiarize simply because they do not know the conventions for using and
acknowledging sources. This chapter will clarify how to incorporate sources into your
writing and how to acknowledge your use of those sources. Others plagiarize because
they keep sloppy notes and thus fail to distinguish between what is their own and what is
their source’s. Either they neglect to enclose their source’s words in quotation marks or
do not indicate when they are paraphrasing or summarizing a source’s ideas and
information. If you keep a working bibliography and careful notes, as described in
Chapter 21: Library Research, you will not make this mistake.

There is still another reason some people plagiarize: They feel unable to writer the paper
by themselves. They feel overwhelmed by the writing task or by the deadline or by their
own and others’ expectations of them. This sense of inadequacy is not experienced by
students alone. In a Los Angeles Times article on the subject, a journalist whose
plagiarizing was discovered explained why he had done it. He said that when he read a
column by another journalist on a subject he was preparing to write about, he felt that the
other writer “said what I wanted to say and he said it better.” If you experience this same

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anxiety about your work, speak to your instructor. Don’t run the risk of failing a course
because of plagiarizing.

16.3.2. Using Sources

Writers commonly use sources by direct quotation as well as by paraphrase and
summary. Be selective in using quotation. As a general rule, quote only when your
source’s language is particularly vivid, memorable, or well known, or when your source
is so respected by your readers that quoting would lend authority to your writing. If the
phrasing does not matter, it is preferable to paraphrase or summarize rather than quote.

16.4. Quoting
Quotations should duplicate the source exactly. If the source has an error, copy it and
add the Latin word sic in brackets immediately after the error to indicate that it is not
yours but the source’s:
According to a recent newspaper article, “Plagirism [sic] is a problem among
journalists and scholars as well as students.”

However, you can change quotations (1) to emphasize particular words by underlining or
italicizing them, (2) to omit irrelevant information or to make the quotation conform
grammatically to your sentence by using ellipses, and (3) to make the quotation conform
grammatically or to insert information by using brackets.

Underlining or italicizing for emphasis: Underline or italicize the words you want to
emphasize, and add the phrase (emphasis added) or (italics added) at the end of the
sentence. In his essay on youth suicide in Chapter 9, Victor Fuchs emphasizes that part
of the quotation that refers specifically to suicide:
In a review of psychosocial literature on adolescence, Elder (1975) concludes:
“Adolescents who fail to receive guidance, affection, and concern from parents –
whether by parental inattention or absence – are likely to rely heavily on peers
for emotional gratification, advice, and companionship, to anticipate a relatively
unrewarding future, and to engage in antisocial activities” (italics added).

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Using ellipses for omissions. Ellipsis marks of three periods with spaces before and
after ( … ) should be used to indicate an omission. If the omission occurs at the end of a
sentence, place a sentence period directly after the last word, followed by the three
spaced periods. Here is an example from Sue Hubbard’s piece on “Chiggers” in Chpt 5.

Mulling over this curiosity, G. W. Krantz, an eminent acarologist, says, “… the

intense itching reaction experienced by man … reflects a lack of host
adaptation.”

If the omission is followed by a parenthetical citation, use three spaced periods before the
parentheses and a sentence period directly after them.

When you quote a small part of a sentence, you need not use ellipses; instead, you may
integrate a single word or phrase into your sentence simply by enclosing it in quotation
marks, as illustrated by this sentence from David Greene’s essay on “The Digital
Audiotape Controversy” in Chapter 1:

Best of all, it offers studio-recording sound quality, “the best, most authentic
sound to ever emerge from a speaker system: (McDougal 1).

Using brackets for insertions or changes. You may also use brackets to make a
quotation conform grammatically to your sentence or to replace an unclear pronoun. In
this example from an essay on James Joyce’s “Araby,” reprinted in Chapter 10, the writer
adapts Joyce’s phrases “we played till our bodies glowed” and “shook music from the
buckled harness” to fit the sense of her sentences:
In the dark, cold streets during the “short days of winter,” the boys must
generate their own heat by “[playing] till [their] bodies glowed””. Music is
“[shaken] from the buckled harness” as if it were unnatural, and the singers in
the market chant, nasally of “the troubles in our native land”.

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You may also use brackets to add or substitute explanatory material in a quotation. In her
essay in Chapter 6, Sydney Young uses brackets to identify a reference William Gary
Hart makes to his wife.

Any unfaithfulness is, as the candidate phrased it, “between me and Lee [his
wife] and me and God.”

Several kinds of changes necessary to make a quotation conform grammatically to

another sentence may be made without any signal to readers: (1) the first letter of the first
word I a quotation may be changed from capital to lower case, (2) the punctuation mark
at the end of a quotation may be changed, and (3) double quotation marks (enclosing the
entire quotation) may be changed to single quotation marks (enclosing a quotation within
the larger quotation).

Placing quotations
A quotation may either be incorporated into the text by enclosing it in quotation marks or
set off from the text in a block without quotation marks.

In-text quotations. Incorporate brief quotations (no more than four typed lines of prose
or three lines of poetry) into your text. When you quote poetry, use a slash with spaces
before and after (/) to signal the end of each line of verse:

Alluding to St. Augustine’s distinction between City of God and Earthly City,
Lowell writes that “much against my will/I left the City of God where it
belongs,” Steven Gould Axelrod, Robert Lowell: Life and Art

You may identify the source at either the beginning of the end of a quotation, or you may
interrupt the quotation to do so:
Charles Ferris, a lawyer for the Home Recording rights Coalition says, “Home
taping has the documented effect of encouraging purchases of prerecorded music,
either of entire albums that have only been partially taped, or of other albums by
the artist or composer whose work was taped.” (David Green, chapter 5)

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 “We’re in Ripley’s Believe It or Not, along with another funeral home whose
owners’ names are Baggit and Sackit,” Howard told me, without cracking a smile.
(Brian Cable, Chapter 4)

“What counts with a candidate for presidents is his character,” claims George
Reedy, press secretary to former President Lyndon Johnson, “and nothing
shoues is like his relationship with women.” (Sydney Young, Chapter 6)

Block quotations. Put in block form, without quotation marks, five or more typed lines
of prose or four or more lines of poetry. This example comes from Sydney Young’s
position paper in Chapter 6:

In the words of former vice presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro:

The issue is not whether the press has the right to investigate. It’s what
they are investigating. The public is entitled to know if he is adperson
who has good judgment, the right to know if he is smart, the right to know
if he understands what’s going on. If the Miami Herald had reported that
Garry Hart had invited to his house a contra leader, then I’d be very
angry because he has taken a strong stand against the contras. I don’t
find the Donna Rice story relevant to the campaign. (“Private” 33)

Punctuating Introductory Statements

Statements that introduce quotations take a range of punctuation marks and lead-in
words. Here are several examples of ways writers in Part I introduce quotations:

Introducing a statement with a colon

Says Nan Junter, an American Civil Liberties Union attorney: “You can’t torture
people for names.” (Anastasias Toulexis, Chapter 5)

The President’s State of the Union report included this statement: “We will seek a
‘technological’ solution to the potential problem of unauthorized copying of
copyrighted material on digital audio tape recorders.” (David Green, Chapter 5)

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Introducing a statement with a comma
As Cheryl Hayes, director of the NAS study explains, “If teenagers have to wait
in the rain for a bus to take them to a clinic, there is a good chance they will never
make it to the clinic.” (Adam Paul Weisman, Chapter 7)

Introducing a statement using that

Bennett concedes that “birth control clinics in schools may prevent some births.”
(Adam Paul Weisman, Chapter 7)

Introducing a statement using “what … as”

Young people may be succumbing to what Abraham Maslow (1959) forecasts
as the ultimate disease of our time – “valueless ness.” (Victor Fuchs, Chapter 9)

Avoiding grammatical tangles

When you incorporate quotation into your writing and especially when you omit words,
you run the risk of creating ungrammatical sentences. Here are three common errors you
should make an effort to avoid: verb incompatibility, ungrammatical omissions, and
sentence fragments.

Verb incompatibility. When this error occurs, the verb form in the introductory
statement is grammatically incompatible with the verb form in the quotation. When your
quotation has a verb form that does not fit in with your test, it is usually possible to use
just part of the quotation, thus avoiding verb incompatibility. In the following example,
suggest and saw do not fit together as the sentence is written, see how the sentence is
revised for verb compatibility.

Not The narrator suggests his bitter disappointment when “I say myself as a creature
driven and derided by vanity.”

But the narrator suggests his bitter disappointment when he describes seeing himself
“as a creature driven and derided by vanity.”

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An awkward omission. Sometimes the omission of text from the quotation results in a
ungrammatical sentence. In the following example, the quotation was awkwardly and
ungrammatically excerpted. The revised sentences show two ways of correcting the
grammar: first, by adapting the quotation (with brackets) so that its two parts fit together
grammatically; second, by using only one part of the quotation.

Not From the moment of the boy’s arrival in Araby, the bazaar is presented as a
commercial enterprise: “I could not find any sixpenny entrance and … handing a
shilling to a weary-looking man.”

But From the moment of the boy’s arrival at Araby, the bazaar is presented as a
commercial enterprise: “I could not find any sixpenny entrance and … hand[ed] a
shilling to a weary-looking man.”

Or From the moment of the boy’s arrival at Araby, the bazaar is presented a
commercial enterprise: he “could not find any sixpenny entrance” and so paid “a
shilling” to get in.

An incomplete introductory sentence. Sometimes when a quotation is a complete

sentence, writers will carelessly neglect the introductory sentence – often, for example,
forgetting to include a verb. Even though the quotation is a complete sentence, the total
statement is then a sentence fragment.

Not the girl’s interest in the bazaar leading the narrator to make what amounts to a
sacred oath: “If I go … I will bring you something.”

But The girl’s interest in the bazaar leads the narrator to make what amounts to a
sacred oath: “If I go … I will bring you something.”

16.5. Paraphrasing and Summarizing

In addition to quoting their sources, writers have the option of paraphrasing or
summarizing what others have written. This method allows writers to use the source’s

185
information, but to present it in their own words. Chapter 11: Invention and Revision
offers a fuller discussion of paraphrasing and summarizing techniques.

The following examples show how writers summarize statistics and facts as well as
thoughts and ideas:
A study at Bellevue Hospital in New York city of 102 teenagers who attempted
suicide showed that only one third of them lived with both parents (Newsweek,
August 28, 1978, p. 74). (Victor Fuchs, Chapter 9)

For an industry that says it already loses one and a half billion dollars annually to people
who copy music from their friends, the record industry is fearful of that number growing
astronomically (Buell 112). (David Green, Chapter 5)

William Faulkner, for example, had been working as a janitor and as a deckhand on a
fishing boat in Mississippi while writing The Sound and the Fury and As I lay Dying.
When Sanctuary was published in 1931, he attended some New York literary parties, at
one of which Tallulah Bankhead asked him to write a picture for her. The idea so
appealed to him that he apparently began writing a screenplay immediately. Some
months later, reporting to MGM for a six-week contract, he asked to writer a picture
script go Mickey Mouse but, not less absurdly, was assigned to a script for Wallace
Beery. Despite the obvious need for trained screenwriters, no studio offered schooling.
Faulkner was packed off to a small projection room to watch old movies. Bored after a
few minutes, he wandered off for a week in Death Valley, then returned to write four
treatments in five days, including one for Beery (Kavin 70-72). (Alice Marquis, Hopes &
Ashes: The Birth of Modern Times, 1929-1939)

In the first example, Victor Fuchs paraphrases a Newsweek article in order to highlight
the survey statistics pertinent to his own theses, while in the second David Green
paraphrases the ideas he introduces from another writer’s research. The third example
from an essay by Alice Marquis on Hollywood writers is a good instance of summary:
Marquis has boiled down several pages of biographical data from her original source into
a paragraph that focuses on the information of primary interest to her research. Notice in

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the preceding examples that each writer acknowledges his or her source by name. Even
when you use your own words to present someone else’s information, you generally must
acknowledge the fact that you borrowed the information. The only information that does
not require acknowledgement is common knowledge (John F. Kennedy was assassinated
in Dallas), familiar sayings (“haste makes waste”), and well-known quotations (“All’s
well that ends well”).

16.6. Acknowledging Sources

Although there is no universally agreed upon system for acknowledging sources, there is
agreement on both the need for documentation and the items that should be included.
Writers should acknowledge sources for two reasons: to give credit to those sources, and
to enable readers to consult the sources for further information. The following
information should be included when documenting sources: (1) name of author, (2) title
of publication, and (3) publication source, date, and page.

Most documentation styles combine some kind of citation in the text with a separate list
of reference keyed to the textual citations. There are basically two ways of
acknowledging sources: (1) parenthetical citations keyed to a works-cited list, and (2)
footnotes (or endnotes) plus a bibliography. The Modern Language Association (MLA),
a professional organization of English instructors, for many years endorsed the footnote
style of documentation. But, with the 1984 revision of the MLA Handbook, the MLA
has gone over to the simpler parenthetical citation method. The new MLA style is similar
to the style endorsed by the American Psychological Association (APA) – the style used
by many social and natural science instructors.

In Part 1 of this book, you can find examples of current MLA style (David Green in
Chapter 5, Sydney Young in Chapter 6) and APA style (Victor Fuchs and Kim Dartnell
in Chapter 9). This chapter presents the basic features of both these styles.

If you have any questions, consult MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,
Second Edition (1984), or the Publication Manual of the American Psychological

187
Association, Third Edition (1983). The MLA Handbook includes both current MLA
style and footnote style.

Parenthetical citation in text

The MLA and APA styles both advocate parenthetical citations in the text keyed to a
works-cited list at the end of the paper. However, they differ on what should be included
in the parenthetical citation. The MLA uses an author-page citation, while the APA uses
an author-page citation.

MLA Dr. James is described as a “not-too-skeletal Ichabod Crane” (Simon 68).

APA Dr. James is described as a “not-too-skeletal Ichabod Crane” (Simon,

1982, p. 68).

Notice that the APA style uses comma between author, year, and page as well as “p.” for
page (Simon, 1982, p. 68), whereas the MLA puts nothing but space between author and
page (Simon 68). Note also that the citations in both cases come before the final period.
With block quotations, however, the citation comes after the final period preceded by two
spaces.

If the author’s name is used in the text, put the page reference in parentheses as close as
possible to the quoted material, but without disrupting the flow of the sentence. For the
APA style, cite the year in parentheses directly following the author’s name, and place
the page reference in parentheses before the final sentence period.

MLA Simon describes Dr. James as a “not-too-skeletal Ichabod Crane” (68).

APA Simon (1982) describes Dr. James as a “not-too-skeletal Ichabod Crane”

(p. 68).

To cite a source by two or three authors, the MLA uses all the authors’ last names; for
works with more than three authors, the citation and the entry in the works-cited list give
the first author’s name followed by “et al.” The APA uses all the authors’ last names for

188
the first time the reference occurs and the last name of the first author followed by “et al.”
subsequently.
MLA Dyal, Corning, and Willows identify several types of students,
including the “Authority-Rebel” (4).

APA Dyal, Corning, and Willows (1975) identify several types of

students, including the “Authority-Rebel” (p. 4).

MLA The Authority-Rebel “tends to see himself as superior to other

students in the class” (Dyal, Corning, and Willows 4).

APA The Authority-Rebel “tends to see himself as superior to other

students in the class” (Dyal et al., 1975, p. 4).

To cite one or two or more works by the same author(s), the MLA uses the author’s last
name, a shortened version of the title, and the page. The APA uses the author’s last name
plus the year and page. When more that one work being cited was published by an author
in the same year, APA style uses letters with the date (1973a, 1973b).

MLA When old paint becomes transparent, it sometimes sows the artist’s
original plans: “a tree will show through a woman’s dress” (Hellman,
Pentimento 1).

APA When old paint becomes transparent, it sometimes sows the artist’s
original plans: “a tree will show through a woman’s dress” (Hellman,
1973, p. 1).

To cite a work listed only by its title, both the MLA and the APA use a shortened version
of the title.

MLA An international pollution treaty still to be ratified would prohibit all

plastic garbage from being dumped as sea (“Awash” 26).

189
 APA An international pollution treaty still to be ratified would prohibit all
plastic garbage from being dumped as sea (“Awash,” 1987, p. 26).

To quote material taken not from original but from a secondary source that quotes the
original, both the MLA and the APA give the secondary source in the works-cited list,
and cite both the original and secondary sources in the text.

MLA E. M. Forster says “the collapse of all civilization, so realistic for us,
sounded in [Matthew Arnold’s] ears like a distant and harmonious
cataract” (qtd. in Trilling 11).

APA E. M. Forster says “the collapse of all civilization, so realistic for us,
sounded in [Matthew Arnold’s] ears like a distant and harmonious
cataract” (cited in Trilling, 1955, p. 11).

List of works cited

Keyed to the parenthetical citation in the text, the list of works cited identifies all the
sources the writer uses. Every source cited in the text must refer to an entry in the works-
cited list. And, conversely, every entry in the works-cited list must correspond to at least
one parenthetical citation in the text.

Whereas the MLA style manual uses the title “Works Cited,” the APA prefers
“References.” Both alphabetize the entries according to the first author’s last name.
When several works by an author are listed, the APA recommends these rules for
arranging the list:

 Same name single-author entries precede multiple-author entries:

Aaron, P. (1985).
Aaron, P., & Zorn, C. R. (1982).

 Entries with the same first author and different second author should be alphabetized
according to the second author’s last name:
Aaron, P., & Charleston, W. (1979).

190
 Aaron, P., & Zorn, C. R. (1982).
 Entries by the same authors should be arranged by year of publication, in
chronological order:
Aaron, P., & Charleston, W. (1979).
Aaron, P., & Charleston, W. (1984).
 Entries by the same author(s) with the same publication year should be arranged
alphabetically by title (excluding A, Am, The), and lowercase letter (a, b, c, and so
on) should follow the year in parentheses:
Aaron, P. (1985a). Basic. …
Aaron, P. (1985b). Elements. …

For multiple works by the same author (or group of authors), MLA style recommends
alphabetizing by title. The author’s name is given for the first entry only; subsequent
entries are preceded by three hyphens and a period.
Vidal, Gore. Empire. New York: Random House, 1987.
---. Lincoln. New York: Random House, 1984.

The essential difference between the MLA and APA styles of listing sources is the order
in which the information is presented. The MLA follows this order: author’s name; title;
publication source, year, and page. The APA puts the year after the author’s name. The
examples that follow indicate other minor differences in capitalization and arrangement
between the two documentation styles.

Books
A book by a single author

MLA Simon, Kate. Bronx Primitive. New York: Harper, 1982.

APA Simon, Kate. (1982). Bronx Primitive. New York: Harper and Row.

A book by an agency or corporation

MLA Association for research in Nervous and Mental Disease. The

Circulation of the Brain and Spinal Cord: A Symposium on Blood

191
 Supply. New York: Hafner, 1966.

APA Association for research in Nervous and Mental Disease. (1966). The
Circulation of the Brain and Spinal Cord: A Symposium on Blood
Supply. New York: Hafner Publishing Co.

A book by more than one author

MLA Strunk, W., Jr., & E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed. New
York: Macmillan, 1983.

APA Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1983). The Elements of Style (4th ed.).
New York: Macmillan.

MLA Dyal, James A., William C. Corning, and Dale M. Willows. Readings in
Psychology: The Search for Alternatives. 3rd Ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1975

APA Dyal, James A., Corning, William C., & Willows, Dale M. (1975).
Readings in psychology: The search for alternatives (3rd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.

For works by more than three authors, MLA style lists the mane of the first author
followed by “et al.”

MLA Nielson, Niels C., Jr., et al. Religions of the World. 2nd ed. New York:
St Martin’s, 1988.

A book by an unknown author

Use title in place of author.

MLA College Bound Seniors. Princeton, NI: College Board Publications,

1979.

APA College bound seniors. (1979). Princeton, NI: College Board

Publications.

192
An edition prepared by a named editor
***** APA Arnold, Matthew. (1966). Culture and anarchy (1 Dovet Wilson,

If you refer to the text itself, begin with the author:

MLA Arnold, Matthew Culture and Anto ***

If you cite the editor in your text, begin with the editor

MLA Wilson, J Dover, ed Culture and Anarchy by Matthew ***

An Anthology

MLA Dertouzos, Michael L., and Joel Moses, eds. The Computer Age A
Twenty-Year View. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1979.

APA Dertouzos, Michael L., and Moses, Joel. (eds.). (1979). The Computer
Age A Twenty-Year View. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
A Translation

APA Tolstoy, Leo. (1972). War and peace. (Constance Garnett Trans.).
London Pan Books. (Originally published, 1868 – 1869.)

If you are referring to the work itself, begin with the author:

MLA Tolstoy, Leo. War and Peace. Trans. Constance Garnett. London: Pan
1972.

If you cite the translator in your text, begin the entry with the translator’s name:

MLA Garnett, Constance, trans. War and Peace. By Leo Tolstoy. London:
Pan, 1972.

A work in an anthology

MLA Faulkner, William, "Dry September." Literature: The Human

Experience. Ed. Richard Abcarian and Marvin Klotz. 4th ed. New
York: St. Martin's. 1986. 753-761.

193
 OR Bell, Daniel, “The Social Framework of the Information Society. "In
The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year View. Ed. Michael L.
Dertouzos and Joel Moses. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1979. 163-211.

APA Bell, Daniel. (t979). The social framework of the Information Society. In
Michael L. Dertouzos and Joel Moses (Eds.), The computer age: A
twenty-year view (pp. 163-211). Cambridge, MA: MIT.

An essay in an anthology by the same author

MLA Weaver, Richard. "The Rhetoric of Social Science." In his Ethics of

Rhetoric South Bend, Indiana: Gateway, 1953. 186-210.

APA Weaver, Richard. (1953). The rhetoric of social science. In Weaver,

Richard.Ethics of rhetoric (pp. 186-210). South Bend, Indiana:
Gateway Editions.

Articles
An article in a journal with continuous annual pagination

MLA Dworkin, Ronald. "Law as Interpretation." Critical Inquiry 9

(1982). 179-200.

APA Dworkin, Ronald. (1982). Law as interpretation. Critical Inquiry.

9. 179-200.

An article in a journal that paginates each issue separately

MLA Festinger, Leon. "Cognitive Dissonance." Scientific American 2 (Oct.

1962): 93-102.

APA Festinger, Leon. (1962, October). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific

American, 2. 93-102.

An article from a daily newspaper

MLA Lubin, J. S. "On Idle: The Unemployed Shun Much Mundane Work, at

194
 Least for a While." Wall Street Journal 5 December 1980. 1, 25.

APA Lubin, J. S. (1980. December 5). On idle: The unemployed shun much
mundane work, at least for a while. The Wall Street Journal. Pp.
1,25.
An anonymous article

MLA “Awash in Garbage.” New York Times 15 Aug 1987, Sec. 1 26

APA Awash in garbage. The New York Times. Section 1, August 15, 1987, p
26

Other Sources

Computer Software

MLA Hogue, Bill. Miner 2049er. Computer software. Big Five Software

OR Microsoft Word. Computer Software. Microsoft. 1984

APA Hogue, Bill (1982). Miner 2049er [Computer program] Van Nuys. (A
Big Five Software).

OR Microsoft Word (1984) [Computer program] Bellevue. WA Microsoft

Records and tapes

MLA Beethoven, Ludwig van. Violin Concerto in D Major, op. 61. Cond.
Alexander Gauk, U.S.S.R. State Orchestra: David Olstrakh,
violinist: Allegro, ACS 8044, 1980.

OR Springsteen, Bruce. “Dancing in the Dark.” Born in the U.S.A.

Columbia, QC 38653, 1984.

APA Beethoven, Ludwig van. (Composer). (1980). Violin Concerto in D

Major, op. 61. (Cassette Recording No. ACS 8044). New York:
Allegro.

OR Springsteen, Bruce. (Singer and Composer). (1984). "Dancing in the

Dark." Born in the U.S.A. (Record No. QC 38653). New York:

195
 Columbia.

Interviews

MLA Lowell, Robert. "Robert Lowell.” With Frederick Seidel. Paris Review
25 (Winter-Spring): 56-95.

OR Franklin, Anna. Personal interview. 3 September 1983.

APA Lowell, Robert. [Interview with Frederick Seidel]. Paris Review, 25

(Winter-Spring), pp. 56-95.

OR Franklin, Anna. [Personal Interview]. 3 September 1983.

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 LECTURE SEVENTEEN
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS
Lecture Outline
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Objectives
17.3. Steps in Writing Business Letters
17.4. Specific Types of Business Letters
17.4.1. Routine Inquiry Letter
17.4.2. Routine Enquiries
17.4.3. Enquiries about People
17.5. Summary

17.1. Introduction
Much of the writing in business requires clarity to be able to communicate within the
organization. One effect that you will need to communicate is the goodwill effect,
especially in writing business letters. When you write letters, however, you will be
concerned about communicating more than information. The information in letters will
be important, of course. In fact, it will probably be the most important part. But you will
also need to communicate certain effects within the letter such as respect for human
rights of persons affected by the letter.

17.2. Objectives
Upon completing this lecture, you will be able to employ directions
effectively in initiating routine inquiry letters – inquiries about people,
claims, and orders. Specifically you should be able to:-
1. Determine the goal of your letter, the readers’ reaction to the goal
and the correct approach in composing the letters.
2. Write clear, well-structured routine request for information that
close with good will
3. Compose in an orderly and well designed manner.
4. Write claim letters that explain the facts in a firm but courteous
manner

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17.3. Steps in Writing Business Letters
We begin by looking at the four general steps and approaches to writing business letters.
It is important to follow these steps in writing business letters.

Step 1: Get the information (facts) you need

This means getting past correspondences from the files: consulting with other employees,
getting sales records, warrantees, product description, and inventory records. Make sure
that you understand all the information and prioritize what you need in writing the letter.

Step 2: Determine the objective of the letter

With all the background information you have gathered in mind, you next determine the
objective of the letter – what the letter must do. For example, must it report information,
acknowledge an order, ask for something, request payment of a bill, and evaluate an
application or what?

Step 3: Predict how the reader will react

Next, you predict the readers’ likely reaction to your objective. Will that reaction be
positive, or negative, or somewhere in between? Of course you cannot be certain of how
the reader will react. You can only apply your knowledge of the reader to the situation
and use your best judgment. Your application will determine the plan of the letter you
write.

Step 4: Select the letter plan

In selecting the letter plan, use direct order for favorable reactions that will get you to
your objective right away – at the beginning. In positive situations, you usually have no
need for opening explanations or introductory remarks, for these would only delay
achieving your objective. This plan is commonly called the direct order, is easy to use
and is appropriate for most business letters.

Use indirect order for unfavorable reactions. If you predict that your letter will produce a
negative reaction, you should generally write it in indirect order. This plan of writing
gets to the objective after preparing the reader to receive it. As you will see, such a letter

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typically requires a more skillful use of strategy and word choice than does one written in
direct order.

17.4. Specific Types of Business Letters

17.4.1. Routine Inquiry Letters
Letters that ask for information are among the most common in business. Business or
academic institutions need information from each other. They consider requests for
information routine, and they cooperate in such situations to exchange information.
Letters asking for information which are routine are written in direct order. In such
letters, there is usually no need to delay the request. This saves time for both the writer
and the reader. It gets right down to business without delaying explanation or
description.

An exception occurs if negative reader reaction is likely. In such cases, you may need to
use indirect order to explain or persuade.

Activity 17.1
Introduce yourself to routine request letters by assuming that you are an
assistant to the General Manager of Pinnacle Manufacturing Company.
Pinnacle is a small manufacturer of an assortment of quality products. As
an assistant to the manager, one of the duties is to write a letter on behalf
of your boss requesting for information that Pinnacle Management needs
to make a decision on suitable sites for the Company’s expansion plan

In assisting your boss in this assignment, you have found a number of

possible locations. One of them is described in the property guide. The
location and price are right, but Pinnacle management want a number of
questions answered such as:-

1) Does the land have deep frontage on the river?

2) What about the terrain?
3) Is the land well drained?
4) How assessable is it by public road?

Now, write a letter requesting for answers to the above, mainly

information that Pinnacle needs to make their decision.

It is important to note that the first step in planning the inquiry letter is to determine the
reader’s probable reaction

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General plan of an inquiry letter
 Begin directly with the objective – either with specific question or a general
request information
 Include necessary explanation – wherever it fits. Explain enough to enable the
reader to answer
 If a number of questions are involved, give them a structure
 End with good will words adapted to the one case. Make the close fit the one
case.

Illustrations of Inquiry Letters

The old style: indirect letter
Note that this format is less effective:-The letter below is a bad example.

Dear Mr. Piper,

We have seen your advertisement for a 120-acre tract on the Nzoia River in the
November property guide. In reply, we are writing to you for additional information
concerning the said property. We would be pleased to know the depth of frontage on
the river, quality of drainage including high and low elevations, and the availability of
public roads to the property.

If the information you supply to us is favorable to our needs, we will be pleased to

inspect the property. Hoping to hear from you by return mail,

Sincerely, Pinnacle Management.

This less effective letter begins slowly and gives obvious information. Even if one
thinks that this information needs to be communicated, it does not deserve the emphasis
of the opening sentence. The second sentence does refer to the objective of the letter, but
it is not in the interest – gaining form of a question. The information wanted is covered
hastily in the middle paragraph. There is no question – just hints of needs for information.
The items of information wanted do not stand out but are listed in rapid succession. They
are not in separate sentences.

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The close is friendly, but old style. “By return mail” – originated in the days when
sailing ships shuttled mail across the seas.

The direct effective letter

Dear Mr. Piper

Does the 120-acre tract you advertised in the November property guide have deep
frontage on the river?

We are seeking such a site for a new plant, and it appears that your property could
meet our needs. How level is the land in drainage? A written description of the tract
terrain should answer this question. In your description, please indicate minimum and
maximum elevations.

Can the property be reached by an existing all-weather road? If the answer is yes,
what is the composition of this road? What is its condition? If your answer indicates
that the site meets our needs, we will want to inspect the property. As we must move fast
on the building project, may I have your answer soon?

Sincerely…..

This second example begins directly by asking for information. Explanatory information
follows that justifies the inquiry. Next come the remaining questions, with explanations
worked in wherever they help the readers in answering. The letter closes with a
courteous request for quick handling. In addition, the close suggests the good news of
possible quick action on the property.

CASE ILLUSTRATION

For more case illustration, see p.97; Basic Business Communication edited. By Raymond
V. Losikar, Irwin – Homewood, TL 6-0430, 1991

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17.4.2. II. Routine Enquiries
An Inquiry about Hotel Accommodation
The letter in the next page to a hotel inquires about convention accommodation for a
professional association. In selecting a hotel, the organization’s officers need answers to
specific questions. The letter covers these questions.

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 NATIONAL MANAGEMENT
FORUM
17306 – Milldale Avenue, St Lous,
MO 63118
Telephone: (314) 878 – 4461
July 17, 1990
Ms. Connie Briggs, Manager
Lakefront Hotel
10017 Lakefront Boulevard
Chicago, IL 60613

Dear Ms Griggs,

Will you please help the National Management forum decide whether it can meet at the
Lakefront? (Direct – a general request that sets up the specific question)

The forum has selected your city for its 2006 meeting, which will be held in August 16,
17, and 18. In addition to the Lakefront, the convention committee is considering the De
Lane and the White House. In making our decision, we need the information requested
in the following questions. (Explanation of a situation – provides background
information)

Can you accommodate a group such as ours on these dates? Probably about 600
delegates will attend, and they will need about 400 rooms. (Question stands out in a
separate paragraph)

What are your convenient rates? We need assurance of having available a minimum of
450 rooms, and we could guarantee 400. Would you be willing to reserve for us the
rooms we would require? What are your charges for the conference? We will need
eight (8) for each of the three days, and each should have a minimum capacity of 60. On
the 18th, for the one half hour business meeting, we will need a large assembly room with
a capacity of at least 500. Can you meet these requirements?

Also, will you please send me your menu selections and prices for group dinners? On the
17th, we plan our presidential dinner. About 500 can be expected for this event. (Specific
questions with explanation where needed)

As convention plans must be announced in the next issue of our bulleting, may we have
your response right away? We look forward to the possibility of being with you next
year. (Individually tailored goodwill close)

Sincerely
Patty Wolff, chair
Site selection committee
Pw. Fr

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17.4.3. Enquiries about People
Letters asking for information about people are special form of routine inquiry. Normally,
they should follow this general plan:
 Begin directly, with a general question seeking information or a specific
Question.
 Explain the situation
 Cover the questions systematically, with explanations as needed.
 End with adopted goodwill words.

As you will see from the following discussion, this plan is similar to the one on routine
enquiries. But it involves a special requirement, which is why we review this letter type
separately.

Practical Situation
The following are some hints and discussion to show you how to write the above letter.

Respecting Human Rights

Respecting the rights of people involved is the special requirement. Letters about people
are highly personal, and we do not always exchange personal information freely. Moral
and legal rights are involved, and we should respect those rights. Some companies do not
permit writing letters about people. Companies that do permit writing such letters should
make every effort to protect the rights of the people involved
To protect human rights in writing about people, one should say the truth and act in good
faith. You should distinguish carefully the difference between facts and opinion. You
should use the information provided for official purposes only. You should hold all
information about people in confidence. These points should guide you as you write a
letter-asking information about people.

Adopting Question Content

Letters inquiring about job applicants vary, depending on the job to be done. For a sales
job, for example, you would need to know about the applicant’s personality. So you
would ask questions about the applicant’s ability to meet and get along with people,

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conversational skills, and aggressiveness. For an accounting job such information might
be of little importance. Here you would probably seek information about knowledge of
the field, experience, and work habits. Thus in setting the question, you should analyze
the job and the applicant. This analysis should lead you to the questions that will help you
decide whether the applicant and job match. In other words, you should ask for the
specific information you need to consider the one applicant for the one job
Consider the legality and ethics of the questions. As in any routine inquiry, you should
include the very questions any information or explanations that will help the reader
answer. Usually the reader needs to know the nature, responsibilities, and requirements of
the job.

Illustrations: Examples in contrast

I. Bad Example.

Dear Ms. Bonda;

Mr. Kuguru has applied to us for employment and has given your name as a reference.
He indicates that he worked under your supervision during the period 1996-2005.
We would be most appreciative if you would give us your evaluation of Mr. Kuguru. We
are especially interested in his ability to handle responsibility, knowledge of office
procedures, work habits, and morals.
Thanking you in advance for your courtesy, I remain,

Sincerely Yours…

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II. The Fair Example.
Dear Ms. Bonda

Mr. Kuguru has applied to us for employment and has given your name as reference.
He indicates that he worked under your supervision during the period 1996-2005.

We would be most appreciative if you would give us your evaluation of Mr Kuguru.

We are especially interested in his ability to handle responsibility, knowledge of office
procedures, work habits and morals.

Thanking you in advance for your courtesy, I remain

Sincerely Yours…….

The first letter example shows a not-so- good effort. The opening is indirect. The
explanation in the opening is important, but does it deserve the emphasis that the
beginning position gives it? Although the question part gives the appearance of
conciseness, it is actually scant. It includes no explanation. It does not even mention what
kind of position Mr. Kuguru is being considered for. The items of information wanted do
not stand out. In fact, they are not even worded as questions but are run together in a
single, declarative sentence. Though courteous, the closing words are old style.

Activity 17.2
From time to time, your work at Pinnacle involves investigating applicants
for employment. Of course, you do no hiring. The personnel department
conducts initial interviews, administers aptitude tests, and performs all the
other screening tasks. Then it refers the best applicants to the executives in
charge of the jobs to be filled. The executives, including your boss, make
the final decision.

This morning personnel sent your boss a Mr. Kuguru, its selection for the
vacant position of Office manager. Mr. Kuguru seems to be well qualified-
good test scores and employment record. After talking with him, your boss
feels that he is bright and personable. Because your boss feels that he
cannot judge ability from a single interview, he has asked you to follow
your usual practice of writing the applicants references for their
evaluations. In Kugurus case, the best possibility appears to be a Miss
Bonda who was his immediate supervisor for three years.
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 Your task now is to write Ms. Bonda a letter that will get the information
needed.

III. Business Letter Format: Orderly and Thorough Example

Below is a good example for you to adopt in future writing.

Dear Ms. Bonda,

Will you help me evaluate Mr. Kuguru for the position of Office manager? In
authorizing this enquiry, Mr. Kuguru indicated that he worked under your supervision
from 1996-2005. Your candid answers to the following questions will help me
determine whether Mr. Kuguru is the right person for this job.

What is your evaluation of Mr Kruger’s leadership ability including human-relations

skills, to run an office of 11? Ours is a growing company. The person who manages
our office will not only need to know good office procedures but will also need to
know how to adopt them to changing conditions.

What is your evaluation of Mr. Kugurus drive and stamina? With us he will have to
cope with a high volume, pressure-filled operations.

What is your evaluation of Mr. Kugurus moral reliability? Our office manager is
responsible for much of our company equipment as well as some company funds. We
would not consider one who is to the slightest degree a questionable risk.

We will, of course, hold your answers in strict confidence. And we will appreciate
whatever help you are able to give Mr. Kuguru and us.

Sincerely…….

The above letter gives evidence of good analysis of the job and the applicant. The letter
begins directly with an opening question that serves as a topic sentence. The beginning
also includes helpful explanation. This part is not given unnecessary emphasis as in the
previous letter. Then, the letter presents specific questions. Worded separately, each
question is an explanation that helps the reader understand the job for which Mr. Kuguru
is being considered. The close is courteous and tailored for the one case. Note also that,
throughout the letter, the concern for the rights of the people involved. Clearly, the
enquiry I authorized, is for business purposes only, and will be treated confidentially.

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Activity 17.3
1. In two sentences state the main functions of a business letter
2. State the essential features of a business letter
3. Write short notes on how to plan a business letter
4. Write a letter from S. M Richard Traders, giving quotation for the supply
of electrical pump sets. Emphasize in your letter the installation service,
after sale service and replacement facilities provided to your customer
5. Draft an application letter for the post of Chief Accountant in a large
public limited company.
6. Draft a suitable letter to be sent to a candidate extending the period of his
probation in the company.

17.5. Summary
In writing a business letter, you first assemble all the information you
will need. Then you determine the objective of the letter (What it must
do). Next you predict how the reader will react to the objective. If the
likely reaction is positive, or even neutral, you should usually write in
the direct order, which means getting to the objective straight away. If
the likely reaction is negative, you should usually write in the indirect
order. It is important to bear in mind that inquiry letters should address
specific questions.
Inquiries about people follow much the same order, but they require
special care, as they concern the moral and legal rights of people. Thus,
you should seek truth and you should act in good faith. In addition, you
should adapt your questions to the one applicant and one job rather than
follow a routine.
Claims are special cases. Even though they carry bad news, they are best
written in the direct order. This order is justified because the reader
usually wants to correct the problem and requires only that the facts be
presented. Also directness strengthens the claim.
Order letters are also best written in the direct order. Begin them with a
direct authorization for the release of the goods/shipment of the goods.
Then carefully and systematically identify the items you want (catalogue
number) In addition, include all the information vital to the sale
(shipping instructions, method of payment, time requirements). End the
letter with appropriate, friendly words that fit the ones case.

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 LECTURE EIGHTEEN
WRITING JOB APPLICATION LETTERS AND RESUME
Lecture Outline
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Objectives
18.3. Readiness for a Resume
18.4. What Makes a Good Applicant
18.5. Designing the Letter of Application
18.6. Designing the Resume
18.7. Summary
18.8. References

18.1. Introduction
In this section, you will learn how to write a good resume and job application letters.
Writing a good job application letter and resume is difficult unless you know what you
want to do, what you can offer, what the company or program does, and what it offers. It
involves doing some serious thinking and research. To find out what to do, you need to
consider your short-term goals, your previous training and interest, and your financial,
geographical, or personal constraints.

18.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate by written examples what constitute a good application
letter and resume
2. Illustrate how to use your resume to market your skills

18.3. Readiness for a Resume

Before you set out to write your resume, establish the following facts:
1. Your short and long term goals
2. Your previous training and interest
3. Your financial, geographical, or personal constraints

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 4. Accomplishments, skills, knowledge, and recognition you have gained in the
course of working, studying and playing.

The matrix below can help you to assess yourself by identifying your skills, knowledge
and abilities.

Table: Matrix to help you assess yourself and your interests.

Activities Results
Product of Skills Knowledge Rewards for
accomplishment recognitions
1. Working
2. Studying
3. Playing
4. Living

Note that, not all you have in the matrix will appear in your resume or letter. Be
thorough and immodest while generating information for your resume. Do not forget
your special talents and accomplishments.

To find out what the company or program does, check for information in the library such
as company publications, reviews of products, or Internet if they have a website.

If all other sources fail to produce enough information, you can try to call the company
and speak to someone in the personnel office or manager.

18.4.What Makes a Good Applicant?

Intext Question
The Important question to begin with is to ask yourself what makes
a good applicant?

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A good applicant should be able to fill a need in the company and should be:-
 Well trained
 Technically competent
 Smart
 Hard working
 Reliable and honest
 Well organized, personable, helpful
 Resourceful, and a good communicator

The Application Letter

When you are applying for a position, your cover letter and resume need to say as many
of these things as possible. The cover letter and resume must demonstrate good writing
skills. In writing a good job letter, or resume, treat it primarily as a demonstration of
your communication skills. The cover letter and resume seldom establish your technical
qualifications for a job, no matter how impressive your training may be. Determining
your qualification is usually left to other parts of the hiring process: interviews, tests,
letters of reference, etc. The cover letter and resume are not so much technical
specifications as they are examples of how well (or how badly) you write. Resumes of
well-qualified applicants can make them be rated lower if they have errors of grammar,
spelling, punctuation, parallelism. Thus, to write a good job application letter or resume,
treat it primarily as a demonstration of your communication skills
The following are some key principles you need to keep in mind when writing letters
and resumes.

Take Note
1. Use a conventional format
Different audiences have different expectations. If you are not sure,
check with someone who knows the organization before you apply.
2. Stress what you can do for the company or program, not what it
can do for you.
Look carefully at the wording of the job announcement. Find out more
by phoning the company. In your letter, show that you are aware of the
company’s needs by using some of the same language the company
uses. If you think you meet these needs, say so, show that you want to
be part of the team.

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 3. Address the person having the authority to arrange an interview or
to admit you into the program
If you don’t know who that person is, try to find out. Don’t waste your
letter on someone who cannot help.
4. Make the letter and resume look beautiful
This is no place for careless spelling mistakes, typographical errors, or
computer generated formatting flaws. Your readers will be judging you
using whatever evidence they can find, including the physical
appearance of your documents. Make your letter and resume look
professional in order to convey a professional image. Take pains to do
your documents wells. A bad letter or resume make eliminating you
easy

18.5.Designing The Letter of Application

To write a successful application letter, you need to know the connections for such
writing. In most cases, they are quite straightforward. The letter usually is one page long
and has four main sections. These sections are elaborated below:-

1. The heading
The heading includes the writers’ address, the readers’ address and the date

2. The first paragraph

The first paragraph introduces you (if possible by citing an impressive recommender)
and then establishes the company’s needs and your ability to fill them (or your reason
for writing and what you are requesting of the reader)
3. The second paragraph
The second paragraph establishes your most relevant experience and qualifications
and your accomplishments, responsibilities, and work quality, not just your activities.
Here you should strive to prove that you did a good job by citing either a reference
(“X will provide a letter of reference) or some objective measure of a job’s quality.
In this section, you should be very selective and focus only on your most relevant
qualifications.
4. The closing paragraph
In the closing paragraph, you should give any other pertinent data, ask for an
interview, and provide your telephone number and the hours you may be reached.

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Sample letters and resumes follow after the discussion on designing the Resume

18.6.Designing The Resume

The resume is a summary of all your activities and experience. It is always more
inclusive than the letter of application. Since the letter of application and the resume may
get separated, the resume should be as strong and impressive as the letter and arranged to
highlight the most important qualifications. The resume must list the facts in an orderly
way.

Remember to:-
 Include in the resume all background information you think the reader should
have about you.
 A resume rarely use sentences
 The general type of resume fits a number of companies and jobs. The
personalized type fits one company and one job
 The general resume can be sent to several different companies
 The wordings of the personalized resume are specifically selected to fit the one
case. Because it fits one case, it is probably more effective. The arrangements of
resumes differ widely but the following procedure generally describes how most
are written.
 Logically arrange information on employment (dates, places, firms,
duties). Information on education (institution, dates, degrees, major field),
personal details (memberships, interests, achievements, but not religion,
race, sex), special information derived from other information on
references (optional).
 Construct a heading, for the entire resume and sub headings for the parts
 Include other vital information, such as career goals, and address (current
and permanent)

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  Arrange the data for best eye appeal making it balanced and not crowded.

1. Selecting the Background Facts

Begin by reviewing the background facts you have assembled. Select the
facts that will help the reader evaluate you. You should include all the
information covered in the accompanying letter, for this is the most
important information. In addition, you should include significant
supporting details not covered in the accompanying letter to avoid
cluttering it.

2. Arranging the Facts into Groups

Organize the facts into logical groups such as experience, education,
personal qualities, and references. Many arrangements are possible after
you have selected the relevant facts to include. The most conventional is
the four-part grouping:-
 Experience
 Education
 Personal qualities
 References

In some instances, other organization plans may be effective. One possibility is

organization by job requirements, for example:-
 Personality
 Industriousness
 Intelligence

Another possibility is organization on a time basis – perhaps from the most recent to the
earliest. Any plan that favourably presents and clearly communicates the information is
all right.

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 You can also derive groups from the four conventional parts. One currently popular
arrangement is to list major work accomplishments under “Achievements”. Another
is to summarize major abilities to do the work under “qualifications”.

These arrangements are used mainly by people with strong work records. One
advantage of using them is that they emphasize accomplishments and abilities that
would be difficult to bring out elsewhere.
3. Working the Headings
The next thing to do is to write headings for the information groups. Topic headings
are popular for the general resume. By far the most commonly used form is the topic
heading, which identifies the subject covered in a word or two. For example,
education, experience, objective, and references are topic headings for the subject
divisions of a resume. A typical topic heading covering the entire resume could look
like the one below:

“Resume of Maloba Wilbeforce Okemwa or Personal Resume of Maloba

Wilberforce Okemwa”

Some authorities favour the Talking Headings, which are more interesting and effective.
Talking Headings use additional words so as to draw favourable attention to the items
covered.

Similarly, you could use talking headings for the information areas of the resume.
Instead of references, you could write “Administrators”, instead of Education, you
could write, “Specialized Training in Accounting”.

You should be able to develop good talking headings based on your background facts.

Activity 18.1
1. Distinguish between the general resume and the personalized
resume. When would each be most appropriate?
2. You have just completed your university studies and the
government has announced a number of vacancies for fresh
graduates. Now you must search for a job on your own so you

215
 find the best job for which you believe you are qualified in the
digger classified section in the newspaper advertisements. Write
an application letter and a resume that will present your
qualifications for this job.

4. Presenting the information

The information you present under each heading will depend on your good judgment.
You should list the facts under the headings that are important. The information
should be enough to permit the reader to judge you. At a minimum for job
experience, include dates, places, firms, and duties. You should also identify all work
that was not full time. In describing a job, you write:-

1999 – 2000: Office manager for Cussons groups of Companies, supervising a

staff of 65.

Derive achievements and qualifications from background. For education, include

institutions, dates, degrees, and areas of study. Remember your education is
likely to be your strongest selling point for any job after college. You will
probably need to cover it in some detail.

For legal reasons, some personal information on races, religion, sex, should
probably not be listed. Personal information that is generally appropriate includes
all items that tell about your personal qualities. Information on your organization
membership, civic involvement and social activities is evidence of experience and
interest in working with people. Hobbies and athletic participation tell of your
balance of interest. Such information can be quite useful to some employers,
especially when personal qualities are important to the work involved.

In listing references, select those that cover your background. How many and
what kinds of references to include will depend on your background. Include
references related to the work you seek. If you base your application heavily on
your education, or your personal qualities, or both, you should include references

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 who can vouch for these areas – such as professors, clergy, community leaders
and the likes.

Include accurate mailing addresses and job titles for your references. Complete
addresses are important because the reader is likely to write to the references. Also
useful are telephone numbers. Job titles are helpful because they show what the
referees are able to tell about you.

5. Including Other Vital Information

Although not a category of background facts, a statement of your career goals is
appropriate on the resume. A statement of career goals is a good beginning for a
resume.

The applicants’ address is essential. In some cases, a permanent address and a

temporary address are necessary. If you are a student, for example, your current
address is likely to be temporary and thus may not be valid by the time an employer
responds to your application. The address usually appears at the top of the page,
directly below the main heading. The address could also be placed at the end of the
resume.

6. Writing The Contents

As the resume is a listing of information, you should write without personal pronoun
such as I, we, you. You should also write all equal level headings and the parts under
each heading in the same grammatical form. For example, if one major heading in
the resume is a noun phrase, all the other major headings should be noun phrases. It
is also important to use the same grammatical form for all equal-level headings and
for the parts listed under each heading.

7. Making the Form Attractive

The attractiveness of your resume will say as much about you as the words. It is
therefore very important to make the resume attractive. The appearance of the
information that the reader sees plays a part in forming his or her judgment. A

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 sloppy, poorly designed presentation may even ruin your chances of getting the job.
Try and give your resume and application letter an attractive physical arrangement.

Design it as a printer would. Use balance and space for eye appeal. Here are some
suggestions on form:-
i. Margins look better if well spaced – probably 1½ inches of space on the left and
right margins
ii. List your items by rows – column appears best if items are short
iii. Avoid long and narrow columns of data with large sections of wasted space on
either side.

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LETTER OF APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AND RESUME

Box 30654-00100,
Nairobi-Kenya

January 16, 2006

Mr. Lwesya Tobico

Technical Group Coordinator
Kenya Power and Lighting Company
P.O.Box 2000, 00100
Nairobi.

At the suggestion of Mr. S. Fieldman, Instrumentation supervisor, Rural Access project, I

am writing to apply for a position in the Instrumentation and control group at the
Olkaria geothermal project. My work experience in both the instrumentation and start up
group should be of value to the project, as should my Engineering experience at Sondu
Miriu Hydro-electric power generating project in automatic control and power plant
system. My credentials include:

Employment as an Engineering aide with the Detroit International Company at

the Enrico Fermi Nuclear power station. While there, I independently researched
in-service inspection problems of certain ASME class II welds, reporting to the
production department lead superintendent. I also worked on the initial rough
draft of the in-service lubrication manual for the plant (Ref. R.J Kojowi,
Technical group supervisor)

Employment as a student engineer with Daniels International Corporation at the

Enrico II nuclear power plant. I researched material for input into the component
control system, checking data for authenticity and inputting the data to update the
system (Ref. T.R Birch, Lead superintendent)

I expect to receive my Masters in Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from

Colorado State University by May 2006, and my future goals include a desire to advance
in the area of technical management. I am very interested in discussing my credentials
with you at your convenience. If this is possible, I can be reached at 254-2-2714313
during working hours and on 0722-758449 in the evenings.

Sincerely,

Kotiwa John Bogo

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 PERSONAL DATA RESUME

Katiwa John Bogo

P.O.Box 30654, Nairobi-00100
Kenya.

Career Plans and Objectives

I am seeking employment in the consumer power Industry, especially in the area of

Instrumentation and control of power systems. I feel that my experience and education
will enable me to contribute to such projects now: later I plan to advance into
management.

Qualifications and Experience

Summer 2005- Engineering aide student with Detroit Edison Company at Henrico
Fermi –(1) researched potential in the in-service weld inspection
program and (2) worked on the plant lubrication manual,
documenting equipment and specified procedures

Summer 2004- Student Engineer with Daniels International Corporation at

Henrico Fermi II Nuclear power station. While there, I worked on
a component control system for the Instrumentation and control
group. This involved monitoring all sources of information and
doing in-plant inspections to keep the system updated.

College 2000-2003- Employed by Colorado State University, Fort Collins, during all
terms in college. I worked at the school at the college public Health
as a coder one year and at the Bursley Hall Cafeteria for the three
years I was in college. This employment paid for 25% of my college
costs.

Academic Experience

Education: Bachelors degree in Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,

Colorado State University.
Masters in Engineering Science, Expected in May 2006.
Emphasis on Instrumentation and control of power system
equipment.

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Societies Kenyan Society of Mechanical Engineers, student member

References

References and transcript will be supplied upon request

Illustration of Thoroughness and Good Arrangement in a Resume

CYRUS C. SILVESTERS QUALIFICATIONS FOR LABOUR RELATIONS

WORK ADDRESS TELEPHONE

3177 NORTH HAWTHORNE BOULEVARD (914) 967-3117 (H)

OLYMPIA, NY, 2407 (914) 938-4449

Experience as a part of labor

1986 – 1990: Equipment repair worker, Davidson Electric Company, Olympic,

NY, (part time

1984 – 1986: Driver, Wayland Trucking Company, New York, NY (Was a

member of local 714, International Brotherhood of Teamsters,
Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America)

Training for Labor Relations Work

1986 – 1990: Olympia University: Bachelor of Business Administration degree

with major in Labor relations, overall grade-point average of 3.7
(4.0 basis), 3.0 in major field

Personal Qualities

Interests: Tennis, fishing, reading, fogging

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Memberships: Delta Sigma PI (professional); sigma Iota Epsilons (honorary)

Served as treasurer and president; First Methodist Church Olympia, serving on board of
stewards; league of Olympia, served as registration leader.

Referees

1. Mr. Jane Rojas, Service Manager

Davidson electric Company, 7114 East 71st Street

Olympia NY, - 12509 (Tel) 518-342-1171

2. Professor Hellen K. Robbins

Department of Management

Olympia University

Olympia, NY, 12507

Telephone (518) 292 – 6673

18.7. Summary

Resumes and letters of application are essential types of writing for

College students and for anyone changing jobs. This lecture has
explained the process of producing an effective resume and application
letter. A first step in good job search procedure is to build a network of
contacts consisting of friends, professors, and business people whom
you get to know and who may help you find jobs.

Next, analyze yourself in terms of educating, personal qualities, work

experienced and special qualifications with a view to finding out what
work you are able to do. Based on this self analysis, select the career
that is right for you.

You are likely to write application letters and resumes in your efforts to
find a job. You need to prepare them like sales mailings. First, you
study your product (you), then you study your prospect (the employer)
from the information you gain, you construct the resume and application
letter. You can develop a general type that fits a number of companies
and jobs, or the personalized types which fits one company and one job.

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 Learn to prepare your resume in a visually attractive manner to include
job experiences, (dates, places, firms, duties) and education (dates,
degrees, field of study). You must also learn how to

Include necessary personal details but do not use personal pronouns (I,
we, and you). Ensure you make the comparable parts grammatically
parallel. You may need to write other letters about the job, such as an
acceptance letter or a job refusal letter. Letters of acceptance should be
written in direct order. You write a job refusal letter in the indirect
order, just as you would write the ordinary refusal letter.

Activity 18.2

1. Distinguish between the general resume and the personalized

resume. When would each be most appropriate?

2. The most popular arrangement of resume information is the four-

part grouping, education, experience, personal details, and
references. Using the above, develop your own comprehensive
resume.

3. Describe the application letter and resume you would write:-

a) Immediately after graduation
b) 5 years later

18.8.References
1. Salemi N. A; Business Communication and Report Writing
Simplified, Salemi Publishers, Nairobi, 1997.

2. Lesikar V. Raymond; Basic Business Communication (5th Edition),

Irwin Homewood Publisshers, Boston, USA 1990.

3. Huckin N.T and Leslie A. Olsen; Technical Writing and

Professional Communication for non-Native Speakers of English;
MacGraw Hill Publishers, Newyork- USA, 1991.

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 LECTURE NINETEEN
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Objectives
19.3. The Nature Memorandums (Memos)
19.4. The Structure of Memos and Short Reports
19.5. Formatting of Memos and Short Reports
19.6. Similarity of Principles in Memorandums and Letters
19.7. Summary

19.1. Introduction
In this lecture, you will learn how to communicate internally using memo, circulars,
reminders, and follow up communication within a given set. These internal types of
communication are shorter types and are preferred means of conveying technical and
professional communication. They are considered very important for success on the job
and within the organization or institution.

Much of the work going on in organizations/institutions involves communicating with

colleagues and work mates. Oral communication serves your needs most of the times,
the bulk of your communicating is with people near you or easily reached by telephone.
But sometimes you must communicate within the institution/organization in writing. In
inter-organizational communication, instead of writing a letter, which may look too
formal, you would probably write a memorandum, which is really an in-house letter.

Messages of memorandum are much like those of letters except that memorandum
messages have a different physical arrangement and tend to be more informal. We shall
begin by discussing memorandums.

19.2. Objectives
Upon completing this lecture, you should be able to compose all the

224
 different forms of internal communication that are used within
organizations. Specifically, you should be able to:-
1. Describe the primary differences between memoranda and letters
written for similar situations
2. Write clear and effective memoranda, circulars for routine
inquiries, routine responses, policies, and directives and indirect
messages.
3. Explain the need for and compose memoranda to file
4. Demonstrate mastery of appropriate styles of writing circulars and
memos by applying them in real life experiences

19.3. The Nature of Memoranda (Memos)

We shall begin the discussion by describing memos. The memos or short informal report
is a one to four page document, usually single spaced and usually written to someone
within the writers’ own company or organization. It may note the existence of a problem,
propose some course of action, describe a procedure, or report the results of a test or
investigation. The memos may take the form of a letter or a short informal report.

The “term” informal here does not mean sloppy or casual or carelessly done; an informal
report should be as carefully written, neatly as possible – thoughtfully written, neatly
typed or work-processed, and thoroughly proof read for errors. The term informal also
refers to the format in which the report is presented.

Introductory Situation

Memoranda
To introduce yourself to memorandums, go back to your hypothetical position with
Pinnacle. Much of your work involves communicating with fellow employees. Of course,
oral communication serves your needs most of the time, the bulk of your communication
is with people near you or easily reached by telephone. But sometimes you must
communicate within the organization in writing, especially if the person you want to
reach is on another office or if you want a permanent record of your communication.

225
Writing the formal letters discussed in the proceeding lecture hardly seems appropriate in
inter-company communication, instead of writing a letter, you should probably write a
memorandum, which is really an in-house letter. As you will see, the messages of
memorandum are much like those of letters except that memorandum messages have a
different physical arrangement and tend to be more informal. How to write memoranda is
the subject of this lecture

19.4. The Structure of Memos and Short Reports

Memo, short informal reports, and progress reports all share the basic features of reports.
They are all read by a variety of audiences – by technical experts in the field as well as by
managers and other non-experts. Thus a memo should be accessible to different types of
readers and meet their reading habits. As part of their accessibility, memos and short
reports have a foreword (the statement of the problem) and the summary.

Most large companies have stationery printed specially for memorandum. Typically the
work Memo appears at the top in large heavy type. Other companies use titles such as
inter-office correspondence, office memo, or inter office communication. Below this are
the typical sub-headings common to memos.
 Date:
 From:
 Subject heading:

This sample arrangement can be displayed as below:-

Maxwell Petroleum. Inc

TO: DATE

FROM:

SUBJECT

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Some large companies have additional headings, for example, department, plant,
territory, store numbers, etc.

Memoranda are usually initialed by the writer rather than signed. Since in some
companies, memoranda are often addressed to more than one reader, the heading “TO”
may be followed by enough space to list a number of names.
Not all companies have printed memos stationery. Memorandum headings can be typed
out and the message included.

Memoranda can also be in the form of informal notes from one worker to the other. Such
memos are typically one or two line messages of simple requests and responses that
require little or no formality. For example, one worker might send another worker a
simple hand written memo asking for certain file information:

“Please send me copies of all invoices from the E.Y. Potts Company for the past 12
months”

The second workers’ response is also likely to be a brief informal message: “Here are
the invoices you requested”

Memoranda can also be formal messages to top administrators; for example, a

department supervisor who sends a memorandum to the Board of Directors, the company
president of such would obviously give the message more than the minimal degree of
formality. Perhaps he/she would write in the third person rather than first person
normally used in memos.
A typical memo falls somewhere between these extremes. It is written in a personal style
and in conversational language.

19.5. Formatting of Memos and Short Reports

The memo and the short informal technical report begin with a heading segment, which
typically gives the following information

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To: Name of reader, Job title
 Readers’ department
 Readers’ organization
 Address of readers’ company or organization (sometimes included)

From: Name of writer, job title

 Writers’ department
 Writers’ company or organization
 Address of Writers Company or organization (sometimes included)

Subject: title of report (subject may be replaced by Re or RE, for regarding

Date: Date

Dist: Distribution list of other people receiving the memo/report (this is outlined
if there is no distribution list)

Encl: Enclosures, other documents which are included with the report (omitted
if there are no enclosures)

Ref: References; list of particularly important background documents (omitted

if there are no such documents)

If a memo is written on letterhead and if any of the above heading information appears in
the letterhead, then it is not repeated. All letterhead information is in bold, the heading
segment must be easy to read and be visual.

Section headings should be as informative as possible as they announce the information

to be included.

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Illustration of Heading Segment for Short Informal Report/Memo

To: Mr. John Nicol

Chief Optoelectronics Engineer
Optoelectronics Department

From: Khalif Nafti

Assistant Optoelectronics Engineer
Optoelectronics Department

Date: October 30, 2005

Subject: Liquid crystal displays: Analysis of failure and recommendation for

solution

Dist: Mr. Edward Jones, President

Foreward:

Summary:

Discussion:

19.6.Similarity of Principles in Memoranda and Letters

Memorandum writing principles are the same as those for comparable letters because the
situations are similar. Some memos ask for or give routine information, thus the direct
order is appropriate. Others require the communication of negative message, thus the
indirect order is appropriate.

Although memos and letters are much alike, they differ in two major ways:
1) The memos are written primarily in the direct order. As we have noted, the
indirect order is appropriate when the reader will not receive the message
favorably.

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 2) Memos are usually direct because there is usually no reason for then to be
otherwise. Most memos are mainly exchanges of information among people who
are interested in the information only for work purposes. The information
pertains to the organizations’ operations and is of little or no personal interest to
the participants.

3) In memos, unlike letters, the effect of words is of little concern. By this we mean
that they need not be heavily concerned about negative and positive language or
about displaying your-viewpoint. Instead of emphasizing the effect of words on
readers, the memo writer’s primary concern is for clear, straightforward
communication – getting the message across quickly and easily. Even so, memos
should be courteous meaning that they should not be made harsh or cold. You
should use the same courtesy in memos that all friendly people use when working
together. The point of the proceeding comments is that friendly people working
together normally want and expect straightforward communication.

Below are illustrations of various types of memos:-

Type 1: Direct Memos – Routine Inquiries

The problem chosen concerns a request for information about meeting site. The direct
inquiry memorandum generally follows the pattern of the direct-inquiry letter.

The memo begins directly with the objectives, the necessary explanations follows. Then
the specific information needed is listed in logical order. The memorandum ends with
courteous words. The above is illustrated below.

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Date: April 1, 2005

To: Roland Strunk

From: Becky Pharr

Subject: Request for cost information concerning meeting at Timber Creak Lodge

As discussed in my office today, you will please get the necessary cost information for
conducting our annual sales meetings at timber Creek Lodge, Colorado. Our meeting
will begin on the morning of Monday, June 5, so we should arrange to arrive on the 4 th.
We will leave after a brief morning session on the 9th.

Specifically, I want the following information:-

1) Travel costs for 43 participants including Air travel to Denvor, ground travel
between the Airport and the lodge (I have attached a list with names and full
contact of all participants)

2) Room and board costs for the five days period, including cost with and without
dinner at the lodge. We are considering the possibility of allowing participants to
purchase dinners at nearby restaurants

3) Costs for recreational facilities at the lodge

4) Costs for meeting rooms and equipment (projectors, computers and such)

We will need a room large enough to accommodate our 43 participants

If you need additional information, please call me. I would like to have the information
by April 15, if possible.

Type 2: Direct memos – Routine Response

The direct response memo should be direct, orderly and clearly worded as illustrated
below:-

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Date: April 4, 2005

To: Becky Pharr

From: Roland Strunk

Subject: Cost information for sales meeting at Timber Creek Lodge

As you requested in your April 1, memo, here are the cost details for conducting our
annual sales meeting at Timber Creek Lodge, June 4 - 9th.

Round trip air transportation for our 43 representatives from their assignment stations to
Denevor would be US $ 9,312 (see schedule attached).

Ground transportation from Denevor to Timber Creek Lodge could be by chartered bus
or by rented car. The white transport company would provide round-trip bus
transportation to and from the Lodge @ $ 25 per person or a total of 1,075. The
Automobile rental would be approximately $ 235 per vehicle depending on the exact
mileage. At one vehicle for every four people, we would need 11 auto-mobiles, for a
total cost of $ 2,585. The advantage of automobile rental is that the participants would
have transportation throughout the week, although the lodge provides limited shuttle
services to Timber Creek village.

Private room accommodation at the lodge including breakfast and lunch would be $ 125
per day per person. The total for 43 attendees would be $ 26, 825. Dinners at the lodge
would be included for additional $ 12 per person per day. The lodge reports that its
meeting rooms would readily accommodate 43. The meeting room and equipment will
be provided without additional charges.

The lodge recreational facilities (golf, tennis, swimming) would also be available without
additional charge, except for equipment rentals.

I have enclosed the lodges’ current descriptive brochure, which should answer other
questions you may have. If you need additional information in making your decision, I’d
be pleased to get it for you.
Initials

Direct Memoranda – Policy Memorandums and Directives

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Internal written messages giving work rules, procedures, instructions, and the like are
common in most large organizations. Called Policies and Directives these messages from
administrators to subordinates may be written as memoranda.

Company policies and directives are more formally written than most internal
communication because of their official nature. Typically, they follow the direct order.
They should be somewhat formal, direct, clearly written and well organized.

They begin with a topic (thesis) statement that repeats the subject-line information and
includes the additional information needed to identify the specific situation. The
remainder of the message consists of a logical, orderly arrangement of rules and
procedures covered. To make them stand out, the rules and procedures are often
numbered or arranged in outline form.

Because policy members and directives must be understood by everyone in the

organization, you must be concerned with adaptation and clarity of expression. Thus,
you should follow the clear writing instructions and revise to ensure correctness.

Below is an illustration of a policy memorandum formulating a plan for reducing energy

use.

Note that the memo begins directly with words that tell the nature of the message. The
points covered are numbered for emphasis and for easy understanding by employees at
all levels. The memo ends with the president’s personal appeal for compliance.

233
Illustration

Date: June 10, 2005

To: All employees

From: Terry Boedeker, President

Subject: Energy conservation

To help us through the current energy crisis, the following conservation measures are
effective immediately:

1) Thermostats will be set to maintain temperatures of 78 degrees Fahrenheit

throughout air condition season
2) Air conditioners will be shut off in all buildings at 4.00 p.m Monday through
Friday.
3) Air conditioners will be started as late as possible each morning so as to have the
buildings at appropriate temperatures within 30 minutes after the start of the
workday.
4) Lighting levels will be reduced to approximately 50 t0 60 foot candles in all work
areas. Corridor lighting will be reduced to 5 – 10 food candles.
5) Outside lighting levels will be reduced as much as possible without compromising
safety and security.

In addition, will each of you help in conversation areas under your control? Specifically,
I ask that you do the following:-

1) Turn off lights not required in performing work

2) Keep windows closed when the cooling system is operating
3) Turn off all window air conditioner units at the end of each work day and when
rooms are not in use.

I am confident that these measures will reduce our energy use significantly. I will
appreciate your efforts in follow them.

TB

You need to note how the above memo begins in a direct manner and immediately
identify the situation. The clear writing and numbering creates good readability. The
separate listing of other measures gives order and enhances understanding.
Closing personal remarks add effectiveness.

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Indirect (Bad-news) Memorandum
Although rare, memorandums refusing personal requests are occasionally written. Such
personal ban news messages require tactful handling. This means treating them
indirectly – paving the way for direct news with explanation, justification, or such. It
means watching words carefully, trying to emphasize the positive over the negative. It
means writing from the readers’ point of view with consideration for his or her best
interests.

To illustrate this memorandum type is the case of an administrator who must deny a
subordinate request for a change in vacation dates. The memo handles the situation
indirectly and with concern for the readers’ feelings.

Date: May 24, 2005

To: Jerry Cunningham

From: Albert A. Morton

Subject: Your Request for Change in Vacation Dates July 8 – 22

Your reasons for requesting a change in vacation dates are quite reasonable and certainly
deserve consideration.

In evaluating them, I must consider more than meant. I must also follow the rules
carefully specified in the contract agreement between the company and the union.

These rules specify that no more than 10 percent of any departments’ workers can be on
vacation at one time. This means a maximum of two for your department. The contract
also specifies that seniority will determine vacation priorities.

In addition to you, both Rita Gann (18 years) and Beatrice Plachy (14 years) have
requested vacations for July 8 – 21. because both of them have more service than your
10 years, the best I can do for you is give you the July 22 – August 4 period. These dates
would permit you to do at least some of the things outlined in your request.

Please consider these dates, and then let me know whether they are satisfactory. I assure
you that I will do whatever I am permitted to help you get your vacation planning.
A.A.M.

235
It is important for you to note how the explanation is positively worded, clear and
convincing. The refusal follows in the positive form of an alternative vocation dates. The
ending is positive and friendly.

Intext Question
1. Explain the logic of using negative words in memoranda that you
would not use in letters carrying similar messages.

2. Discuss and justify the wide range of formatting used in memoranda

3. Memoranda differ much more than letters in their physical make up.
Explain and discuss.

4. Discuss the special need for clear writing and adaptation in policy
memoranda and directives.

19.7. Summary
Memos, short informal reports and progress reports all share the basic
features of letters and reports. They are all read by a variety of audiences
such as technical experts as well as by managers and other non-experts.
Thus, the memo or short report should be accessible to all types of readers.
As part of their accessibility, they share structural features such as having a
foreword (the statement of the problem) and summary (the main results and
other important information managers would wish to know).

Memos and short reports are organized in such a way that they move from
general to particular, that is they order generalizations or claims before data
and support. Memos and short reports are organized so that a busy
managerial reader ( a reader who wants to read no more words than are
absolutely necessary) can stop after the foreword and the summary. The
discussion or details section gives the extra information needed by
technically involved readers.

Often memos and short reports are written on company letterheads; special
company stationery that has the company name- and usually the address
and phone number-already printed on it. The letterhead information is
always in bold.

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 LECTURE TWENTY
WRITING REPORTS
Lecture Outline
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Objectives
20.3 Definition Report
20.4 Types of Reports
20.5 The Importance of Reports
20.6 Characteristics of a Good Report
20.7 Determining the Report Process
Determining the Factors of the Problem
Gathering the Information needed
Applying the Research Techniques needed for the Problem
Organizing the Report Information
Organizing the Outlay
20.8.1. Other ways of Organizing Outline of Reports
Conclusion and Recommendations/Rationale
Paginating the Formal Report and Including End materials
20.10.1. End Materials
Summary
References

20.1. Introduction
Written communication cited for their particular importance and frequency include
project proposals, progress reports, technical descriptions, memos and short reports.
Technical reports maybe aimed at specialist as well as none specialists. They are usually
read by a variety of audiences – managers, sales people, technicians, financial analysts,
specialists in the field, and sometimes even the general public. Thus, the beginning of a
report must orient audiences of varying backgrounds, experiences, values, and
assumptions. This orientation is done by beginning the report with a foreword and
summary. The foreword and the summary are placed at the beginning of the report or

237
memo to be accessible to the busy managerial or non-specialist reader. There are five
different parts in this lecture. The objectives of the lecture are presented below. Refer to
them before beginning to read these lectures to enable you remain focused on the issues

20.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:-
1. Arrange the content of a report correctly.
2. Identify different types and characteristics of good reports and
their uses.
3. Express information clearly and interestingly in written reports.
4. Prepare well-organized, comprehensive and objective reports.

20.3. Definition of Reports

In this introduction, we are going to define a report. A report is an orderly presentation
of facts about specific business, activity or program. If you look at authorities in report
writing like C. A.A Brown – He defines a report as “communication from someone who
has some information to someone who wants to use that information”.

The British Association for Commercial and Industrial Education once defined a report
as” A document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying
information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas, and sometimes, making
recommendations”.
You will observe that such reports when purposefully written provide the business
executive with a basis for decision and action.

Intext Question
Make a list of reports you have written or read. Keep the list for further
analysis
 Progress of work reports
 Examination reports
 Recommendation reports
 Appraisal reports

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 References
Raymond V. Lesikar (1990) describes a business report as an orderly and
objective communication of factual information that serves a business
purpose.

 Thousands of reports, long or short, formal or informal, crucial or ordinary,

special or routine are written every day e.g., a foreman at the end of the day
reports to the manager, the progress of the work carried out during his
supervision.
 The managing director of a company would like to get a report on the efficacy of
the measures introduced by him to promote efficiency among his staff.
 Written reports make permanent records. Thus those who need the information
contained in these reports can view and study them at their own convenience.
 Written reports can also be routed to a number of readers with a minimum effort
unquestionable, such reports are convenient and efficient means of transmitting
information.
 Report writing is common in virtually all operations of academic life

The next session will describe types of reports and how they are structured as a vital form
of business communication.

The Foreword and Summary

It is important to understand what the foreword does and how it helps the reader.
The foreword orients the reader and shows that the report addresses a problem or issue
important to the reader.. The summary provides a compact statement of results,
conclusions, and recommendations to help managerial readers make decisions: It tells
what the writer discovered, the implications of the discovery, and the recommendation
for action based on the writers special knowledge- all in terms that the non-specialist
finds useful. (Other terms for the foreword and summary include introduction and
summary, Executive Summary, Executive overview, and synopsis) By placing the
foreword and the summary first in a technical report, the writer allows the managerial
reader to stop after the first page or so and still have all necessary information. To make
sure that all readers understand the problem set up at the beginning, the writer must write
239
to the least knowledgeable reader this is the none-specialist, especially the manager
unfamiliar with and uninterested in the details of a particular project.

The Foreword or Introduction

The foreword orients the reader by identifying and defining the problem being addressed
in the report. The purposes of the foreword are:
1. To catch the audience’s attention: to place the report in a context so that
the reader can see how it fits in with other communication and with
overall goals, to tell why the project was done and why it is important, to
define what problem is being addressed.

2. To quickly orient the audience to the subject of the report: to define what
was done, to indicate missing information the report provides (These are
often covered by an explanation of the writers technical assignment).

3. To define the purpose of the report, to predict what kinds of information

the report will present: for example, to tell the reader whether this is a
proposal to solve the problem identified, an evaluation of someone else’s
solution, a case study of a solution proposed earlier, or some other kind of
information ( This information will restate the information on the subject
line)
Illustration of a Foreword.

Foreword 1
During my visit to your nursery on September 15 th, last year you and I observed the high
mortality of the 2-year-old red pine seedlings in bed 19. As you stated, this would lead to
a production shortage in 2007. You requested my help in finding the cause of this
problem so that it could be corrected in the near future. The purpose of this report is (i) to
explain that parasitic nematodes are the probable cause of the high seedling mortality and
(ii) to recommend a solution to the problem.
Foreword 2
Slowdowns and necessary repairs have occurred in the incineration area of the sewage
treatment plant, costing $ 2 million last year alone. These problems may have occurred
because of inaccurate data on the amount of sludge cake being produced and delivered

240
to individual furnaces. Thus, Dennis More, the chief production engineer, requested that I
investigate our data on the sludge cake production and suggest improvements in
monitoring it if those are necessary. The purpose of this report is to document the
unreliability of our present monitoring technique and to suggest a better one.

Adopted frm Huckin N.T and Olsen Leslie: Technical Writing and Professional
Communication; MaCgrowHill, Boston, 1991.

Note that the problem set up in the foreword drives the structure of the rest of the report.
An effective Foreword, then, really provides the driving force and overall organizational
structures of the report.

The Report Summary

The summary follows the foreword at the beginning of a report. It operates with the
foreword to directly address the busy managerial or non-expert reader. The purposes of
the summary are:
1. To quickly present the main results of the project
2. To quickly present the important recommendations and implications of the
project

The summary provides a compact statement of results, conclusions, and

recommendations to help managerial readers make decisions: it tells what the writer
discovered, the implications of the discovered, the implications of the discovery, and the

Recommendations for action based on the writer’s special knowledge-all in terms that the
non-technical manager will find useful.
Below are some of the general questions that managerial reader will have about a project
or study.
1. What is the projects importance to the company? Its scope of application?
2. What will it cost?
3. Are any problems projected because of it?
4. Are there any implications to the company from it? Any more work to be done?
Any resources required or involved? ( People, facilities, equipment)

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 5. Are there any important dates or deadlines associated with it.
6. Are there any important recommendations for future action that the writer could
make on the basis of his or her special expertise?

20.4. Types of Reports

In looking at types of reports, we are going to begin from the general to specific types of
reports.

Intext Question
Identify any general or specific types of reports you have come across?

a) Oral and Written Reports

A report may be either oral, or written. An oral report is simple and easy to present. It
may consist of the communication of an impression or an observation. Sometimes it may
be quite useful. But a written report is always preferred. It enjoys several advantages
over the oral one.
i. An oral report can be denied at any time, but a written report is a permanent
record. The reporter cannot deny what he/she has written or reported.
ii. An oral report tends to be vague. It may be encumbered by the presence of
irrelevant facts while some significant ones may have been overlooked. In a
written report, the writer tries to be accurate and precise.
iii. A written report can change hands without any danger of distortion during
transmission
iv. A written report can be referred to again and again.

Activity 20.1
Think about any other advantages and disadvantages of written and oral
reports. List them down then add them to your notes on written and oral
reports.

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 b) Informative and Interpretative Reports
If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is
informative. On the other hand, if it analyses the facts, draws conclusions and
makes recommendations, it may be described as analytical or interpretative.

An informative report on the communicative competence of first year students

will simply record the ability of first years to communicate. But an interpretative
report will analyze why and to what extent the students are able to use certain
skills and not the others in their academic communication.

c) On the other hand, reports can be classified in three different ways:-

I. On the basis of legal formalities to be compiled with e.g., (a) formal reports –
such as study reports, (b) informal reports.
II. On the basis of the number of reasons entrusted with the drafting of a
report.
III. Finally, on the basis of the nature of a report e.g.,
a) Periodic or routine reports e.g., directors’ report to AGM
b) Progress reports – e.g., government reports on specific
issues
c) Examination reports
d) Statistical reports – e.g. reports submitted by the costing
department of a company.

Activity 20.2
Analyze the different types of reports discussed above. Identify the key
details to be covered in each type. Compare your details with what is in the
handout on writing reports. Use both the information you have generated
and from the handouts to complete your notes.

20.5.The Importance of Reports

Having looked at the different types of reports, we shall turn to the importance of reports.
This section highlights both the importance of reports and how they are used in different
contexts.

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A report is a basic management tool used in decision-making; hence it is extremely
important. In a one-man business, the functions of reporting and decision-making are
combined in one man – the proprietor. The proprietor is expected to know his business
inside out and is capable of making on-the-spot decisions. Such a person may not need
any reports. But in large-scale organizations engaged in manifold activities variously
entrusted to a larger number of employees, reports are just indispensable.

The top executive cannot keep a personal watch over all the activities, so they have to
depend on reports coming from the heads of the various departments for functioning of
the organization.

20.6. Characteristics of a Good Report

A good report has certain qualities that must be brought out during the report writing.
These characteristics are described below:-
1. Precision
This also means unified;
In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it.
His/her investigation, analysis and recommendations are directed by his/her
central purpose. Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report and
makes it a valuable document.

2. Accuracy of Facts
The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report. Since reports
invariably lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous
decisions.

3. Relevance
The facts presented in a report should not only be accurate but relevant as well.
While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the
central purpose. It is equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped
inclusion. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing; exclusion of relevant facts
renders it incomplete and likely to mislead.

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4. Reader orientation
A good report is always reader-oriented. While drafting a report, it is necessary to
keep in mind the person (s) who is (are) going to read it. A report meant for the
layman will be different from another meant for technical experts.

5. Objectivity of Recommendations
Recommendations made at the end of the report must be impartial and objective.
They should come as logical conclusion to investigation and analysis. They must
not reveal any self-interest on the part of the writer.

6. Simple and Unambiguous Language

A good report is written in a simple and unambiguous language. It is a kind of
scientific document of practical utility; hence it should be free from various forms
of poetic embellishment like figures of speech.

7. Clarity
Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. The report writer must proceed
systematically. He/she should make his/her purpose clear, define his/her sources,
state his/her findings and finally make necessary recommendations. The report
should be divided into short paragraphs giving them headings, and insert other
suitable sign posts to achieve greater clarity.

8. Brevity
A good report should be brief. Brevity is not difficult to define in absolute terms
nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost
of clarity nor should it be at the cost of completeness. Sometimes the problem
being investigated is of such importance that it calls for a detailed discussion of
facts. Such a discussion should not be evaded. Include everything significant and
yet be brief.

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9. Grammatical Accuracy
Grammatical accuracy is of fundamental importance in the report. It is one of the
basic requisites of a good report. Faulty construction of sentences makes the
meaning obscure and ambiguous.

In conclusion, we can say a report should be characterized by clear expression and neat
display. It should be in the nature of an argument which is well reasoned and arranged
accurately in all details, and should lead logically to the conclusions and
recommendations set forth.

20.7 Determining the Report Process

The work on a report begins with a problem. Your work on a report logically begins with
a need. Perhaps the need is for information only or it could be for information, analysis,
and recommendation.
After you have been assigned the task of writing a report, your first task should be to get
your problem clearly in mind. Elementary and basic as this task may appear, all too often
it is done haphazardly and a report fails to reach its goals.

To get your problem clearly in mind, you should begin by gathering all the information
you need to understand the problem. Gathering the right information involves many
things, depending on the problem.

It may mean gathering materials from company files, talking the problem over with
experts, and searching through printed sources and discussing the problem with those
who authorized the report.

Then you need to express the problem clearly, preferably in writing. Writing the problem
statement is good practice for several reasons:-
 A written statement is preserved permanently
 A written statement can be reviewed, approved and evaluated by people whose
input may be valuable

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  Most important of all, putting the problem in writing forces you to think it
through
The problem statement normally takes one of the three forms:
i. Infinitive phrase
ii. Question
iii. Declarative statement

Illustration

Infinitive phrase: To determine the causes of increased university drop out.

Question: What are the causes of increased university drop out?

Declarative Statement: Number of students completing university is dropping and

the university management wants to know why.

20.7.1 Determining the Factors of the Problem

After stating the problem, you determine what needs to be done to solve it. Specifically,
you look for factors of the problem. That is, you determine what subject areas you must
look into to solve the problem.

Problem factors may be of three types. First, they may be sub-topics of the overall topic
about which the report is concerned. Second, they may be hypotheses that must be
tested, third, problems that involved comparisons, they may be the bases on which the
comparisons are made.

Use of sub-topics in information reports

The mental effort in this case is concerned simply with determining which subdivision of
the overall topic should be covered. After thoroughly evaluating the possibilities, you
might come up with something like this analysis.

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Problem statement: To review operations of company X from January 1 st through June
30th 2005
Factors
 Production
 Sales and promotions
 Financial status
 Plant and equipment
 Product development
 Personal

Hypotheses for problems solution

Some problems concern why something bad is happening and perhaps now to correct it.
In analyzing problems of this kind, you should seek explanations or solutions. Such
explanations or solutions are termed as hypotheses. Once formulated, hypotheses are
tested, and their applicability to the problem is either proved or disapproved.

Illustration

Problem statement: Why have sales declined at Uchumi supermarket chain stores?

Hypotheses:

1) Activities of the competition have caused the decline

2) Changes in the economy at individual household levels have caused the decline
3) Merchandising deficiencies have caused the decline
4) Changes in the environment (population shifts, political actions etc have caused
the decline.

Bases of comparison in evaluating reports

When the problem concerns evaluating something, either singularly or in comparison

with other things, you should look for the bases for the evaluation; that is, you should
248
determine what characteristics you will evaluate. In some cases the procedure may
include the criteria to be used in evaluating them. Illustrating this technique is the
problem of a company that seeks to determine which of three cities would be best for a
new factory.

Illustration

Problem statement: To determine whether the New East African Portland Cement
Factory should be built in Kisumu, Kericho, or Nakuru.

Factors
 Availability of labour
 Abundance of raw materials
 Tax structure
 Transportation facility
 Nearness to markets
 Power supply
 Community attitude

20.7.2. Gathering the information needed

The next step is to conduct the research needed to get relevant materials and information
for the report. A personal investigation may be appropriate. Experiments or surveys are
sometimes needed. Sometimes library research is used to get information from printed
sources.

20.7.3. Apply the Research Techniques Needed for the Problem

Next you apply the information gathered to the problem. If your goal is merely to present
information, you need only organize by sub-topics of the subject. If you must analyze the
information and apply it to the problem, you must interpret the information as it affects
the problem.

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Applying and interpreting your findings is obviously a mental process. Use your best
judgment to interpret your findings. You seek the most logical meanings of your
information.

It is good practice to question all your interpretations, to look at all sides. In other words,
look for flaws in your reasoning. The end product of such mental activity should be
logical interpretation.

20.7.4. Organizing the report information

After you know what your findings men, you are ready to construct the outline. This is
done by organizing the information for presentation. This includes the procedure of
constructing the outline.
An outline is the plan for the writing.

Task that follows

Outlines should be written to guide the writing process. They serve as tables of contents
and captions. In long reports, the outline forms the basis for the table of contents.

Below is a conventional symbol system you could apply in marking the levels of an
outline.

I. First level caption

A. Second level caption
I. Third level caption
(a) Fourth level caption
(1) Fifth level caption
(a) Sixth level caption

In general, you should build the outline around the objective of the report and the
information you have gathered to meet that objective. In outlining, you shift facts and
ideas about until the most workable order becomes clear. That order is the one that
presents the findings in the clearest and most meaningful way.

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Some critical steps in outlining
 Remember to include an introduction and a conclusion
 You may view your outline as a process of division. First, you divide the whole
into parts
 Then you divide the parts into sub-parts

20.8. Organizing the Outline

Step 1
Divide the whole outline into comparable parts. This gives the roman numbered parts of
the outline e.g.
I. Introduction
II. Body
III. Arguments
IV. Conclusion
Step 2
Divide each roman section. This gives the A, B, C ….. Headings e.g.,
I. A
B
C
II. A
B
C

Step 3
Then divide each A, B, C heading. This gives the 1, 2, 3 …..
I. A 1
2
B1
2 Continue sub-dividing as long as it is practical to do so
3
C1
2
3
4

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20.8.1. Other ways of Organizing Outline of Reports
Reports can also be organized in three simple ways. These are:-
1) Letter form
2) Memorandum form
3) Letter-text combination form
4) Schematic form

I. Letter Form
This format is used in short informal reports. The arrangement followed in business
letters is adopted with the following main parts.
 Heading or the title
 Date
 Address and salutation
 The body
 Complementary close and signature

The letter form is usually written by the first person – I, or we

The body of the letter can be further divided into introduction, findings, and
recommendations

II. Memorandum Form

Adopting memorandum form is a simpler way of presenting the reports because it does
not subscribe to the formalities of the letterform. In memorandum format;-
1) The title of the subject is stated on top
2) This is followed by the name of the writer and the date
3) The actual text is set below the preliminaries
4) The conclusion/recommendation.
As in the letterform, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with headings
and sub-headings.

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III. Letter-Text Combination Form
Long reports are written in the letter-text combination form. A complete report in this
form includes three major parts;-
1) Introductory materials
2) The body of the report
3) Agenda

Below is a sample outline of letter-text combination format: study the parts and apply it
on a report you are writing.

I. Introductory parts
A. Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
B. Title page
C. Contents page
D. Summary (abstract)

II. Body of the report

A. Definition of the problem (terms of reference)
B. Method of procedure
C. Findings
D. Conclusions and recommendations
III. Agenda
A. Bibliography
B. Appendix.

20.9. Conclusion and Recommendations/Rationale

Writers may place these two sections at the beginning of the report or at the end. Choose
the beginning if you want to give readers the main points first and if you want to give
them a perspective from which to read the data in the report. Choose the end if you want
to emphasize the logical flow of the report, leading up to the conclusion. In many formal
reports, you will only present conclusions because you will not make a recommendation.

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The conclusion section emphasizes the reports most significant data and ideas. You must
base all conclusions on material presented in the body.

Below are some guidelines of how to make conclusions:

 Relate each conclusion to specific data
 Use concise, numbered conclusions
 Keep commentary brief
 Add inclusive page numbers to indicate where to find the discussion of the
conclusion

Conclusion Illustrated
This investigation has led to the following conclusions. (The page numbers in parenthesis
indicate where supporting discussion may be found)

1. The Tenant 527 is more versatile in handling a variety of detergents for the
cleaning of oils, solvents, and cooling fluids. The Tenant is also capable of
handling small litter, glass and metal chips (6-7)
2. The Tenant capable of handling multi-shift use. Investigation of chartered
maintenance history shows that the Tenant will operate in more hostile
environments for a longer time between interruptions for maintenance (7-8)
3. The Fujico 200 costs $11,000, including special features and training (10-11)
4. The Tenant is able to supply all the special features that KLH desires. The Fujico
cannot supply the essential squeegee wand attachment

Recommendations
If the conclusion is clear, the main recommendation is obvious. The main
recommendation usually fulfills the purpose of the report, but do not hesitate to make
further recommendations. Not all formal reports make a recommendation.

Below are some guidelines on how to develop good recommendations:

 Number each recommendation
 Make the solution to the problem the first recommendation.
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  If the rationale section is brief, add it to the appropriate recommendation. If it is
long, make it a separate section.

2.10. Paginating the Formal Report and Including End Materials

It is important to note that each page of the report must bear a page number. This means
that you have to assign a number to each page in the report, regardless of whether the
number actually appears on the page. There are many page numbering systems. The key
is to be consistent within your own report. Follow these guidelines below:
 Place the numbers on the upper right-hand corner or bottom middle of the page,
with no punctuation
 Use headers and footers (phrases in the top and bottom margins) to identify the
topics of a page or section.
 Consider the title page as page one (1). Do not number the title page. Most word
processing systems allow you to delete the number from the title page.
 Give each full-page table or figure a page number.
 In very long reports, use small roman numerals (i, ii, iii) pages before the text of
the discussion.
 Paging the appendix is discussed in “End Materials below”

20.10.1.End Materials.
The end material (References and appendixes) is placed after the body of the report. The
list of references is entered in alphabetical order with the Authors surname coming first.
Appendixes contain information of subordinate, supplementary, or highly technical
nature that you do not want to place in the body of the report.
Below are some guidelines on how to place appendixes:
 Refer to each appendix item at the appropriate place in the body of the report.
 Number illustrations in the appendix in the sequence begun in the body of the
report.
 For short reports, continue page numbers in sequence from the last page of body
of report.

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 For long reports, use a separate paginating system. Because the appendixes are
often identified as an Appendix A , Appendix B, and so on, number the page
starting with the appropriate letter: A-1, A-2, B-1, B-2 etc.

20.11. Summary
A formal report must have an Introduction which orients the reader to the
report’s organization and content. It must also have a report summary that
spells out the key issues recommendations and rationale for the report.
The introduction normally includes the purpose, scope, procedure,
problem and background.
A formal report must also be well formatted by developing an outline to
ensure logic of presentation and main ideas to be included. Conclusions
and recommendations must reflect the data or outcome presented in the
body of the report and must be carefully numbered and be easy to track in
the body. The conclusion section should emphasize the significant data
and ideas in the report and must be based on material presented in the
body. The report must also be clearly paginated, with end materials such
as appendixes and References captured and correctly placed n the text.

20.12. References
1. Salemi N. A; Business Communication and Report Writing
Simplified, Salemi Publishers, Nairobi, 1997.

2. Lesikar V. Raymond; Basic Business Communication (5th Edition),

Irwin Homewood Publisshers, Boston, USA 1990.

3. Huckin N.T and Leslie A. Olsen; Technical Writing and Professional

Communication for non Native Speakers of English; MacGraw Hill
Publishers, Newyork- USA, 1991.

Activity 20.3
1. Create a formal report that fulfills a recommendation, feasibility,
proposal, or research assignment you have been given in other
subjects you are studying.
2. Write a problem/background statement for an audience that is
near to you and knowledgeable about the project. Then re-write
the statement for an audience that is distance and not
knowledgeable
3. Write the conclusions/recommendations and rational for each
section

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 LECTURE TWENTY-ONE
WRITING PROPOSALS
Lecture Outline
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Objectives
21.3. Overview of Proposal Writing
21.4. The Organization of Formal Proposals
21.4.1. Parts of a Long Proposal
21.5. Editing the Proposal
21.6. Getting the Proposal Approved for Submission
21.7. Summary

21.1. Introduction
A proposal is a document that requests support – usually money and other resources– for
work that a proposer intends to do. It could be written to a funding agency and propose
to conduct a scientific research project; it could be written to the managers of a company
and propose to solve a problem within the company; it could be written to a customer and
propose to provide services or products which the customer needs.

In any event, the person or group receiving the proposal has its own interests and goals,
which may or may not coincide with those of the proposer.

It is important that every time you write a proposal, it is able to convince the person who
receives it – the potential funder that the proposed activity will be a good investment.
The activity should be worthy of support and will be able to advance the funders goals,
produce high quality results, and do all this better than other activities competing for the
same funds.

The proposal must also make these arguments to busy readers trying to divide too few
resources among too many applicants.

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 Important Questions the Proposer Must Be Prepared to Answer

1) What does the proposer want to do?

2) How much will it cost?
3) Is the problem important and relevant to the funders interest?
4) Will the proposed activity solve or reduce the problem?
5) Can the proposed activity be done? Will it duplicate other work?
6) Is the method or approach appropriate, clearly defined, and well thought
out?
7) Can the results be adequately evaluated?
8) Is the proposer qualified to do the activity or work? Better qualified than
others?
9) Will the results of the activity be available to others?
10) Are the proposed schedules of activity and budget reasonable?

Answers to these questions will depend on the particular guidelines, interests, and
standards of particular funders. To be sure that your proposal meets the expectations of a
given funder, you should examine whatever literature your can find on the funders goals
or interests.

This is important especially if you are submitting an unsolicited proposal to a private

company. You might first want to consult published reviews of the company and the
company’s annual report to see if your proposed project fits into its agenda of activities
and then talk to someone at the company about the company’s needs.

In the case of solicited proposals, the best initial source of information is usually the
Request For Proposals (RFP) given out by the funder. The RFPs are carefully worded to
aid the proposer submit a correct and comprehensive proposal to. It is very important to
read the RFP carefully before deciding whether to send a proposal to that particular
agency.

If your proposed project and the RFP do not match up, you should look for another
agency to submit your proposal. It is better to make sure you are on the right track early
other than risk losing months of time on a proposal that has no chance of winning.
Therefore, at some point early in the proposal process, it is a good idea to call the

258
relevant company manager or the project officer and make sure that your project truly fits
the agency’s interests.
In many situations, the manager or project officer plays a major role in the decision
making process such as:-
 Screening submissions
 Selecting reviewers
 Presenting cases to the final selection committee

Consulting with the person in charge of the project allows you to make sure that he/she
understands the nature of your project.

21.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:-
1. Describe different types of proposals
2. Demonstrate and justify structural outline of a proposal
3. Write out examples and illustrations of different section of a
proposal
4. Identify and list possible donors/funders for your proposal
5. Develop comprehensive and illustrative budgets for specific
proposals.

Process check
Think about any other type of proposal you have seen or heard about.
List them and share the list with fellow students
Come up with a comprehensive list of proposal types and share with your colleagues.

21.3. Overview to Proposal Writing

In this overview, we are going to look at some important information on proposals that
will help us in understanding what a proposal is and some of the key considerations when
writing a proposal. In defining a proposal, it is important to note that a proposal requests
support-usually money- for work that the person proposing wants to undertake. It could

259
also be written to a funding agency requesting for support to undertake a specific project
such as a scientific research, an implementation project in support of a specific need in
the community, or it could be written to managers of a company to propose to solve a
problem in the company. At other times proposals are written to customers to propose to
provide services or products which the customer needs. In any event the person or group
receiving the proposal has its own interests and goals, which may or may not coincide
with those of the proposer. Thus; the proposal must convince the person who is going to
receive it- the potential funder-that the proposed activity will be a good investment; that
is, that the proposed activity is worthy of support and will advance the funders goals,
produce high-quality results and do this better than any other activities competing for the
same funds.

In this lecture, you are going to learn how to write proposals. Basically, the lecture deals
mainly with the organization of formal proposal both short and long proposals, how to
edit and get the proposal approved for submission.

21.4.The Organization of a Formal Proposal

The general outline of a proposal should be adopted and modified according to the needs
of the readers and the demands of the topic proposed. For instance, long or complicated
proposals might well contain all the sections in a fully developed form with headings
corresponding to the sections and sub-sections of the outline. In contrast, shorter or
simpler proposals might contain only some of the sections of a longer proposal or may
sometimes combine different sections into one.

A short proposal being short and simple may not have a table of content or separate
sections for background or list of references.

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21.4.1. Parts of a long proposal

 Title page
 Abstract
 Table of contents
 Introduction
o Problem addressed
o Purpose or objectives of proposed activity
o Significance of proposed activity
 Background
o Description of proposed activity
o Plan for accomplishing the objective
o Plan for evaluating results
o Schedule for project completion
 Institutional resources and commitments
 List of references (about 6 (six) or more)
 Personnel
o Explanation of proposed staffing
o Relevant experience of major personnel
 Budget
o Budget in tabular form
o Justification of budget items
 Appendix
o Letters of endorsement
o Promises of participation, subcontractor proposals
o Biographical data sheets (vita sheets)
o Reprints of relevant articles, reports, background
documents

a) Title Page
This page provides information and basic like:-
To;
From”
Subject:
Date:

261
It constitutes information found in headings and title pages for other types of technical
communication; it also includes financial information relevant to proposals alone.
Specific formats for title pages vary from one proposal to another. Most title pages
include the following:
1. The title of the proposal (as short and informative as possible)
2. A reference number for the proposal
3. The name of the potential funder (the recipient of the proposal)
4. Name and address of the proposers/or principal investigator in the case of a
research proposal
5. The proposed starting date and duration of the project
6. The total funds requested
7. The proposal’s date of submission
8. The signatures of the project director and responsible administrators in the
proposers institution or company

Below is an illustration/sample of a title page

262
 PROPOSAL FOR EXTENTION OF NASA GRANT NSG 1306

MODULES AND TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF AIRCRAFT COMPUTING SYSTMES

IN REPLY REFER TO
D.R.D.A 81-2096-P1

Submitted to:

THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION,

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTRE
HAMPTON, VIRGINIA 23365

Submitted by:
SYSTEMS ENGENEERING LABORATORY

DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTING ENGENEERING

THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
MAIN CAMPUS – 30197 – 00100 NAIROBI

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGAGOR: PROF J. O DUNGO

PROPOSED STARTING DATES: 1ST JULY 2006
PROPOSED DURATION 1 YEAR

AMOUNT REQUESTED: US $ 39,932

263
b) Abstract
The abstract of a proposal is short, often 200 words or less. In a short proposal
addressed to someone within the writers’ institution, the abstract may be located
on title page. In a long proposal, the abstract will usually occupy a page by itself
after the title page.

The abstract is a critical part of the proposal because it provides a short overview
and summary of the entire proposal; it is the only text in the proposal seen by
some readers.

The abstract should briefly define the problem and its importance, the objectives
of the project; it normally does not define the cost.

The abstract also serves as a screening device to give readers an idea of what the
article as a whole is about so that they can decide whether or not they want to read
it. This is an especially important function in cases where the article/proposal is
physically separate from the rest of the documents.

In the research fields, abstracts are published separately in hard copy as

electronically for researchers to scan and determine their relevance to specific
needs. Since looking up an article/proposal can be quite time consuming, a well-
written informative abstract can save valuable time and energy.

Another important function of an abstract is their use as stand-alone texts. After

reading an abstract, a researcher may decide that the subject matter is not
important enough to merit reading the article as a whole but is important enough
to keep in mind for some possible future use. In such a case, the researcher may
store the abstract in his or her files and may even use some of the information it
contains without ever seeing the article as a whole.

264
Third, in cases where the reader does go on to read the article as a whole, a good abstract
provides a helpful preview. This “frames” the article and prepares the reader for the main
points to come.
Finally, abstracts facilitate indexing for ease of library access. By writing a good abstract
for your article, you will improve your chances of having your article properly indexed,
and thus will improve chances of having it read by the right people. The substance of an
abstract should be the heart of the article it describes.

In experimental research articles, for example, abstracts typically describe the

methodology used, the main results, and major conclusions. Occasionally, there is also
an opening background statement or statement of purpose, which might be useful to
specific readers.

Usually an abstract for an experimental research article is informative in the sense that it
emphasizes major findings.

Illustration

Dr. Otieno Bingo, Nyairo Owen and Njenga Karume (1990)

Use of plaster casts in the management of diabetic neuropathic foot ulcers. Diabetes
care 9 (2):149 – 152

Neuropathic foot ulcerations is a major medical and economic problem among diabetic
patients, and the traditional treatment involves bed rest, with complete freedom from
want bearing. We have investigated the use of walking plaster casts in the management
of seven diabetic patients with long-standing, chronic foot ulcers. Although all ulcers
headed in median time of 6 weeks, this therapy was not without side effects.

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We conclude that casting is a useful therapy for neuropathic ulcers, although several
clinic visits, including cast removal and foot inspection, are necessary to avoid potential
side effects caused by the casting of insensitive feet.

Key words:
Surgical casts, foot disease, diabetic neurophatic, skin ulcer therapy

Notice how the abstract captures four distinct “Moves”

1. First sentence provides some background information
2. The second gives a brief idea of the specific topic and methodology
3. The third reports major findings
4. The fourth draws some conclusions

These different functions are clearly marked by the use of verb tenses.

The first and fourth sentences use present tense to make broad statements that are not
restricted to particular time frame

The second sentence uses the present-perfect tense to connect the opening background
statement to the particular study being reported on.

The third sentence uses present tense to describe specific results that occurred at a
specific time.

Activity 21.1
Find several journal articles in your field. For each:-
a) Cover the abstract
b) Read the article
c) Write an informative abstract for it
d) Uncover the original abstract and compare it with yours

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The abstract must be accurate information of the actual paper to be written
2. Table of contents
The table of contents lists the sections and subsections of the proposal and their
page numbers
3. Introduction
The introduction of the proposal, like the foreward of the technical report, orients a
non specialist to the subject and purpose of the document. It explains why the
project is important and should provide the following pieces of information in
terms appropriate for a managerial audience.
i. The problem being addressed (perhaps defining what it isn’t as well as what it
is)
ii.The purpose or objectives of the proposed project
iii.The significance of the proposed project.

If the project is simple, the introduction may also include some relevant details,
which would belong in the background section of a more complicated proposal.

If you are responding to a request for proposals (RFP), your approach to the
definition of the problem and the purpose or objectives of your proposal should
reflect the thrust of the RFP.

4. Background
The background section is a very important section in a proposal. The
background allows you to fill in important technical details inappropriate for the
non-specialist reader of the abstract and introduction.

The background provides a place to discuss the history of the problem, to survey
previous work on your topic (a survey leading up, of course to some problems or
gaps in the project in the previous work) and to place this project in the particular
context of previous work you may have done on the problem.

If the proposal extends earlier work you have done, be sure to show why your
previous work needs to be continued and how the proposed work differs from it.

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Do not spend a great deal of time justifying your efforts and budgets, concentrate
on the new work proposed. Funders do not pay to re-invent the wheel, so if there
is previous work done on the same field you need to demonstrate that you are
aware of it and understand its importance and limitations.

This can be done in a section called literature review or survey, where you
demonstrate your confidence by carefully selecting and evaluating the works you
cite. The background and, especially the literature review help you to fit your
work into the larger scheme of things, how it builds on previous work and goes
beyond it, how it is original and contributes to knowledge in the field.

5. Description of Proposed Activity

The description of proposed activity is the most important section of the whole
proposal. It describes what you want to do and how you intend to do it.

1) The plan for reaching the stated objectives

2) The plan for evaluating the results
3) The schedule for completing the work

This section will be evaluated carefully by the proposal reviewers who are
knowledgeable in the field. Their job is to eliminate all proposals whose
objectives or plans are inappropriate or unclear or not well thought out. Thus,
your job as a writer is to convince them that you are doing what needs to be done
and are doing it in the most careful and thorough way.

When preparing the description section, you should assume that you are writing
for a critical, hostile audience. You should provide all the details a
knowledgeable critic would need to assess your argument:
1) The assumptions on which your work is based
2) The approach or hypothesis you are following
3) The specific problem (s) or question (s) you are trying to address
4) The particular work and evaluation methods you are using
5) The appropriateness of your method (s) for the problem proposed.

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 In addition to proving these items, you may need to justify them, especially if
there might be any questions or controversy about them. It is particularly
important to demonstrate the appropriateness of your method for solving the
problem posed.

You also need to convince the critical reader that your proposed schedule is
appropriate and realistic. You don’t want to propose to do too much, given your
time and resources; or it may seem that you have a poor assessment of the project
and don’t really know what you are doing.

If you demonstrate that you have really thought through everything carefully, you
are halfway to success.

6. Institutional Resources and Commitments

If you are proposing a project that requires special equipment, one important
factor in your ability to do the proposed work is having access to that equipment.
Having this equipment already available at your institution is a big plus for your
proposal, since a funder could pay you much less to do the same work than it
would have to pay someone who had to buy the equipment.

Thus, it is to your advantage to list relevant institutional resources. Further,

funding agencies often feel that proposers work harder (and institutions mentor
them more carefully) if the proposer’s institution has resources invested in the
project.

7. List of References
If your references are so extensive that they may interrupt the text if you insert
them as you go along, you may want to set them up in a separate section. You
may also want to do this if the previous work is especially important and you
want your reviewers to see that you have cited all the “right” items. As a rule of
thumb, if you have more than six references, you might consider a List of
References, placed before the sections on personnel and budget. The references
may be listed consecutively as they appear in the text, with the author’s name in

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normal order (first name or initials first), or they may be listed alphabetically with
the author’s last name first.

9. Personnel
The purpose of the personnel section is to explain who will be doing what and to
demonstrate that the people listed for a proposed activity are competent to do it.
This is normally accomplished in two subsections, one outlining the
responsibilities of the individual participants and the structure for coordinating
their activities and one providing short biographical sheets (usually no more than
two pages) for the main participants. The biographical sheets should focus on
only the relevant qualifications of the participants

10. Budget
Like the personnel section, the budget section has two purposes: to explain what
things will cost and to justify and explain individual expenditures, especially
when these are not obvious. The budget is usually summarized in a table (a
simple proposal may have a much simpler budget). The typical headings in a
budget are personnel, equipment, supplies, travel, computer time (if relevant), and
indirect costs.

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Check list for proposal budget items

Salaries and Wages 4) Questionnaire forms

5) Duplicating materials
1) Academic 6) Animals
personnel 7) Animal food
2) Research 8) Laboratory supplies
assistants 9) Glassware
3) Stipends (training 10) Chemicals
grants only) 11) Electronic supplies
4) Consultants 12) Report materials and supplies
5) Interviews
6) Computer Travel
programs
7) Tabulators 1) Administrative
8) Secretaries 2) Field work
9) Clerk/typist 3) Professional meetings
10) Editorial 4) Travel for consultation
assistants 5) Consultant’s travel
11) Technicians 6) Subsistence
12) Subjects 7) Automobile rental
13) Hourly personnel 8) Aircraft rental
14) Staff benefits 9) Ship rental
15) Salary increases
in proposals that
Services
extend into a new
year 1) Computer use
16) Vocation accrual
2) Duplication services (reports,
and/or use
etc)
Equipment
3) Publication cost
1) Fixed equipment
2) Movable 4) Photographic services
equipment
5) Service contracts
3) Office equipment
4) Equipment rental 6) Special services (surveys, etc)
5) Equipment
installation
Other
Materials and supplies
1) Space rental
1) Office supplies 2) Alterations and renovations
2) Communications
3) Test materials

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3) Purchase of
periodicals and
books
4) Patient
reimbursement
5) Tuition and fees
(training grants)
6) Hospitalization
7) Page chares
8) Subscriptions

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Appendices
Appendices are reserved for necessary supporting documents which, because of their
length or type, would disrupt the “flow of the proposal”. The most common Appendix
items are biography sheets, letters of endorsement for the proposal, and promises of
participation from important participants. Other materials may be pertinent to a given
proposal, but the proposal writer should consider carefully any item included in the
appendix and eliminate anything not really needed to support the importance of the topic,
the credentials of the proposer, or the ability of the proposers to carry out their work.

21.5. Editing the Proposal

Once you have written a proposal, it is wise to analyze it for weak sports, areas needing
more proof or detail. In editing the proposal the following suggestions should be taken
into consideration:
1. Be realistic; don’t promise global changes from your efforts
2. When you call a funder, be organized don’t use the funder to motivate
you to organize your thoughts
3. Keep the funder informed of your work; do not let the next time the funder
sees you be when you are asking for second-year funding
4. Requests for continued funding are just as important as the original
request; do not merely submit a letter asking for more money

As a guide, you might refer to the analysis presented in Olsen and Leslie 1991; P.
324. on the problems detected in 605 proposals rejected by the National Institute of
Health
or
Proposal Writer Guide, Division of Research Development and Administration,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1975. From E.M.Allen, Science, November 25,
1960, pp. 1532-1534.

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21.6. Getting the Proposal Approved for Submission
Different organizations have different procedures for handling proposals. Often
proposals to someone within the writer’s organization can be submitted without much red
tape. You may need to get your supervisor’s approval before sending out a proposal
asking that you work for another department or unit, but a verbal OK may be all the
approval you need. (Note, however, that you should at least inform your supervisor if
you propose to work on a project outside your unit).

In contrast to the simple procedures for approving internal proposals, the procedures for
approving proposals to funding agencies outside the proposer's organization may be quite
involved. Organizations often insist on formally reviewing and approving any proposal
to external funders. This allows the organization to monitor commitments made to
outside organizations: it also allows the organization to eliminate undesirable
competition among members of its own staff who may be competing with one another for
funding. The problem with this organizational review and approval – from her
proposer’s point of view – is that it takes extra time and the proposer must plan that time
into the writing process.

In addition, the proposer may need to get special forms filled out and signed by
administrative officers in the proposer’s organization. For instance, proposals seeking
external funds have to fill out and let the four administrative officers sign the form. Just
finding these people can take some time, and theoretically each person should have some
time to review the contents of the proposal he or she is approving.

If the proposer’s organization requires such approval, the proposer should be aware of
this fact long before the proposal’s deadline and should plan to allow sufficient time for
each reviewer.

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Activity 21.2
Write a short formal or informal proposal for some project you want to do.
Be sure to include all relevant information, and be prepared to justify the
information you have included or excluded.

21.7. Summary
A proposal allows a writer to argue convincingly to someone who does
not know them that the stated problem is important, that their proposed
activity will alleviate the problem, and that they are qualified to do the
proposed work. Sometimes, however, proposers need to write very short,
almost routine proposals meant for people in their unit. Such proposals
might concern something small to be done, small problem to be
addressed, some small piece of equipment to be purchased. In such a
case, the proposal needs to be written in a compressed format. A proposal
must be formatted appropriately and edited for good effect before
submission to the funders.
Proposals convince the reader to allow the writer to solve a problem or
perform some activity. External proposals are used to convince the funder
to fund a specific project or activity. Internal proposals report on assigned
problems or propose unsolicited solutions for problems. Usually such
proposals attempt to answer four questions: what is the problem/, what is
the solution? should we implement the solution (justification)? Can we
implement the solution? (implementation). Writers of proposals must
consider audience’s knowledge level and authority.

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Activity 21.3
Write a proposal in which you suggest a solution to a problem. Topics for
the assignment could include a problem you have worked on or perhaps
solved at the workplace that has arisen on campus. Explain in details the
problem and the solution by making a proposal to a person in charge of
overseeing issues around that problem.

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 LECTURE TWENTY-TWO
PLANNING OF AN ORAL PRESENTATION
Lecture Outline
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Objectives
22.3. Definition of Planning Oral Presentation
22.4. Determining the General and the Specific Objectives of a Presentation
22.5. Analyzing the audience
22.6. Selecting the Method of Delivery
22.7. Summary

22.1. Introduction
The secret to any successful formal speaking is planning. As a formal speaker or
presenter your delivery will be much more successful if you plan systematically in
advance. In this lecture and in the next one, we will try and define planning in the
context of public speaking and then discuss the seven major steps that are necessary
when planning for an effective presentation. If the seven steps are carefully undertaken as
part of preparing for formal speaking, the speech or the presentation will definitely be
more effective. In this first lecture we will discuss the first three most crucial stages;
determining the objectives, analyzing the audience and selecting the method.

22.2. Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Define planning and familiarize with planning stages such as;
determining the general and the specific objectives, analyzing the
audience and selecting the right method of delivery.
2. Explain the importance of determining the general and the specific
objectives beforehand.
3. Describe the demographic and situational factors that are focused in
audience analysis.
4. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each of the four
different methods of presentation

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22.3. Definition of Planning Oral Presentation
We shall try to answer this question by analyzing the various stages that should be
undertaken by a speaker as part of preparing for an effective oral presentation.

As a presenter, if you want your audience to understand your message, and therefore be
informed or convinced, or even be impressed with your presentation, you should organize
it along specific fundamental stages such as; determining your objectives, , analyzing
your audience, selecting the method, etc. In this context, planning is therefore,
preparing for a presentation/speech in clear distinct stages. It’s selecting and
arranging in an orderly fashion that which is going to be presented and
understanding the context and the receiver of the message.

Dale C. in his text; Influencing People Through Public Speaking notes that a well-
planned speech is 90% delivered. (Dale: 1998) Therefore you will have almost delivered
it successfully if you plan adequately in advance. Planning adequately would specifically
involve: determining the objectives, analyzing the audience, selecting the method,
collecting information, designing visual aids, outlining, preparing an introduction and
closing and practicing. In the following two lectures we are going to analyze and discuss
each of these stages of planning.

22.4.Determining the General and the Specific Objectives of a Presentation.

All formal oral presentations (like all other forms of communication) are meant to elicit
certain actions, which would help accomplish some specific goals. As a speaker you
know the actions you want to elicit from your listeners in order to help you accomplish
some specific goals. For you to get the right responses you should determine these goals
beforehand and you should also make them known and acceptable to the listeners. Your
understanding of the goals will also aid you in selecting the method of delivery in
advance, in collecting the most relevant and up to date information and in
structuring/outlining it.

Normally the objectives are determined at the time of choosing the subject. There’s the
general and the specific purpose. The general objective is usually to inform or to

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persuade. When your objective is to inform, you act as a teacher where the goal is to
communicate information clearly accurately and interestingly. When your general
purpose is to persuade, you act as an advocate: You go beyond giving information to
arguing, in order to convince and persuade the listeners to see your point of view.
Therefore the general objective is the overall aim and the rhetorical pattern/design
adopted.

Once you have understood the general objective (convince or inform.) you determine the
kind of information you need and how you are going to organize it in order to attain that
objective. The reasons for selecting some specific information and for organizing it in a
specific way, is what translates to your specific objectives. These specific objectives can
be determined through self-inquiry questions such as;
- What exactly do I want to get from making this presentation?
- Can I accomplish this with this information organized in this manner,
in the time allocated and the audience am going to talk to?

The answer to these questions that are focused on the central idea would help you
formulate your specific objectives. In other words, the Central idea (the theme of the
presentation, which should run through the entire presentation) should help you
determine your specific objective, which in turn will help you develop a more coherent
speech.

If for example the central theme of your presentation were to highlight income-
generating strategies as a way of overcoming rural poverty in Kenya, then the general
objective would be to inform the audience on how to alleviate poverty. The specific
objectives would be the strategies themselves. For example one of them would be
explaining how to start a small business.

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 Q. Think of some topic you can easily speak on, determine its general and then list its
specific objectives.

To clearly determine the specific objectives is very important because they are the bases
around which the presentation is built. By understanding them you will be able to
determine the depth of the research, the types support material and the structure of the
presentation and even limit your topic; a limited topic is one whose scope is clearly
restricted (precise and unified) it asserts the main theme of the presentation, summarizes
the ideas and suggests your point of view.

22.5.Analyzing the Audience

As part of good speaking you need to have audience centeredness: keeping the audience
foremost in your mind at every stage of speech planning and presentation. You should
know that the aim of any oral presentation is to gain the desired response from listeners,
therefore as a good speaker endeavor to understand your audience psychology by
analyzing their demographic and their situational factors. You need to understand
their psychology because of the egocentrism of people (the tendency to be concerned
above all with their own values, beliefs and well being). Like all people, listeners are
always selective in their listening and their perception. They approach speech with one
question uppermost in mind: “Why is this important to me? (Lucas 123) therefore as a
presenter you need to understand them in order to adapt your speech directly to their
beliefs and interests.

As we have already stated in this section, the best way of understanding your audience is
by carrying out a demographic analysis: identifying and understanding their important
demographic characteristics such as age, gender, religion, group membership, nationality,
ethnicity and race

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 Intext Question
What is the usefulness of understanding these demographic traits

Suggested responses
-It would enable you as a presenter to adopt your presentation to the beliefs and interests of
the audience.
- It would also enable you to determine the group’s level of heterogeneity or homogeneity
and therefore determine the language to use and the angle from which to present.
- By understanding the audience characteristic you would also understand their motivational
drive and therefore know how to make the message not only relevant but also more
acceptable.

Other than analyzing their demographic factors, you also need to conduct a situational
audience analysis: identifying factors of the audience unique to that particular speaking
situation: such as their size, their attitude and disposition towards you, the topic and the
occasion. For classroom presentations you can analyze the audience through observation
and conversation. Out of class presentation would require a formal analysis through
interviewing the conveners or the members of the audience or by circulating a
questionnaire.

Take Note
Once you complete the audience analysis you adapt your speech to suit
them by:
 Putting yourself in their place.
 Trying to hear the speech as they would,
 Anticipating questions and trying to answer them
 Determining their motivational appeals and their needs and structuring
the presentation to meet them
 Observing appropriate standards and decorum and being totally
audience centered.

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 Activity 22.1
Explain the factors you need to analyze in order to understand your
audience psychology. Discuss how your understanding would help you in
the context of presenting.

22.6. Selecting the Method of Delivery

The method you are going to use for delivery should be determined before hand. Public
speakers use four methods for delivering a speech: extemporaneous, manuscript,
memorization, and impromptu. Each has strengths and weaknesses. The choice of one
method over another is determined by the; occasion, objectives, time available, and the
audience. In this section we are going to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of
each of these methods.

 Reading from a manuscript

This is when the speech is delivered word for word from some prepared
manuscript. The method is mostly used when timing is important and when
extremely careful wording and concise exposition are required, such as in
presidential messages and scientific and technical reports.

If you are in a situation where you must use this method:

-Practice the speech to ensure that it sounds natural and conversational during delivery. -
-Also mark places of emphasis and let it come through in your reading.
-Make references to the audience in the body of the manuscript.
-You should also establish some eye contact when you are reading.

Reading from a manuscript can be formal and monotonous. The method itself makes it
hard for the speaker to establish eye contact or react to audience feedback. Otherwise the
advantages of this method include; - You can determine your main points in advance and
select the most appropriate words. Therefore when delivering you will not fumble
around for words or forget your key points.

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 Reciting From Memory
This is the method where the speech is written and committed to memory. It is suited for
award presentations and formal parties. It has the following advantages:
- The speaker is free to move and establish eye contact with the audience.
- It usually results in a smooth effortless presentation since it is crammed.

However, it can be slitted and inflexible especially if the speaker hurries through
without adjusting to audience feedback.
- It may also alienate the audience and hinder their feedback.
- It is very dangerous in cases of memory lapse.

When using this method try and memorize the order of the ideas and the words, to avoid
memory lapse. Your memorization should also be thorough so that you will be able to
concentrate on communicating the message to the audience and not trying to remember.

 Speaking Impromptu
An impromptu presentation with little or no immediate preparation. In fact many of the
speeches you give in life are impromptu. You can be called upon suddenly to say
something in the course of a class discussion, business meeting or committee report. You
will have to speak on the spur of the moment without lengthy preparations.

You therefore have to:

- Rely on knowledge and speaking ability.
- Focus on a single idea and then carefully relate all details to it
- Be brief, stick to the subject and avoid any digressions
- Retain your composure, control nervousness because the audience knows that
you were not prepared.
- When you are responding to a previous speaker, try to present your speech in
your simple steps: first, state the point you are answering. Second, state the
point you wish to make. Third, support your point with appropriate evidence.
Fourth, summarize your point. This four-step method will help you organize
your thoughts quickly and clearly.

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 - If time allows, sketch a quick outline of your remarks before you rise to speak.
This will keep you from rambling. As with other kinds of public speaking, the
better way to become a better impromptu speaker is to practice. The more you
practice impromptu speeches, the comfortable you will be when you have to
think on your feet.
Its advantages are that it is useful during emergencies and it is spontaneous and
natural. Nevertheless it doesn’t involve careful analysis of he subject. It may also lack
organization style and supporting material.

 Speaking Extemporaneously
When using the extemporaneous method speakers use a prepared outline of key
points and the subordinate points. The exact wording is chosen at the moment of
delivery. When using this method:
- Prepare a strong introduction and a strong closing and practice aloud to
rehearse key points and phrases.
- Research thoroughly to understand your main points, however make the
outline brief.

The extemporaneous method has several advantageous:

- It gives more precise control over thought and language than impromptu.
- It offers greater spontaneity and directness than does speaking from memory.
- It encourages the conversational quality audiences’ look for in speech
delivery. This is because it allows a speaker to establish eye contact, respond
to audience feedback to gesture naturally and to concentrate on talking.

However, it has a few disadvantages such as; it demands thorough preparation,

mastery of language and experience. When used carelessly it may look like an
impromptu speech.

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 An Example Of An Extemporaneous Speech outline

Communicating in stepfamilies.
Introduction: No small child ever dreamed of being a step parent.
- Surprises for many
- ⅓ of families today
- The most common family type in America
Purpose: Describe the steps of blending families, the problems and the advantages.

I. Steps
A. Try it out
1. Hopes
a. Solve old problems
b. Greater brothers or sisters

2. Differences
a. Way people fight
b. Habits and ways to do things
B. Confronting Problems
1. Admitting then
2. Negotiating time together, discipline

C. Resolving problems
1. Trusting each other
2. Being open

II Problems and Advantages

A. Problems
1. Holidays
a. Mixing traditions
b. Tied schedules

2. Family events
a. Whom to invite
b. Names and introductions

B. Advantages
1. New sisters or brothers
2. Part of big family

Conclusion - Pretty soon everyone will be a step relative

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 22.7.Summary
You have now learnt that once you know your topic and general
objective you determine your specific objectives, which should indicate
precisely what your presentation seeks to achieve. For example, “to
inform my audience of the three sources of law in Kenya.” The specific
purposes can be work from the central theme of the presentation and
with certain guiding questions such as which information do I need and
what kind of organization do I need to attain my objectives? The central
idea, which is the main theme that runs through out the presentation,
should help shape your specific objectives, which should be the base of
the presentation.

You have also learnt that good presenters are audience centered i.e. you
have to know something about your audience psychology through a
demographic and situational analysis. The analysis will help you adapt
the presentation to the audience needs and beliefs.

Lastly in this lecture, we also learnt that there are four basic methods of
delivering: reading from a memorized text, impromptu and
extemporaneous which is the method you probably will use for class for
your formal speech in and out of class. In extemporaneous you will
have only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline. You will use it with
your own expressions.

Activity 22.2
Answer the following questions

1. How will the central idea help you in formulating your specific
objectives?

2. What are some of the tips for formulating your specific purpose?

3. Why must a presenter be audience centered?

4. What implications does egocentrism of audiences hold for you as a

286
 speaker?
5. Differentiate between demographic analysis and situational
analysis
6. Discuss the ways you can adapt your speech to your audience
before the presentation.
7. Explain the advantages of using the extemporaneous method of
presentation.

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 LECTURE TWENTY THREE
PLANNING AN ORAL PRESENTATION II
Lecture Outline
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Objectives
23.3. Collecting Information and Gathering Visual Aids
23.3.1. Collecting Information
23.3.2. Gathering Visual Aids
23.4. Outlining the Presentation of Phrasing the Main Points
23.4.1. Outlining the Presentation
23.4.2. Phrasing of the Main Points
23.5. Preparing Strategic Introduction and Strategic Closing
23.5.1. Preparing a Suitable Introduction
23.5.2. Closing
23.6. Rehearsing the Presentation

23.1. Introduction
This lecture is a continuation of the previous one in that in it we will also analyze the
stages of planning a presentation. In Lecture One, we looked at the three initial stages
but now we are going to look at the last four, which are equally important, they are;

Collecting information and gathering visual aids, outlining, preparing a strategic

introduction and a powerful closing, and practicing.

23.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. Specify sources of collecting information
2. Familiarize with various visual aids used in presentations.
3. Justify structural outlining of oral presentations and phrasing of main
points.
4. Explain and then demonstrate the importance of having a strategic
introduction and closing.
5. Analyzing the specific aspects that are focused on during rehearsal

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23.3. Collecting Information and Gathering Visual Aids
23.3.1. Collecting information

Q Suppose you want to build a house, how would you go about it?

You can consult with those who have already built or you can get instructional books on
building. Anyhow, you will want to gather as much information as possible if you want
your house to be good. In the same way if you want your presentation to be effective you
will gather as much information as possible.

Lucas in his text Public Speaking says gathering material for a speech is like gathering
information for any project (161) therefore you have to consult various sources.

There are many sources from where you can get your information;
(i)Yourself- always start with yourself. If you have experience or knowledge of
the topic you can use yourself as a resource. As an individual you can think
deeply about the opic and then arrange all those thought s that come to your mind
in relation to it (listing or free writing) You can then meditate and ponder over
these ideas to help keep them fresh, original and creative. Famous speakers like
Jesus and Lincoln used this method of collecting and refining information.

(ii) Family and friends- you can also make your topic a topic of conversation
with family and friends or in a brain storming session you gather ideas from them.

(iii) Research - for presentation enrichment you need to research (collect

information) from print published sources, electronic sources and experts in the
topic. (When researching in the library use library information learnt in this unit
to access the most appropriate texts and to utilize them appropriately.)

The mostly widely used part of the Internet for research purpose is the www; considering
that most information from the web is not reviewed, it’s important to evaluate the
authorship, relevancy, significance, comprehensiveness and the timeliness of the research
materials you find there.

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When researching from the library or the Internet do not lift thoughts directly. Try to
understand and master them and then paraphrase or explain them in your own words. It
will give the ideas quality and persuasive force. The collected information should be
related to real life situations that are easy to talk about. For effective presentation you
should take an angle of the subject, (which is already restricted, unified and precise,) but
collect a lot of information on it. A reservoir of information will give you the necessary
confidence (strengthened mental attitude). In his text Influence People Through Public
Speaking, Carnegie says that:
“For example if you are salesman and you know your product from A to Z…
You will be positively charged, so fortified and strengthened in your own mental
attitude that you will be both irresistible and unconquerable in your selling”
(Page).

23.3.2. Gathering Visual Aids

Collecting information also involves preparing and assembling visual aids.

Intext Question
1. What are visual aids?
2. Which are the most utilized visual aids?

Visual aids are supporting materials, such as graphs, diagrams and tapes. In many
speeches speakers use them to make their points more clearly and to interest the
audience.
Think of any speech you heard and try to remember what visual aids the speakers used.

Preparing Visual Aids

Visual aids should be designed or set out before hand. Their effectiveness and value
should be assessed with the help of these questions:
1. How easy is it to prepare and can it be altered easily?
2. Will it allow me to control the audience attention or will it distract them?
3. How much information can I convey with it?

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Visual aids can ruin a presentation if their value or effectiveness is not assessed properly.
These guidelines will help you prepare visual aids for your presentations.

-Create visual aids that can be seen or heard by all audience members. When some
members cannot see they tune out because they get frustrated
-Make them clear and readable. Don’t draw complicated designs. Use color to
emphasize words
-Be sure your aids are simple to use

-Practice using your visual aid. And check it out before the speech.
Advantages of Visual Aids
Visual aids offer several advantages. The main one is clarity. If you are discussing an
object or demonstrating a technique, a visual aid will make your information more vivid
to your audience.
Another advantage of visual aids is interest. The interest generated by the visual aid is
so strong that they are now used in all areas.
Another advantage is retention. Visual images often stay with us longer than verbal
ones. Visual images tend to last.

In fact when used well, Visual aids can enhance almost every aspect of the speech. One
study showed that an average speaker who uses visual aids will come across as a better
prepared, more credible, and more professionals than a dynamic speaker who does not
use visual aids. According to the same study, they can increase the persuasiveness of a
speech by more than 40%. They can also help combat stage fright as the attention is
shifted to them and not the speaker.

Types of Visual Aids

The most commonly used visual aids are; projections, slides, flipcharts, chalkboard,
handouts, three dimensional objects and computers; visual aids allow both you and your
listeners to remember all the important points. At the planning stage you design them and
assemble them. How to use them appropriately will be discussed in lecture three as part
of exhibiting credibility for part of effective delivery.

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23.4. Outlining the Presentation and Phrasing the Main Points
23.4.1. Outlining the Presentation
Most items for sale these days are organizers. Why this entire quest for organization?
Obviously when the objects you possess are well organized they serve you better. If a
presentation is well organized it will serve you and your listeners better. They will be
able to see the key issues straightforward i.e. it will enhance your credibility and make it
easier for the audience to understand your message.

Intext Question
How many times have you listened to someone who rambled aimlessly
from one idea to another? What were the implications?

Listening to disorganized speech does not only make you lose attention but you learn
absolutely nothing. Listeners always demand coherence from you, i.e. they demand that
there should be progression and unity of ideas in a speech/presentation. To attain this
progression and unity and therefore results would mean outlining the key points and their
support points in a particular way.
Q. What are the characteristics of a good outline?

A good outline for effective speaking is one that:

 Highlights the three basic parts of a speech – introduction, body and conclusion –
and the strategic role of each.
 Is brief but complete and balanced with the key issues clearly highlighted to
enable the audience grasp and remember it.
 The key issues/main points and the support details should be arranged in a
specific pattern speech development.
 Has proper indentation and consistent symbols

An example of good outline is as follows;(example)

Task; making an outline

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23.4.2. Phrasing of the Main Points
Remember the main points tie the message together and most directly convey it. You
should therefore word them carefully and clearly. In other words the main points are the
central features of your speech. Choose them wisely, phrase them precisely and organize
them strategically. To help listeners keep track of them, list each one of them. Be brief
and straightforward on a single idea. They should also have attention provoking phrases
and should appeal directly, to the immediate interests and concerns of the audience e.g.
instead of telling the listeners that “chemical research has helped improve medical
research” say, “Modern chemistry has enabled doctors make you well”. The main points
should have uniform types of sentence structures and similar phraseology to create
symmetry and make them more memorable.

You can organize these points in various ways. The patterning or strategic order should
be determined by the topic, purpose and audience. There are some common outlines you
can use to pattern your presentations. There’s sequential, which can be either
chronological or spatial. While chronological means your speech follows a time pattern,
spatial follows a space or directional pattern. The casual patterning means you organize
your points according to their cause-effect relationship. Topical patterning means you
shape the presentation based on the nature of the subject matter. You can use this pattern
for those speeches that enumerate aspects.

If you want to be more resourceful you can use some special patterns such as e.g.
question – answer; where you skillfully structure your material to address anticipated
questions early in the presentations and answering them in a way that favors your
conclusion.

You should also organize support material in a way that the material is related directly to
the main points it’s supposed to support. Once you have organized the main points and
the supporting points in a clear outline you practice the presentation before delivering it.

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23.5. Preparing a Strategic Introduction and a Strategic Closing
23.5.1. Preparing a Suitable Introduction
First impressions are important. Create a good first impression by introducing well.
Moreover starting well is vital to a speaker’s self-confidence. Introduce well by giving
sufficient background information, stating the purpose and giving any overview and
getting their attention and interest.

It is important that your audience has some background information to appreciate your
presentation. If for example you are addressing a problem, ensure that you explain it
clearly to them and that they also grasp the solution you are trying to propose. Or if you
have taken a stand on a certain controversial issue, ensure that your audience understand
the issue and your position on it. In your introduction, provide sufficient background
knowledge and define all the important terms.

The introduction should also include a clear statement of purpose and an overview of
your topic to help link your introduction to the body of the talk coherently. The other than
linking the introduction to the body, an overview will help the audience sort out your
ideas and therefore focus in what is important. In some types of persuasive presentation,
you may not want to reveal your central idea until later in the speech. But even in such a
situation you must be sure your audience is not left guessing about the main points.

Apart from giving background information, stating the purpose and giving an overview in
the introduction, you should also endeavour to get their attention and interest and to
establish your credibility. The introduction is a critical stage where you have to get the
audience attention and interest and therefore establish a rapport with them and motivate
them to want to listen. There are some methods you can use individually that will help
arouse and sustain audience attention.
 Relating the topic to the audience. People pay attention to things that affect them
directly.
 Emphasizing the importance of your topic right from the beginning.
 Start the audience with an arresting or intriguing statement.

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  Arouse their curiosity with a series of statements that progressively what their
curiosity about the subject.
 Ask them a rhetorical question and have them think along with you.
 Begin with attention getting quotation from a famous speaker, writer or text or tell
a provocative, dramatic or suspenseful story. From quotation or stories to work as
well as introductions, they should be clearly relevant to the main point of the
speech.
 Other methods that have also been used to help get audience attention include
humour, a visual aid or referring to a current event. As a speaker choose the
method that is most suitable for the topic, the audience and the occasion.

As part of the introduction, you also need to establish your credibility. Your credibility
need not be based on firsthand knowledge and experience. It can come from research.
Whatever the source of your expertise, be sure to let the audience know.

23.5.2. Closing
The conclusion of a presentation is particularly important, because it is the one that will
be remembered longest and people always become attentive at the end hoping to catch
final summarizing comments. As a good speaker take advantage of this and make a
powerful conclusion that serves two main functions; letting the audience know that you
are ending your presentation and reinforcing their understanding of your main idea and
conclusion. Let them know you are finishing verbally or by the manner of your delivery.
Use a number of techniques to reinforce your central idea, such as summary of the points,
ending with a pertinent question, a dramatic statement, a sincere compliment, a humorous
comment, an appeal for action. Whatever the method be creative in devising a vivid
forceful conclusion that hits the hearts and minds of your audience, don’t be long-minded
and don’t leave anything to chance in your conclusion. Make your last impression as
forceful and as memorable as you can.
Activity 23.1
1. What are the objectives of an introduction in oral presentation?
2. Two ways to signal a conclusion
3. Two ways to reinforce the central idea when concluding.

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23.6. Rehearsing the Presentation
The practice of outlining and practicing the presentation beforehand enables a presenter
to think. This will clarify your ideas and hook them to your memory, thus reducing
mental wondering and improving your direction during delivery. Practicing will also
help you develop your own speaking style and confidence. It may also enable you spot
flaws and establish smooth transitions from action to section.

Intext Question

Which aspects should you focus on while rehearsing?

For effective delivery, you should devise ways of reiterating important points without
being too repetitive. Ensure that the points contribute to a single cumulative point.

 You should also familiarize with the equipment and the visual aids.
 Prepare yourself for critical and challenging questions.
 Develop your own speaking style and
 Work on making your presentation interesting.

Activity 23.2
1) Explain why you think speeches should be organized clearly and
coherently.
2) Discuss the phrasing and patterning of the main points for a
presentation.
3) Why is it important to prepare a strategic opening and closing?
4) Why is it important to rehearse a presentation?
5) What are the main aspects that you need to focus on when
rehearsing?
6) Why is it important to draw on your own knowledge and
experience in gathering
7) What are three criteria for evaluating research material found on

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 the web?
8) List some commonly used visual aids and discuss their value.

9) What are some of the methods you can use in the introduction to
get the attention and interest of your audience?
10) Why do you need to give an overview of the key issue at the
introduction?
11) Why is the conclusion one of the most important parts of speech
making?

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 LECTURE TWENTY FOUR
DELIVERY TECHNIQUES
Lecture Outline
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Objectives
24.3. Overcoming Stage Fright and Developing Confidence
24.4. Exhibiting Credibility
24.4.1. Exhibiting Well Symbolized Knowledge
24.4.2. Appropriate Use of Visual Aids
24.4.3. Making an Ethical Presentation
24.5. Exhibiting Eloquence

24.1. Introduction
A good and effective presentation is one where the speaker has something to say and
(content) and knows how to say it (delivery). Delivery is as important as planning and
practicing. The impact of any verbal message is strongly affected by how it is delivered:
the way you use your body and voice to present. Delivery calls for the speaker’s
confidence, eloquence, credibility vocal ability and body language.

Even a mediocre speech will be more effective if its presented well, whereas a
wonderfully written speech can be ruined by poor delivery. Good delivery does not call
attention to itself. It conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly interestingly. Most audiences
prefer delivery that combines a certain degree of formality with the best attributes of
good conversation – confidence, eloquence credibility together with appropriate, vocal,
facial and bodily expressiveness. Techniques for successful delivery are therefore those
concerned with these aspects. Therefore in this lecture and the next we are going to
discuss tips for developing and exhibiting confidence, eloquence and credibility
(knowledge and appropriate use, visual aids) In the next lecture we will discuss vocal
expressions and non verbal common all as part of technique for effective delivery.

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 24.2. Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to
1. Define stage fright and describe ways of developing speech
confidence.
2. Describe strategies for enhancing and exhibiting credibility
3. List different types of evidence and explain how they can be used to
support information in a presentation.
4. Describe guidelines for making and using visual aids and attaining
clarity in your presentation.

24.3. Overcoming Stage Fright and Developing Confidence

Some people worry about making presentations because they experience stage fright
(nervousness when talking to an audience). Even the best speaker experiences it
sometimes. Signs of nervousness while speaking include; dry mouth, sweating, pounding
heart etc. These signs are caused by the surge of adrenaline, resulting from fear, into the
blood system. The key to effective speaking is mastering this stage fright (nervousness)
exhibiting confidence and poise.

Confidence Building Strategies

1. Turning nervousness into positive energy positive, Cicero 2000 years ago once
said public speaking of merit is characterized by nervousness. A little
nervousness is advantageous for effective speech making if it can be turned into
positive energy, you can turn the nervous energy into speaking energy i.e. convert
your nervousness into the kind of energy that injects liveliness, enthusiasm and
animation into your speech. Most successful speakers are those who have learnt
to use nervousness to their advantage. They have learnt to control it and make it
work for them. You should transform your nervousness into positive energy that
vitalizes and radiates you.

2. Knowing that nervousness is not visible, speakers often appear more confident
than they feel. It is hard to speak with confidence if you think you look tense.
One of the valuable lessons you will learn from this oral presentation lecture is

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 that nervousness in speech making is hardly visible on the outside. Listeners
probably won’t realize how tense you are especially if you act confident in the
outside knowing this should make it easier for you to speak with confidence. And
always think of your formal public presentation as common rather than as
performance in which you must do everything perfectly. You should remember
your audience goals and that you are not there to perform rather to make a
presentation to your audience.

3. Preparing – i.e. planning and practicing adequately make sure you are prepared
for the presentation. Prepare by going through all the seven stages of planning as
discussed in the previous two lectures; establishing the objectives and
delimitating, analysing the topic, analysing audience, researching, collecting
information gathering support material, outlining planning an introduction and
conclusion and practicing. If all these stages are properly undertaken they wear
away your audience fright and give you self-confidence.

Preparing also means getting your body and mind ready. Remember giving an
oral presentation is a physical activity thus you should eat and drink properly
beforehand and do some warm-up exercises to help in releasing tension and
excluding a forceful and attractive personality.

Personality with the exception of preparation is probably the most important

factor on making a presentation. Research has shown that it has more to do with
business success than has superior knowledge and that in eloquent speaking
it’s the manner that wins not words. You should not only eat and drink well
beforehand but also do a few things that will make your personality appear more
forceful and attractive. Things such:

4. Recuperating to store reserve energy so that you go before the audience rested to
exude dynamism
5. Eating sparingly just before the presentation to avoid dulling the mind.
6. Speaking with enthusiasm and interest. Enthusiasm, like laughter, is infectious.
The audience will also be enthusiastic.

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7. Being properly dressed and groomed. Your personal appearance is one of the
most powerful visual aids you have; look your best to feel confident and
professionally credible. However, the grooming should suit the audience and the
occasion.

8. Smiling to get goodwill as Professor Overstreet says, likes beget likes. If we are
interested in our audience, there’s the likelihood that they too will be interested in
us.

9. Thinking positively using the power of visualizations and acting confident.

Confidence is mostly the well-known power of positive thinking. Transform all
negative thoughts such as “I am not a great public speaker” or “I wish I didn’t
have to do this,” into “No one is perfect”, “This speech is a chance for me to share
my ideas”. Positive thoughts will energize and radiate you.

Use the power of visualization i.e. create vivid mental pictures in which you see
yourself succeeding. As you create these images in your mind, be realistic and
focus on the positive aspects of your presentation. Acknowledge your
nervousness but picture yourself overcoming it to give a vibrant articulate
presentation. The more lucid your mental pictures, the more successful you are
likely to be. Used in conjunction with other methods of building up confidence,
it’s proven way to help control nerves and to craft a successful presentation.

Closely related to the mental visualization is acting confident during the actual
presentation. One American psychologist William James wrote that, “to feel
brave act as if you were brave, use all of your will to do that and a courage fit will
very likely replace the fit of fear.” (Dale). Therefore as part of building up
confidence, think positively, visualize a successful presentation beforehand and
on the actual day act confident. Step out briskly however nervous, take a deep
breath, stride forward bravely, stop, stand still, and act as if you live it all. Draw
yourself to full height and look the audience straight on the eye. If the

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 nervousness persists carry out some physical action with a purpose e.g. writing on
the board, opening a window shifting a book etc. The energy you need to do the
activity will help use up some of your nervous energy. Do not display any sight
of nervousness such as playing with the buttons. It attracts attention and gives the
impression of lacking control physically and mentally.

10. Familiarizing and paying attention to the audience

To help prevent you from being paralysingly self-conscious familiarize with the
audience. Converse with them and try to get to know their interest, so that you
will think more about them during the presentation and also be more
conversational and natural when speaking . However, at the actual moment of
delivering walk purposely and confidently to the front of the room without
necessarily shaking hands or chatting. At the podium pause, survey your notes,
organize your support material, revise opening remarks, take a deep breath (to
help you relax) start when you and the audience are ready. Don’t be in a hurry,
start well with any of the beaming strategies we discussed in the previous lecture.
Have your first few sentences memorized so you can say them without stumbling
over your words. A good start will help you build your confidence. Also pay
attention to the listener’s non-verbal feedback. If you try to respond to the
listeners, you will not pay as much attention to yourself.

11. Sticking to the planned, outline and utilizing the visual aids and the presentation
area.
Without any self-consciousness focus on what you want to say, stick to your
outline to cover all the main points and to provide a steady stream of well-
organized information in order to keep the audience attention and gain their
support. Encourage question from the audience without showing any antagonism
towards the questions. Remember to use your plan for conclusion, before
pausing, making your closing remark and unhurriedly gathering your items to
leave upon conclusion.

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 Use the visual aids and the presentation area well. Though the physical
arrangement may dictate where to stand, avoid standing behind any form of
furniture or at some elevated position. These may alienate the audience
psychologically. Also crowd the audience together. No group is easily
influenced when it’s scattered. In a group, they will laugh at applaud and approve
things that they might otherwise question and oppose if they were addressed
singly.

As a presenter adopt some of these strategies to help overcome nervousness and

to develop speech confidence. Confidence is the key to effective formal speaking
and it is an indicator of a high self-esteem and it allows a speaker to think on their
feet. These series of lectures and practices on oral presentation will give you an
opportunity to gain confidence and make your nervousness work for you. For
example, as discussed here, you will be more confident if you can turn
nervousness into positive energy, know that nervousness is hardly visible, prepare
well, think positively visualize and act confident understand that nervousness is
not overly visible, think of your speech as communication rather than
performances, familiarize and pay attention to the audience, stick to your outline
and utilize the visual aids and the presentation area well.

Intext Question
1. How can you control nervousness and make it work for you?
2. Why is personality important in public speaking – Discuss some
of the things a speaker would do to exclude attractive personality
3. Why is it important to familiarize with the audience?
4. Techniques for effective delivery are concerned with three main
aspects confidence, eloquence and credibility – Discuss tips for
developing speech confidence.

24.4. Exhibiting Credibility

As we said at the beginning of this lecture, the impact of any presentation is determined
by the quality of the delivery. The quality of delivering is in essence determined by the

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speaker’s confidence, eloquence, credibility, vocal facial and bodily expressiveness. In
the first section of this lecture we have analyzed techniques for developing confidence.
In this section we will analyze the speaker’s credibility and in the next we will analyze
eloquence. In the next lecture we will look at vocal facial and bodily expressiveness. All
these aspects relate to effective delivery

The speaker credibility affects the character of his message. You can only be credible
as a speaker if you exhibit in depth substantial and well supported knowledge in your
subject area, you utilize your visual aids appropriately and make an ethical
presentation.

24.4.1. Exhibiting Well Supported Knowledge

In all presentation, knowledge is power. In formal public speaking people demand
more than entertainment. If you as a speaker have only surface knowledge, your
listeners will feel cheated. To be able to develop in depth knowledge in your subject
area; you have to read extensively in that particular subject area from print published
sources and from the electronic sources even if you do not enjoy reading. In order to
be able to relate your topic to real life issues also read in general about important
things like world affairs, economic theories and social issues and keep up with current
affairs.

Being mentally alert

To exhibit knowledge in public speaking, you will need more than exploring your
topic and relating it to real life issues. You will need to be mentally alert while
presenting i.e. being able to think on your feet and then adapting the presentation
accordingly. If for example you analyze and feel listeners are bored, confused or
resentful, you should be able carry out a critical self assessment and then adjust to
relate to the their needs, presenting from their point of view, and adapting your
purposes to their preferences while maintaining your own integrity. You could even
charm them by leading them to think about themselves and their interests or orienting
the talk to some glorified current issue, and speaking in concrete clear picturesque
terms.

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Explaining points clearly
Other than presenting in depth information and being mentally alert, a knowledgeable
speaker is one who is able to explain his points clearly i.e. one who has researched
well has understood his message and can explain it clearly to his listeners. Clarity of
thought and clarity of expression can be attained by help of the following
suggestions:

1. Ensuring that you understand your message and the key points clearly before
explaining them.

2. Avoiding technical terms and striving to use simple language

3. Making the unfamiliar, familiar by use of analogies and imageries.

4. Appeal to the sense of sight by using exhibits, pictures and illustrations to create
mental pictures which will attract attention stimulate interest and make the
meaning clearer e.g. talk of a blue Toyota Hilux pickup instead of a car
5. Reiterating the main points without using the same phrases
6. Do not cover too many points and clarify abstract statements with illustrations and
concrete instances.

Supporting your ideas with different forms of evidence.

As a speaker you would be more credible if you not only explain and clarify your
ideas but also support these ideas with substantial evidence. Good presentations need
strong supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s point of view and qualify the
generalizations.

Activity 24.1

Consider the following set of statements:

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GENERAL SPECIFIC

Lots of Kenyan women do not participate Since independence less than 10% of
in politics parliamentarians are women. In fact the current
cabinet has only two while the last one had none

Television has a big influence in the Research carried out by U.O.N. common skills
Kenyan youth department indicates that each week a Kenyan
child spends 1000mins walking and only 40 min.
having any meaningful conversation with their
parents.

HIV/AIDS is a serious health concern HIV/AIDS is killing almost 500 people a day on
sub-Saharan Africa

Which statements do you find most interesting and convincing? And why?

The statements in the 2nd column are more specific and therefore clearer and credible.
Just the set of thing any presentation needs to come alive.

First of all you should at the outlining stage discussed in lecture two decide which ones
need to be supported given your: topic audience and purpose. During the stage of
collecting information you must collect these supporting material, evaluate it, and include
it in the outline as part of your presentation.

Your supporting material should be accurate relevant and reliable, and it should bring
your ideas across clearly and creatively. The following are some of the commonly used
support materials: examples, statistics testimony authority, empirical evidence and
logical evidence.

Examples: They are specific cases used to illustrate or to represent a group of people,
ideas conditions, experiences or the like (Lucas 171). You can use examples to support
your ideas because; research has shown that vivid concrete examples have more impact

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on listeners beliefs and actions than any other kind of supporting material. Examples
make ideas more specific and lively. They even make abstract principles clear and
compelling such as in the bible where there are many stories and parables.

You can choose to use brief examples in passing to illustrate a point e.g. when the
anthropology department relocated to the museum, it was in line with their studies and
research. Anthropology is the study of culture.

Instead of a brief example you could choose to use an extended one or an hypothetical
one. An extended example is a story, anecdote or analogy developed at some length to
illustrate a point. A good example of an extended example is the analogy given in the
book of 1 Corinthians in the Bible. The write compares the functions of various members
of the church to the functioning of the human body. The detailed explanation captures
vividly the similarities of the two aspects making the idea far clearer. Hypothetical
examples describe imaginary situations. If realistically created, imaginary scenarios can
be very effective. Hypothetical examples should not be far fetched. Whichever type of
example it should be realistic vivid and related to the point. It should help clarify
reinforce and personalize your ideas.

Statistical evidence is numerical data. Data that is reliable and that help you prove a
point whose validation requires knowledge of figure e.g. it is only statistical evidence that
may help support or refute the claim that there is famine in Kenya. We live in an age of
statistics. When used properly they are an effective way of clarifying ideas like brief
example they are often cited in passing to strengthen a speaker’s point, and to make it
more credible and specific. When using statistics evaluate them with the help of the
following questions

1. Are they representative?

2. Are their measures used correctly?
3. Are they from a reliable source?

As a speaker, you must be aware that statistics can be interpreted in so many ways use
them sparingly and statistical evidence gathered by objective non-partisan sources, which
you trust identify. Use statistical evidence, explain it and round off the complicated ones.

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Statistical evidence can be gathered from print published sources scholarly journals,
statistical year books (UN book) Guinness book of records and the Internet.

Testimony – they are quotations or paraphrases from experts (authority) ordinary people
who have 1st hand experience or insight on a topic, used to support a point by quoting
people who have had first hand experiences e.g. a drug addict on people who by their
training are authorities in that field e.g. doctors you will give your ideas greater strength
impact and credibility. It shows that you are just presenting your own ideas but that
others who are knowledgeable support your position in the field. This is necessary when
presenting on controversial issue.

Other than authorities, people who have expressed the issue first hand can also make your
presentation very credible. Their testimony gives a more personal viewpoint, conveying
feelings and genuine experience e.g. if you are speaking about the stigma suffered by the
AIDS victims you would include expert information on the disease but the one will
impact the listeners strongly is the one given by an AIDS victim.

When using expert testimony use qualified and unbiased sources. Quote or paraphrase
and then document accurately (use the styles of documenting you were introduced to in
writing skills)

You could also use empirical and logical evidence to support your ideas. Empirical.
Evidence is factual evidence – the evidence that can be seen and observed in the world
e.g. In a case where we have the support the idea that potholes are dangerous in roads, we
only need to cite a case where somebody got an accident as a result of trying to avoid a
pothole. Whereas logical evidence involves use objective step by step factual analysis of
an issue. There are two types of logical processes. You can reason inductively when you
try to form a generalization based on the observation of particular clues which you 1 st
collect e.g. Kamau, Korir and Otieno are poor so all Kenyans are poor. Deductively you
accept a generalization/premise then you apply it to specific cases? All Kenyans are poor
so, Kamau, Otieno and Korir are poor.

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 Activity 24.2
1. Why do you need supporting evidence?
2. Highlight the different types of support materials discussed in this
section and then explain how each should be used for effective
presentation.

24.4.2. Appropriate Use of Visual Aids

As we have discussed in this lecture, effective delivery calls for among other things
presenting an informative challenging message, therefore exhibiting knowledge: well
researched in depth well supported information on the topic, mental alertness and clarity
of thought, and expression. Knowledge in oral presentation also requires that you use
visual aids appropriately to clarify and illustrate your points.king.

In the previous lecture we discussed collecting information, which includes gathering or

designing support material (visual aids) that will allow you to control the audience and
clarify your points. We highlighted their advantages such as:

They can make a presentation much more effective in that, they arouse interest, they
show visually things that are difficult to explain verbally. Some visual aids like
PowerPoint can aid in remembering all the key points and in mastering the organizational
structure of the whole presentation. As Stanton in his text, Mastering Communication
says “Used badly visual aids are time wasting distracting, expensive,
inflexible…catastrophic and humiliating. However, used well they are time saving,
essential, interesting, entertaining, memorable and invaluable” (Stanton p.146).

Other than selecting and preparing your visual aids the planning, you need to pay
attention to how you use them during delivery. No matter how well designed, they will
be of little value unless they are appropriately integrated into the presentation. The
following tips will help you get maximum impact out of your visual aids.

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 1. To be able to utilize it well familiarize yourself with it beforehand
2. Visual aids need to be presented skillfully e.g. they should not be
passed among the audience. They should instead be displayed only
when one is talking about a point they contain
3. They should be displayed where every one can see and they should be
explained clearly and concisely
4. When presenting a visual aid maintain eye-contact with your listeners
and talk to them not the aid
5. The aids should reinforce the points that have already been made
6. While the audience is studying the aid, keep quiet do not stand in front
of it to allow the audience sufficient time to study it. Once the point is
made it should be removed from view before moving forward.

How to maximize on some commonly used visual aids

Whiteboards:

Which are easily available provide spontaneous use. They display simple visual
messages that sometimes act as permanent background information during the
presentation though they interrupt eye contact with the audience.

In order to utilize a whiteboard well, use strong-coloured marker pens. Write legibly and
restrict writing to key words or short memorable sentences. Don’t talk to the board, stand
aside and face the audience with the board on your left, use a pointer when referring to
the board, and move towards the left when writing exposing the writing as you go on.

Flip Charts

How to Manage Them

 Keep lettering and diagrams simple, bold and colourful.
 If you are using a single chart and want to reveal information gradually use hinged
flap of card or paper to mask parts of it.
 A flip-chart sequence can be very effective but needs a lot of preparation – it might be
better to use an overhead projector.

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 As with other visual aids, a picture left up after it is finished with can be very
distracting, the answer is to have a lain sheet after every picture or sequence of
pictures.
 You need to be very familiar with each of the charts and the order they are in, so that
you know what to expect.

Physical Objectives
Real examples of what you are talking about can be extremely effective in capturing the
interest of the audience and turning an abstract word or concept into something concrete
and easily understood, but it is a method which tends to be under-used. This may be
because it is all too easy when you are speaking about something with which you are
extremely familiar, to assume that your audience is too.

Small objects produced at the right moment from your pocket or even larger ones hidden
under the desk or in a bag can turn a fairly conventional lecture into an entertaining and
dramatic presentation.

Models and Experiments

 It is absolutely essential to know exactly where the model or experiment is to be
used and to check for space, table height, power supply, ventilation and possibly
even fire regulations and measures to control fire, should the need arise.
 Make sure you have everything you need to do the experiment or make the model
work – remember, water is not usually on tap in the ordinary lecture room: you
may have to bring your own supply.
 Practise: everyone involved in an experiment should practise over and over again
until they can play their part without thinking.
 Don’t be put off from using models and rehearse very onnscientiously: the value
of successful demonstration is worth the risk of disaster! But if the success of
your whole talk rests on a working model or experiment, either have a standby or
a prepared diagram or visual which would do instead.

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Overhead Projector
How to manage
 Start off with simple transparencies until you can use the machine with ease and
confidence.
 Position yourself in such a way that you can reach the machine naturally as well
as your notes, without standing in the audience’s line of sight to the screen – apart
from obliterating your picture, you are likely to find yourself dazzled by the light
shining full in your face. In practice, some speakers seem to get to be amused
with concentrating on operating the machine that they are totally unaware that the
light is shining in their face and that furthermore, much to the amusement of the
audience, their head is silhouetted on the screen.
 Your transparencies should be carefully prepared beforehand (see visual aids’,
p.140-1). Arrange them carefully in the right order, preferably with blank sheets
of paper in between, so that you can see them clearly as you pick them up. (Tip:
place each one between the folds of computer print-out paper).
 Don’t get into a panic about which way round they should be in order to be
projected properly – OHP slides are not like 35mm photographic slides which
have to be put into the machine in almost any way other than the one you would
have expected! Simply pick a transparency up and if it looks the right way up to
you, put it down like that onto the plate. By the miracle of optical science, it will
appear on the screen as it appears to you, looking down at the machine.
 Glance once at the screen just to check that the whole of your transparency is
being projected and that it is straight – a crooked picture with bits cut off can be
very distracting to the audience and you will wonder why they are fidgeting or
sniggering.
 Some authorities suggest that you should not switch the light on until your
transparencies is in position and then switch it off before the transparency is
moved away. However, if you are using quite a lot of slides, the effect of the light
going on and off continually can be more distracting than watching the slide
positioned while the light is left on: again, it is a case for practice and judgment.

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 Point to the transparency with a pencil if you want to refer to a detail on the
screen. A pointer is better than a finger because just as the screen magnifies your
picture so it will magnify your finger…. And your hand; and if you are shaking
because you are nervous try to avoid pointing at all.
 Follow the rules for whiteboards if you want to write or draw on the blank acetate
film. It is possible to prepare a roll of this film beforehand, with all the visuals
that you need for the whole presentation but, of course, this gives no flexibility
and you are stuck with the order of visuals on the roll.
 Always check the projector has a spare bulb that works, bulbs have a horrible
knack of blowing in the middle of presentation.

Slide Projector
How to Manage
 Always use a magazine-loaded projector, if possible; you can then load the slides
beforehand and ensure that they are in the right sequence and up the right way.
 Since slides are usually only worth the expense and trouble of making them if
they will be used more than once, store them carefully, preferably in their own
magazine, so that you don’t have to load and unload them every time.
 Never use poor quality slides however relevant or interesting you think they are;
there is nothing worse than being subjected to a series of shadowy,
unrecognisable photographs or pictures of people or things with bits cut off by
poor photography, which is accompanied by repeated apologies from the speaker.
If you feel the need to apologize for a slide, don’t use it.
 Either use a synchronized tape/slide presentation which you have checked and
double-checked to make sure it is synchronized correctly or, if you are providing
the commentary, use a remote control lead which you control. Never let someone
else change the slides unless it is absolutely necessary, which it may be if you are
showing slides in a large room because the throw of projectors which you can
operate yourself would be too short. In this case, you will need a projectionist
who knows as much about your presentation as you do, who is willing to work to
your script and cues, who is quick-thinking and intelligent; you must agree the

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 sequence and cues with him and then stick to them – never change the order or
make cuts once you have had the final rehearsal –and you must agree a
breakdown procedure, for example what to do if a slide sticks.
 Arrange cues for raising and dimming the houselights
 Prepare a commentary which links the slides so that the continuity is
smooth and fluent; there is nothing worse than a presentation in which
virtually all the speaker says is “And this is a picture of…’
 Know your projector – they tend to be extremely temperamental, prone to
breaking down, overheating, changing focus, etc. In fact they are probably
the most potentially disastrous of all visual aids.
 Be hypercritical in preparing or selecting your slides. Antony Jay lists
seven main faults of slides: too verbal; too comprehensive, too complex,
too crowded; too colourless; held too long; not explained.
 Bear these potential faults in mind when you are preparing your slides and
then get someone to sit through the rehearsal and criticize them frankly and
honestly.

Videos
How to Manage
 Check how to dim the lights and lower blinds.
 Check that your video-tape will run on the machine to be provided.
Although the system most people use at home is the most commonly
available in organisations, there are others systems in existence!
 Allow enough time before you start your presentation to find out how to
operate the video recorder. Check how to insert, stop, start and pause the
tape – the most intelligent of us can be reduced to an incompetent, clueless
idiot by the sight of a strange machine, so beware!
 Select your film or video carefully; preview as many as possible and
measure each against your objective. Can you use one complete or should
you use only parts of it?

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  Run through the video several times until you are completely familiar with it; it
often helps to write notes on the main sections and the sequences of events so that
you have something to refer to during any discussion afterwards.
 If you only want to use selected sequences of a video, stop it at the beginning and
end of each sequence. Use the counter to make a note of your stop and start
points.
 Have a contingency plan ready, in case you find the distributor has put the wrong
video in the box.

24.4.3. Making an Ethical Presentation

As already discussed in this lecture to exhibit credibility is one of the techniques for
effective delivery. A credible message is ready accepted. Credibility can be exhibited
through being and standing knowledgeable, supporting your ideas and being able to
explain the concepts clearly. All these aspects have been discussed in this lecture and
closely relate to all there is to make an ethical presentation i.e. a presentation where you
observe the ethical principles of sincerity and fair treatment and make a presentation that
has not only rhetorical influence over the listeners but can be looked up to. An ethical
presentation would make you earn the audience’s trust and therefore make you believe in
your ideas. It is very important to earn their trust in this age of information explain when
every group can, warm its way into the public’s mind often with conflicting analysis and
recommendations. Most audiences would seek information and advise from a speaker
they trust; therefore your presentation should be guided by a strong sense of integrity and
a set of standards or guidelines.
1. Ensuring that your goals are ethically sound. This should be your first
responsibility. To ensure that your objectives are consistent with the welfare of
your society and audience.

2. You should be properly prepared in order not to waste audience time. The
presentation should be well researched, appropriately documented and supported
with no plagiarism and clearly presented.

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 3. Being honest in what you say i.e. show that you are a person of integrity and that
you not only share audience beliefs, attitudes and values but you are accurate, fair
and sincere in every possible way.

4. Be positive and avoid negative imitating expressions. It will enable you win an
argument without making enemies. It will also inspire confidence and promote
your ideas.

Intext Question

1. What is ethics? And why is ethical speaking important for public speakers?

2. What are the five guidelines for ethical speaking as part of exhibiting
credibility?

24.5. Exhibiting Eloquence

Eloquence is the ability to give a clear and strong message. An eloquent speaker is
therefore one who has good diction (choosing words carefully in discourse) and fluency;
who knows the power of language and it accurately clearly, vividly and appropriately. As
a speaker you would be more credible and therefore more effective in delivering your
presentation, if you are eloquent i.e. you have good diction and you are fluent and you are
aware of the meaning of words (power of language) and you know how to use it properly.

Q. How do you improve your diction?

To improve your diction for effective public presentation you need to read widely i.e.
purposeful organized reading of longer text. Extensive reading will expose you to a
range of words and expressions in concrete situations to easily assimilate and
internalize their meanings. You should also always read with a dictionary and make
an effort to study derivations of words. It also helps to observe eloquent speakers
keenly in order to emulate speaking with precision and distinction.

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 Diction is largely a reflection of your level of knowledge and the company you
keep. The meaning of words and knowing to use language.

As a speaker, you should be aware of the meanings of words. Words have two kings
of meanings: denotative and connotative. Denotative meaning is precise, literal and
objective.

e.g. x killed y = killed is literal it means ending life.

Connotative meaning is more variable figurative and subjective.
e.g
x murdered y = murdered suggests malicious killing. Connotative meaning
includes all the feelings, associations and emotions that a word brings out in people.
As a speaker you should provide precisely the message you are relaying through the
language you are using. You should particularly be aware of the emotions and
feelings your connotative terms are eliciting in the audience. Your choice of words
depends on the audience, occasion and purpose. Do you want to stir up your
audience’s emotion? Then select highly connotative words. Do you want to appear
objective? Then stick to words that are literal and precise. Choosing words skillfully
for their denotative or connotative meaning is a crucial part of eloquent speaking.

Eloquence also calls for accurate, clear, vivid and appropriate use of language. Using
language accurately means that you don’t use a word unless you are sure of its
meaning. As you prepare and make your presentation ask yourself constantly, “What
do I really want to say”? “What do I really mean”? Choose words that are precise and
accurate to express your ideas.

Use language clearly. It allows the listeners to grasp your meaning immediately. You
can do so by using familiar words and avoiding technical language. Technical
language can be understood by only a group of people and therefore may alienate
some people in the audience. You can also be clearer by choosing concrete words in a
preference to more abstract ones. Words that are more specific and precise, not vague

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or ambiguous. For example, don’t say something like, “I could tell by the funny look
on his face that he was quite mad.” The words funny and mad are vague. You could
be more precise by saying “I could tell from his tense-up face, that he was annoyed.”
As a mark of precision and distinction, avoid shopworn threadbare words and clichés.
Strive to be clear, precise, distinctive and fresh. For example don’t qualify as
beautiful everything that is appealing. Using synonyms of beautiful such as exquisite,
magnificent, elegant, etc.

To be clear, you will also need to eliminate verbal clutter (discourse that takes many
words than are necessary to express an idea). E.g. talking of prior to instead of before,
or “in the eventuality of” instead of ‘if’, “at this point in time” instead of “now”. Such
clutter mars the clarity of your presentation. When speaking state only relevant facts,
and avoid repetitions and wordy expressions. Watch out for redundant adjectives and
adverbs. Trim your speech by eliminating clutter in your outlining and practicing
state (we discussed in lecture two). If you eliminate clutter, and other distracting
meaningless expressions like um, er, you know, etc. It will help you present your
ideas more effectively and you will be a better public speaker.

Use language more vividly by use of imageries and analogies or word pictures. These
word pictures because they are comparisons and graphic illustrations, create images
that are easy to register in the listeners minds. E.g., it doesn’t rain – it pours. He is not
just strong, he is an ox. However, you should be careful not to mix up your metaphors
as that can confuse the audience.

“The courses cascaded to reach level 4”. Cascading is descending while moving to
level four is ascending.

Also avoid unrecognizable allusions such as saying;

The Anglo leasing scandal is worse than the Enron one when the audience is not
familiar with the Enron one. In such a case such imagery is ineffective, as it doesn’t

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illuminate the meaning. You could also make your presentation more vivid by using
rhythm through repetition, parallelism (similar phraseology and structures) alteration
and antithesis (juxtaposing, contrasting ideas). Imagery and rhythm will definitely
enliven your presentation.

Using language appropriately means adopting to the particular occasion audience and
topic at hand. Most speech situations will require some degree of formality through
you speaking in a conversational way. It would also be appropriate to avoid slang or
colloquial language such as clipped words like dad, phone and also informal
expressions like fix, mad, cool, etc. It is appropriate to be gender sensitive and to
therefore avoid sexist language; use of the generic he or man when referring to both
men and women, stereotyping jobs and roles, etc.

Activity 24.3
1. What is the criteria for attaining eloquence
2. What would you do to improve your diction
3. What is the difference between denotative and connotative
meaning? How would you use each to convey your message
effectively?
4. What should you do to use language clearly, vividly and
appropriately

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 LECTURE TWENTY-FIVE
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Lecture Outline
25.1. Introduction
25.2. Objectives
25.3. Vocal Expressiveness
25.4. Body Language
25.5. Summary

25.1. Introduction
In the last lecture we looked at various aspects that should be taken care of in order to
make the delivery more effective. In this one, we are going to analyse non-verbal
communication in relation to effective oral presentation.

Non-verbal communication is a very important factor in delivery; the vocal

expressiveness, body language, use of silence and time all affect the way listeners
respond to a speaker. You can do little to change your face or body, but you can dress
appropriately and you can learn to control your voice and bodily movements, so that they
enhance your message. For example, making eye contact with listeners is the quickest
way to establish a communicative bond with them. Since non-verbal communication is
important in delivering an effective presentation, you should become more consciously
aware of your verbal messages and control them and make them work for you. In this
lecture we shall look at vocal expressiveness (tone; intelligibility, stress and timbre),
body language (posture, personal appearance, facial expressions, movement gestures, use
of space and eye contact) and the use of silence and time for effective delivery.

25.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
1. List which aspects of the voice are important for effective delivery
and explain how a speaker can use them to attain the effectiveness.
2. Explain why and how body language is important in public
speaking.

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25.3. Vocal Expressiveness
There is something besides mere words in an oral presentation, which counts. It is the
flavour with which words are delivered. It is not so much what you say but ‘how’ you say
it. To use your voice effectively, you would go on controlling the tone, the volume rate
pronunciation pitch, stress and the timbre in order to attain conversational tone,
intelligibility, correct and varying pitch patterns, hence good quality. The effectiveness of
the delivery depends to a large extent on how the speaker uses his/her voice.

(i) Conversational tone

To attain a conversational tone, you should speak as though you were in a
personal and intimate conversation with each one of the audience members – such
a quality comes
from the realization that one is talking “with” not “at the” audience thus you adapt
your voice to the public speaking situation without losing the interpersonal
qualities of dialogue.
Most successful speakers have cultivated this quality. So they make their listeners
feel as though they are being directly and even intimately addressed e.g. in talk
shows, news. It is talking as though to friends naturally but loudly and a bit
slowly.

(ii) Intelligibility:
You should be able to be understood. Therefore you should regulate the three
independent but related factors: Speed, volume, and pronunciation.

Volume
The volume in a public presentation should be relevant to the size and acoustics of the
room, number of listeners, distance between speaker and the listeners and the amount of
noise that is present.

An intelligible speaker is one who adjusts his volume to cope with special situations
such as the sound of traffic and also maintains an interesting and flexible variation e.g.
stressing contrastingly important words and phrases.

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NB: Volume becomes a problem when a speaker is too soft, too loud or speaks with no
variation – lack of variation creates monotony, leads to improper emphasis and gives the
impression that each point is of equal importance.

Speed/rate - Duration of individual sounds pauses and rhythm

Mastering the subject matter and practicing the presentation will enable you develop
familiarity with the material and ease which will enhance a desirable speaking rate. A
desirable rate is one that is moderate, varied and flexible. Thus it is neither too rapid nor
too slow and free from awkward pauses.

A good speech is also where pauses are used meaningfully to achieve variety and
emphasis, although vocalized pauses like um… er….are irritating and should be avoided.

If as a speaker you want to arouse excitement you should use a faster rate as it stirs and
intensifies the emotions of the listeners. However, in large conditions or outdoors a fast
rate impedes intelligibility. Echoes distort the sounds and words often seem to drift and
vanish.

Pronunciation
This refers to crispness, articulation and the precision with which sound syllables and
words are formed vocally. Good articulation should be clear and correct, i.e. each sound
should be distinctive and each word easily recognizable thus free from additions,
omissions, substitution and transposition of sound.
o Additions such as adding vowels wrongly between constant clusters e.g.
gangester – gangster
o Omission of sounds e.g. sprit - spirit
goin – going
jus - just

In normal conversation, we tend to slur or drop syllables without inhibiting conversation.

However, in a large public audience it can undermine the speaker’s intelligibility.

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Closely related to forming sound syllables clearly is forming them correctly i.e. using the
accepted standard pronunciation and avoiding one’s local dialectal influence. A speaker
who has dialectal influence will receive negative judgment which may seriously affect
the listeners perception or his credibility.

NB: Pronunciations are largely caused by physiological factors such as cleft palate,
sluggish tongue, teeth formation, etc. Or by mother tongue influence.

Those caused by mother tongue influence can be rectified by the speakers becoming good
listeners with perceptive ears to determine the different sounds each word contains or by
isolating errors and trying to correct them through practice.

NB: We had noted that an effective speaking voice should have conversational tone
and intelligibility. Itt should also have a varying pitch, correct stress patterns and good
quality.

(iii) Varying Pitch

Pitch is the musical notes in a voice. In normal conversation one may use just a few notes
but in public speaking you have to use a wide range in order not to sound monotonous i.e
raise highs and lower your lows.
- The range should also be suited to the speaker in order not to distract the
audience.
- As a rule different pitch notes communicate different kinds of emotions. High
pitches communicate excitement and lower pitches create a sense of control.
- The more charged a speaker’s ideas are the higher the pitch with varying
ranges, but varying it extremely may communicate artificiality uncontrolled,
excitement or fear.
- The key to successful control of pitch ultimately depends on understanding
the importance of pitch variation, and that, lack of variation and inflexibility
in pitch creates monotony.
- Use of a very low or very high or one that is inconsistent with audience
expectation can be quite distracting to the audience.

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(iv) Correct Stress Patterns
Stress is the way in which ‘sound syllables and words are accented. Stressing varyingly
helps bring out the most important word and points in the most unconscious pleasing and
natural way. Without stress everything would be the same resulting in messages that are
both incomprehensible and emotionless which in turn will cause needless
misunderstanding.

Stress is achieved through emphasis and pausing bringing out the most important aspect
of a sentence, e,g,
Tom is taking Jane out today]
Tom is taking Jane out today] four different messages
Tom is taking Jane out today]
Tom is taking Jane out today]

Pausing just before the most important word and then stressing it help denote the specific
message is that sentence.

Pauses/intervals of silence before within or afterwards, helps punctuate thought by

separating groups of spoken words into meaningful units.
Pausing before a major word or idea creates suspense and after them adds emphasis.
When introduced at a proper moment a dramatic pause can express one’s feelings move
forcefully than words. They also tend to intensify listeners involvement in emotional
situations. However, too many of them may make the speaker appear artificial,
manipulative and over-rehearsed.

(Vi) Voice Quality (Good Voice Quality)

Voice quality or timbre is the distinctive characteristics of a voice, which distinguishes it
from other voices. Every person is unique.
Quality is determined by resonance i.e echoing of the pitch and the volume in other
words the size, shape and texture of the resonating cavities determines the sound that
comes out.

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A good voice quality for public speaking should be one that is spontaneous, natural,
distinctive, pleasant and easy to listen to. It should also be one that warms and humanizes
one’s manner of talking. So it should not be harsh, horse, husky, breathy, shrill or nasal.
Real emotional sincerity in speech i.e putting one’s heart into the talk and saying what
one means and having genuine interest in the talk can enhance one’s voice quality and
make the talk effective.

Poor voice quality can be caused by poor listening, imitating or physiological problems
and it can be rectified through practice or through speech therapy if the impairment is
serious. Sometimes there is not much one can do about their voice timbre.

Then they can utilize and control the other aspects that relate to voice that have been
discussed in this lecture. These aspects are very important for effective speech delivery,
while you may not completely control them you should be alert about the effects they are
likely to produce in your listeners and thus focus on them and regulate them during the
presentation to help create the intended mood and communicate the intended message
convincingly.

Intext Question
1 Why is voice important for public speaking?
2 Which specific aspect aspects should a speaker focus on in order to
attain good vocal expressiveness?
3 Discuss the three factors that a speaker needs to regulate in order to
achieve maximum intelligibility.

25.4. Body Language

The speaker’s physical behaviour such as dressing, appearance, posture use of space
gestures facial expressions and eye contact carry a lot of meaning in a speech situation.
They all affect the way listeners respond to a speaker. The study of how they are used to
communicate is called kinesics. Research has shown that people trust this mode of
communication more than they do verbal. When a speaker’s body language is
inconsistent with his or her words, listeners tend to believe the body language. Therefore

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body language (non-verbal communication) comes through under than words and they
are frequently the means by which we reveal the emotional part of the communication.
Also by them we elaborate and complement the verbal message.

Activity 25.1
Assignment: List five examples of body language and what message they
each convey.

In this part of the lecture we are going to discuss major aspects of non-verbal
communication that will affect the outcome of your speeches.

Space
Before we look at the way we use our various parts of the body to communicate we
should first examine our attitude to space in which the movements take place. Just as
these aspects speak so does space. It affects the way we communicate and we use space
to communicate. You can influence communication and signal your attitude to others by
the way you use space during the presentation i.e. by our proximity to the audience.
When you move closer to them it indicates some intimate band and it’s a sign of
confidence. When you stand rigidly in one position and do not utilize the space in
presentation area it may communicate distance and nervousness. Try and use the
presentation area in a free, varied, interesting and relaxed manner, not pacing too much
nor standing rigidly, as such movement will show lack of confidence and control. They
may even irritate or bore the audience.

Appearance and Posture

Every speaker is expected by his/her audience to exhibit a personal appearance that is in
keeping the occasion and purpose. Research has confirmed that personal appearance
plays an important role in public speaking listeners always see you before they hear you.
People form first impressions from the way we dress. The audience perception and
understanding is influenced by the speaker’s general appearance and the appearance
dictates eye contact, distance and even the reception of the message.

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Just as you adapt your language to your audience and the occasion so should you dress
and groom appropriately in order not to distract or alienate the audience and hinder
communication. Regardless of the speaking situation you should try to evoke a
favourable first impression – an impression that is likely to make listeners’ impression
that is likely make listeners more receptive to what you say.

Appearance and posture are closely interrelated. You can influence communication and
signal your attitude. Not just by appearance but by the position and posture you adopt.
Posture involuntarily communicates status or nature of the person hunched shoulders and
a lowered head may signal shyness and inferiority; standing erect with head tilted back
and hands on the hips, may indicate superiority and self-satisfaction. The posture you
adopt when speaking may reflect your self-image, self-confidence or emotional state. As
a speaker know the effect or the posture you take. Try always to be erect and at ease with
hands placed where you find most comfortable. However their position shouldn’t inhibit
natural spontaneous gestures used to reinforce ideas. Always be alert, erect and at ease
with hands placed where you find most comfortable. However their position shouldn’t
inhibit natural spontaneous gestures used to reinforce ideas. Always be alert, erect and at
ease to be to able give a good presentation.

As important as your posture during the presentation is, so is what you do before you
begin and after you finish. As you rise to speak, try to appear calm, posed and confident.
When you reach the podium don’t lean on it and don’t rush into your speech, prepare
your things and stand quietly as you wait for the audience to be attentive. Establish eye
contact with them then and only then should you start.

When you finish, maintain eye contact briefly after you stop talking, to let your closing
line sink. Maintain your cool as you collect your things to leave. Don’t start gathering
things before you finish talking. Coming in and leaving in a controlled, confident manner
is one of the most effective things you can do to improve your image with an audience.

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Facial Expressions
More than other non-verbal aspects facial expressions communicate and reinforce the
speaker’s feelings more. Herbert Spencer observed that no phrase can convey surprise
more vividly than opening of eyes and raising of eyebrows. The audience first reaction is
to scan the speaker’s face for feelings about the situation and about them. By analyzing
the facial expressions listeners can interpret the speaker’s feelings towards the idea he’s
presenting.

As a good speaker, regulate and control your facial expressions to suit the meaning of the
ideas you are presenting and beware that the listeners are analyzing to gauge your true
feelings. Let your facial expressions match your verbal ones e.g. let your face
communicate anger when you are uttering angry words. The expressions you use during a
speech situation should bring out all the emotions relevant to the occasion.

Eye Contact
In contrast to other body signals, eye movement are quite uncontrollable but nevertheless
send out very strong messages. The movements of the eyes perform: They may indicate
interest, seek feedback or synchronize speech. The eye movement reveals a lot of
messages and that’s why they are referred to as the “windows of the soul”. Listener
analyse them to gauge the truthfulness intelligence, attitudes and feelings of a speaker.

Like many non-verbal aspects of communication (e.g. touch) eye contact is influenced by
cultural background. However in public speaking, there appears to be some agreement
across all cultures on the importance of some degree of eye contact. For example, one of
the quickest ways to establish a communicative bond with your listeners is to look at
them personally and pleasantly. Avoiding their gaze is one of the surest ways to lose
them. Therefore a regular eye contact will help you establish the necessary rapport with
them and to gauge their responses. As you look at your listeners look out for their
reactions. Do they like you? Are they understanding?

How you look at your audience also matters. A blank or hostile state is as bad as not
contact so us a frightened glance and an intense gaze at one of the audience. Good eye

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contact is one where you look briefly from one person to another or you scan the
audience and not just segments. No matter what the size. Let your eyes convey
confidence, sincerely and with conviction.

Gestures
Gestures are movement of parts of the body like hands, feet, arms, etc. These movements
server the following functions:
- Communicating information, i.e. movements that depict or describe the idea
that’s communicated e.g. in sign language or using hands to describe shape.
- Communicating emotion, i.e. specific movements used to express feelings e.g.
clicking to indicate anger or shrugging to indicate indifference. Sometimes
specific emotions produce particular gestures – hand clapping (appreciation).
- Supporting speech – some questions are closely coordinated with speech and
form a part of the total communication e.g. raising two fingers to indicate the
two points you want to make. Gestures also contribute to the synchronization
of speech e.g. a raised hand may indicate interruption.
- Expressing self-image extrovert tends to use wide energetic gestures whereas
shy people use gestures less frequently.
- Expressing relationships – research has shown that we tend to adopt or minor
the gestures of people we are talking to, this reflects interest and shared points
of view.
- In public speaking, whatever gestures you make, they should not draw
attention to themselves and distract from your message they should appear
natural and spontaneous and definite, help to clarify your ideas and should be
suited to the audience and occasion.

Spontaneous, rigorous, relaxed and properly timed gestures enhance the listeners
responses to the message. Avoid wringing your hands, cracking your knuckles or playing
with your rings. Once you have eliminated these distractions, forget about your hands.
Think about communicating your ideas and the gestures will fall into place naturally.

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25.5. Summary
In this lecture, we have learnt that by becoming better observers, by
sharpening your powers of perception and by knowing as much as
possible with, we should be able to translate more accurately. The non-
verbal and verbal messages, as well as understand what we are really
communicating to others and how they read you.

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 LECTURE TWENTY SIX
EFFECTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
Lecture Outline
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Objectives
26.3. Hearing and Listening
26.4. Listening Barriers
26.5. Effective Listening Strategies
26.6. Summary

26.1. Introduction
The effectiveness of a presentation does just depend on preparation good practice and
powerful delivery. It also depends on effective listening. Most audiences do not listen
effectively and therefore most oral presentation turn out to be less effective. Most people
are poor listeners. They usually grasp only half of what they hear and retain even less.
Improving your listening can be helpful in every part of your listening can helpful in
every part of your life including making oral presentation. The best speakers are often the
best listeners. This lecture focuses on how to improve one’s listeners. This lecture
focuses on how to improve one’s listening skills by analyzing cause of poor listening and
strategies to effective listening.

26.2. Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. State the difference between hearing and listening
2. Explain why reading is important in oral presentation
3. Analyze the barriers to effective listening
4. Familiarize with strategies for effective listening.

26.3. Hearing and Listening

Listening is one neglected skill most audience believes that because they are hearing they
are listening. Good listening is much more than good hearing. It involves taking in verbal
and non-verbal signals. Then there’s interpretation of these signals using one’s own
intellect and past experiences. The third step is evaluating the value and validity of the

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message and the final step is responding to the message. Good listening can enhance your
critical thinking. There are different types of listening but this lecture is concerned with
comprehensive information and critical listening. Comprehensive is listening to
understand the message so the listener looks for specific information. He/she tries to
understand the key concepts and their support.

Critical listening is the listening to evaluate a message for the purpose of accepting or
accepting or rejecting it. Therefore it involves separating fact from opinion.

Verbal communication’s effectiveness relies heavily on good listening. Other than it

being a four-step process, good listening also involves avoiding listening barriers and
listening actively in order to comprehend the message literally and critically.

Activity 26.1
List some causes of poor listening

26.4. Listening Barriers

Pretense - Good pretenders appear to be attentive by even establishing eye contact,
nodding, smiling, ---occasionally answering questions but their thoughts and attention are
not directed towards the speaker. Their thoughts may be pre-occupied with something
more important or a problem or they may be bored because they have already heard the
message. Or it may be a difficult topic or one that is inconsistent with their beliefs and
therefore irrelevant.

Selective Listening: Selective listeners engage in a type of self-indulgent listening

behavior in which they do some actual listening but choose to perceive only part of what
the speaker says, because:
- That could be the only part they are interested in
- They could be acting defensively towards the speaker because of personal
insecurity, prejudice, past experiences of beliefs
- Could be taking an offensive position by collecting information to attack the
speaker later

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 - of ignoring other paralinguistic elements or situational elements that
contribute to the meaning

Self-Centeredness during Listening: This barrier occurs in listeners who are only
concerned with themselves. So they pay little attention to others. They often view their
own remarks as the only ones with merit. They dismiss anything else as irrelevant. They
only listen to speakers that reinforce their own views. More often than not self-centered
listeners are those who hold certain strong beliefs and so it comforts them to hear others
reinforce them and find it unpleasant to hear others speak favorably about concepts
viewpoints which they have strong negative feelings.

Listening in Spurs: Not concentrating fully but tuning on and off and gets distracted
easily by counter-arguments daydreaming or planning. This deters the listener from
searching for meaning and understanding in the verbal message.

Lack of interest, knowledge and preparedness: Being closed minded as a result of

prejudice and bias. Such listeners feel threatened and become resistant to messages that
contradict their beliefs, ideas and values. They sometimes value-judge and make hasty
decisions.

Lack of patience and making hasty judgment not letting the speaker finish interjecting
all the time and making judgments before the speaker completes and sometimes even
designing to talk physical and mental.

Distractions such as noise on one’ thoughts or internal state of being.

Credibility of the message: It may not be properly researched, supported or organized

or the speaker’s appearance, mannerism and open-mindedness may in them be hindrance
to effective listening.

We often judge people by their appearance of speaking manner instead of listening to

what they say. You can empower your listening by overcoming these pror listening habits
and adopting more effective listening strategies.

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26.5. Effective Listening Strategies
1. Thinking or listening is an active four-step process. Be committed and
prepared to listen, analyzing both verbal and non-verbal ones. The speaker has
the responsibility of making the speech interesting however the listener can
contribute to this by looking for ways of making the message by asking
questions like, “how can I utilize what is being said”? He should also appear
interested to encourage the speaker. Other than appearing interested, a good
listener should also get into the right mental attitude - ready to maintain
attention and with right background knowledge to elicit comprehension.

2. Keeping an Open Mind – Avoiding bias and trying to see things from
speaker’s point of view by being aware of his prejudices and biases and also
not feeling threatened, insulted or resistant to messages that contradict his
beliefs, ideas and values. Being open minded and also working hard to
overcome one’s prejudices and making sure they don’t affect one’s
perceptions.

3. Concentrating Maximumly resisting distractions, full concentration

involving expending both the physical and mental effort. Searching
thoroughly for meaning and understanding in several speeches situation
factors other than the words e.g. appearances, facial expressions, use of space,
non-verbal communication. To concentrate also means avoiding distractions
like moving objects on the desk, formulating counter-arguments, day-
dreaming or planning.
The natural attention curve for most people is quite high at the beginning. It
drops off as the message continues and increases again at the end. Combat
this problem by making special effort at the middle of the message and
keeping it constant. Avoid being distracted by the speaker’s appearance,
pronunciation or other embers of the environment.

4. Utilizing Several Non-verbal behaviour to respond, encourage the

speaker. Such as eye contact, erect posture, nodding, appropriate facial

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 expressions like smiling, looking at the speaker attentively, repeating back the
last few words said by the speaker (not a habit it can be irritating). All these
aspects encourage the speaker to continue assuring him that one is wanting,
interested, concerned and understanding.

5. Being patient and delaying evaluation – A good listener is one who lets the
speaker finish what they have to say without rushing them and never
interjecting unless necessary. Even when the speaker pauses, it doesn’t mean
he has finished. The listener should still be patient. Patience also means
avoiding hasty conclusions and delaying judgment i.e. the listener should hear
the speaker before making judgment. He waits for the speaker to fully present
and paraphrase his ideas, he also keeps the meaning clear of personal
influence.

Perhaps the hardest thing about being a good listener is trying not
to interrupt – A.C. Maniford says good listening is a process of
self-denial.

6. Evaluating the message and writing notes of main points

This involves determining what the main idea is and how it has been
developed. And also determining reasons for communication and if the ideas
are consistent, valid and timely. The writing of the notes helps one concentrate
and avoid distractions. Although writing in itself can be distracting but a good
outline with examples makes listening purposeful, active and memorable.

25.6. Summary
In this lecture we have dealt mainly with Effective Listening by
analyzing what good listening is and also what causes poor listening.
We have also analyzed the strategies for listening effectively. By now
you are aware that good listening is a four-step process: receiving,
interpreting, evaluating and responding. These are the steps you take
in comprehension and critical listening.

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 We have so far identified the barriers to good listening as: pretense,
selective listening, self-centredness, listening in spur, lack of interest,
knowledge and preparedness, closed mindedness, lack of patience,
hasty judgment, distractions, credibility of the message, speaker’s
appearance. We also analyzed that these can be overcome by taking
several steps such as being committed and prepared to listen,
concentration, open-mindedness, responding to encourage, being
patient, evaluating and taking notes. All these can help improve your
listening ability.

Activity 26.2
After going through this lecture, you should be able to answer the
following questions:
a) What is the difference between hearing and listening?
b) What are the four steps of a good listening process?
c) Why is listening important to you as an oral presenter?
d) Discuss any five barriers to effective listening
e) Discuss any five effective listening strategies.
f) Choose a specific case of poor listening in which you were
involved. Explain what went wrong.
g) Explain the steps you would need to take in order to become a
better listener.
h) Choose a lecture in one of your other classes. Analyze what the
lecturer does most effectively. Identify three things he/she could
do better to help students keep track of the lecture.

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