Steels

As a general definition, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with small amount of
impurity. The maximum carbon content in steel might be 2.0%, Figure 1.

Figure 1: Iron-carbon phase diagram showing the range of carbon content in steel and cast iron.

The iron carbon alloy with more than 2.0% carbon is called cast iron, which will be
discussed in the next chapter. Although steel is defined as an alloy of iron and carbon,
some elements manganese, silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, etc remain in the steels as
impurities and some elements such as manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel,

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molybdenum, vanadium, copper, etc are intentionally added in the steels as alloying
elements for various service properties. Steels are the most widely used engineering
material because of their good combination of various properties, Figure 2. Its market
price is also reasonable. There are thousands of different steel compositions currently
available around the world.

Figure 2: Total production of various engineering materials in 2012 and relative

consumptions of various metallic alloys.

Classification of Steels
Steel classification is important in understanding what types of steels are to be
used in certain applications, which are for others and the underlying reasons. Most
commercial steels are classified into two major groups as plain carbon and alloy steels.

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Plain Carbon Steels
Plain carbon steel is that steel group, where carbon is the only alloying element.
Generally, carbon is the most important alloying element for steel. Increasing carbon
content increases hardness and strength (Figure 3) and improves hardenability of the
steel. From the iron carbon diagram presented in Figure 1, it is clear that with increase
in the carbon content, the amount of pearlite increases up to 0.80%C, where 100%
pearlite is obtained. The strength of pearlite is very high (120000 psi) compared to that
of ferrite (40,000 psi). After 0.80%C, brittle phase cementite starts to form, Figure 1. As
a result, after 1%C the brittleness of the steel significantly increases and reduces
weldability because of its tendency to form martensite. This means carbon content can
be both a blessing and a curse when it comes to commercial steel. As a result, plain
carbon steels usually are iron with less than 1 percent carbon (Figure 3), plus small
amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and silicon. Here it is to be mentioned that
the weldability and other characteristics of these steels are primarily a product of carbon
content, although the alloying and residual elements do have a minor influence.

Figure 3: Effect of carbon content on mechanical properties of plain carbon steels.

Plain carbon steels are subdivided into five groups:

1. Low carbon steel
2. Mild steel
3. Medium carbon steel
4. High carbon steel
5. Very high carbon

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Low Carbon Steel
Low carbon steel is often called dead soft steels that have less than 0.10 percent
carbon. They machine and weld nicely and are very ductile in nature. Because, in low
carbon steel, pearlite content (black grains) is almost absent or very low (Figure 1). As a
result, the strength of this steel is also low. At the same time, dead soft steel possesses
the ability to be easily formed. Some of the uses of this steel are cans, car bodies,
chains, nails, thin wire, etc, Figure 4.

Figure 4: Some applications of low carbon steels.

Mild Steel or Structural Steels

Mild steels have carbon content from 0.15 to 0.35 percent. Increased carbon
means increase in pearlite content (Figure 1), increased hardness and tensile strength,
decreased ductility (Figure 3) and more difficulty for machining. This grade of steel is
also known as structural steels as it is suitable for many structural applications because
of its good combination of mechanical properties, especially yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength and ductility or percentage of elongation, Figure 3. Mild steel is one of
the most common types of steels, which have been emerged as an indispensable
material for many industries. This steel is available in the market under different
specifications to suit the diverse requirements. There are several brands of mild steel
that are introduced into the market by competent companies. In the commercial levels,
different types of mild steel products are available, some of which are presented in
following Figure 5.

Figure 5: Various types of mild steel products.

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 Because of a good combination of various mechanical properties mild steels are
used for making bullets, nuts & bolts, chains, hinges, knives, armour, pipes, steel
structure buildings, concrete reinforcing bars, sheets for building ships, magnets, etc.
Many nations and organizations have their own classification system for steels
and cast irons. Because of the complexity of these different classification systems, only
those used in the United States such as The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) system are described here for a limited
number of steels. The system is based solely on chemical compositions of the steels. In
the four or five digit code designation, the last two or three digits represent the carbon
content and the first two digits represent the compositional class. Thus, in the example
of AISI/SAE 1020 mentioned previously, the “10” represents the class of plain carbon
steels and the “20” represents the carbon content of 0.20% C (Table 1).

Table 1: Various standard compositions.

Designation Chemical Compositions

Carbon Manganese
AISI 1010 0.10 0.45
AISI 1020 0.20 0.45

Because of the confusion of different systems, a number of technical societies and

U.S. governmental agencies devised another system what is known as the Unified
Numbering System (UNS). There is a UNS designation for each steel composition and it
consists of a letter followed by five digits. The system fully incorporates the AISI/SAE
system. For example, the UNS designation for AISI/SAE 1020 is G10200. Another
system was devised by The American Society for Testing and Materials System
(ASTM). This system is not based only on composition but on the steel product and
application, for example, railroad rails, boiler tubes, plate, and bolts. ASTM has devised
a system of specifications that contain composition, mechanical properties and other
required characteristics of steels and cast irons, Tables 2 and 3. The ASTM system
reaches far beyond ferrous materials and includes other materials, such as rubber,
cement, wood, fabric, copper and so on. The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) devised a similar system, but it is generally limited to boiler and heat
exchanger steels and other materials that are covered by the boiler code specifications.

Table 2: Comparison between AISI and UNS.

Designation Chemical Compositions (wt%)

AISI/SAE Number UNS Number Carbon Manganese Other

Plain Carbon Steels
1010 G10100 0.10 0.45
1020 G10200 0.20 0.45
A36 K02, Low Alloy 0.29 1.00 0.20 Cu (min)

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 A516 Grade 70 Steel600 0.31 1.00 0.20 Si
K02700
High Strength, Low Alloy Steels
A440 K12810 0.28 1.35 0.30 Si (max), 0.20 Cu (min)
A633 Grade E K12002 0.22 1.35 0.30 Si, 0.08 V, 0.02 N, 0.03Nb
A656 Grade 1 K11804 0.18 1.60 0.60 Si, 0.1 V, 0.20 Al, 0.015N

Table 3: Details that are expressed by ASTM numbers.

ASTM TS (MPa) YS Ductility% Typical Applications

(MPa)
Plain Carbon Steels
1010 325 180 28 Automobile panels, nails and
wire

1020 380 205 25 Pipe, structural and sheet steel

A36 400 220 23 Structural (bridges and

buildings)

A516 Grade 70 485 260 21 Low temperature pressure

vessels
High Strength, Low Alloy Steels
A440 435 290 21 Structures that are bolted or
riveted

A633 Grade E 520 380 23 Structures used at low ambient

temperatures

A656 Grade 1 655 552 15 Truck frames and railway cars

Medium Carbon Steels

Steels with 0.4 to 0.6 percent carbon is called medium carbon steels. These steels
can be challenging to weld. Preheating, post heating (to control cooling rate) and
sometimes even heating during welding becomes necessary to produce acceptable
welds and to control the mechanical properties of the steel after welding. As per Figure
3, the tensile strength of this steel is high enough with reduced ductility. Because of
relatively high rigidity of these steels, they are widely used for making knife, shaft, gear,
beams for steel structure building, etc (Figure 6).

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 Figure 6: Some products of medium carbon steels.

High Carbon Steel

High carbon steels contain 0.6-0.9%C. Very high carbon steels might have up to
2.0% carbon, but in most cases the carbon content is up to 1.5%. Depending on the
specific needs of the person using it, high and very high carbon steels can have many
advantages over other options. These types of steels are excellent for making cutting
tools. The hardness levels and metal wear resistance of high carbon steel is also rated
very highly. High carbon steel remains popular for a wide variety of uses. This type of
steel is preferred in the manufacturing of many tools such as drill bits, knives, masonry
nails, saws, metal cutting tools and wood cutting tools, Figure 7.

Figure 7: Some products of high and very carbon steels.

Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are those grades of steels whose properties are enhanced by the
presence of one or more elements along with the basic alloying element carbon. In plain
carbon steel, along with carbon, there might be Mn, Si, Cu, Al, Bo, Cr, etc. However,
when the percentage of one or more elements exceeds the prescribed limit for them
(Mn:1.65%, Si:0.6%, Cu:0.6%, Aluminum, Boron, Chromium is up to 0.1%, Cobalt,
Columbium, Molybdenum, Nickel, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium and Zirconium in any
amount added intentionally), it will no longer be the member of plain carbon steel group.
Most common enhanced properties of alloy steel compared to that of the base steel
(plain carbon steel) are:

1. Greater hardenability
2. Less distortion and cracking
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 3. Greater ductility at high strength
4. Greater high temperature strength
5. Greater stress relief at given hardness
6. Better machinability at high hardness
7. High elastic ratio and endurance strength.
8. Better corrosion resistance, etc.

The alloy steels are generally divided into two classes: the low-alloy steels and the
high-alloy steels, Table 4. They are divided according to composition as follows:

Table 4: Range of alloy content in various alloy steels.

Type of Steel Total Alloying Elements, wt%

Low Alloy Steels <8

High Alloy Steels 8
Microalloyed 0.5

Besides the low and high alloy steels, there might be another another type of steel
variety, which is microalloyed steel. In this steel, the total content alloying elements
would not exceed 0.5%. This type of steel usually has high strength, especially because
of very fine grained microstructures.
The principal elements that remain in steels and that are added intentionally to
make alloy steels include carbon, manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum,
copper and vanadium. Each element, either singly or in combination with other
elements, imparts certain properties and characteristics to the steel. The roles of each
element are was described below.

Carbon (C)
The most essential alloying element for making steels, without carbon there will be
no steel. Carbon is added to increase solid solution strength and hardness as well as to
increase hardenability. It dissolves in iron to form ferrite and austenite and combines
with iron to form carbide (cementite: Fe3C). The carbide is a component of pearlite.

Manganese (Mn)
It is an essential alloying element in most steels, which is added to increase solid-
solution strength and hardness as well as to increase hardenability. Manganese is a
weak carbide former. It counteracts brittleness caused by sulfur (iron sulfide) through
the formation of a manganese sulfide (MnS). High levels of manganese produce an
austenitic steel with improved wear and abrasion resistance.

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Phosphorus (P)
Usually, it is considered as an impurity element for most steels. However, it can be
added to low-carbon steels to increase strength and hardness. It also improves
machinability of free-machining steels. However, it promotes temper embrittlement,
forms an undesirable iron phosphide (Fe3P) at high phosphorus levels.

Sulfur (S)
It is usually considered as an impurity element for steel. However, it is added to
special steels for improved machinability.

Silicon (Si)
Silicon is an essential alloying element in most steels, which increases solid-solution
strength and hardness as well as hardenability. It is added to molten steel to remove
oxygen (deoxidize). As a result of deoxidation, it can form silicate stringers (silicon
dioxide inclusions). However, it does not form carbide in steels. It improves oxidation
resistance. This element is added to special steels to improve electrical and magnetic
properties as well as hardenability. Silicon increases the susceptibility to decarburization
of steel and cast irons because it promotes graphitization reaction where cementite
becomes broken into iron and graphitic carbon. The carbon is then oxidized easily.

Nickel (Ni)
Ni is an essential alloying element in some steels, which increases solid-solution
strength and hardness as well as hardenability. It increases toughens of steels,
especially at low temperatures, but does not form a carbide in steel. Because of
austenite stabilizing nature, it helps high-chromium stainless steels to be austenitic at
room temperatures.

Chromium (Cr)
It is an essential alloying element in some low-alloy steels and all stainless steels.
This is added to slightly increase solid-solution strength and hardness as well as to
increase hardenability. It also increases resistance to corrosion and high-temperature
oxidation. Chromium is a carbide former (greater than manganese); its carbides
improve wear and abrasion resistance and provide high-temperature strength.

Molybdenum (Mo)
Mo is an essential alloying element in some low-alloy steels and tool steels. It is
added to increase solid-solution strength and hardness as well as to increase
hardenability. Mo is a strong carbide former (stronger than chromium). It improves high-

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temperature properties, including creep strength, counteracts temper embrittlement and
enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels.
Vanadium (V)
Vanadium is an important element in microalloyed steels. It is added to increase
strength and hardness of steel by grain-size control (grain refinement) as well as to
increase hardenability. V is a strong nitride and also a carbide former. It minimizes loss
in strength during tempering

Niobium (Nb)
Niobium is an important element in microalloyed steels, which is added to increase
strength and hardness of steel by grain-size control (grain refinement) as well as to
increase hardenability. It is a strong carbide former and it also forms a nitride.

Zirconium
Zirconium (very small amount 0.1%) increases strength and limits grains sizes.
Strength can be notably increased at very low temperatures (below freezing). Steel's
that include zirconium up to about 0.1% content will have smaller grains sizes and resist
fracture.

Tungsten
Tungsten is a very strong carbide forming element. It has a very high density (more
than 19.0). It strengthens the steel and increases wear resistance as well as cutting
performance.

Low Alloy Steels

Many of the AISI/SAE low alloy steels have high strength and, in some cases,
ultrahigh strength (a yield strength above 1380 MPa or 200 ksi), so low alloy steels are
termed high strength low alloy steels (HSLA). An attempt is made here to explain the
basic classification systems. More precisely, HSLA steels are a group of low and
medium carbon steels that generally use small amounts of alloying elements to attain
yield strengths usually above about 345 MPa (50 ksi) in the hot-rolled, cold-rolled,
annealed, stress-relieved, accelerated-cooled, direct-quenched or normalized condition.
In some cases they are called microalloyed steels, because of the small amounts of
vanadium, columbium (niobium), and/or titanium (total alloy is less than 0.5%) that are
added for grain refinement and precipitation strengthening.
Most of the tool steels are high strength low alloy steels. Depending on the service
conditions, various alloying elements are added in the steel in varying proportions.
Some varieties of low alloy tool steels and their applications are presented in Table 5.
Along with low alloy steel, one high alloy (containing more than 8% total alloy content)
tool steel (M1) are also presented in this table.

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 Table 5: Range of alloy content in various alloy steels.

AISI Chemical Compositions (wt%)

Number C Cr Ni Mo W V Typical
Applications
M1 0.85 3.75 0.30 max 8.70 1.75 1.20 Drills, saws; lathe and
planer tools

A2 1.00 5.15 0.30 max 1.15 - 0.35 Punches, embossing

dies

D2 1.50 12.0 0.30 max 0.95 - 1.10 max Cutlery, drawing dies

O1 0.95 0.5 0.3 max - 0.5 0.3 max Shear blades, cutting
tools

S1 0.50 1.49 0.3 max 0.5 max 2.25 0.25 Pipe cutters, concrete
drills

W1 1.10 0.15 max 0.2 max 0.1 max 0.15 max 0.1 max Blacksmith tools,
woodworking tools

High Alloy Steel

High-alloy steels generally contain more than 8% total alloying elements. These
steels include the corrosion-resistant (stainless) steels, the heat-resistant steels and the
wear-resistant steels (tool steels). The stainless steels and the tool steels fall under an
established classification system. First the corrosion-resistant steels are examined.
One the most important variety of high performance tool steel is the high speed
steel. When tool steels contain a combination of more than 7 % tungsten, molybdenum
and vanadium, along with more than 0.60% carbon, they are referred to as high speed
steels (HSS). This grade of tool steel was first introduced in USA. This term is
descriptive of their ability to cut metals at the "high speeds" in use through the 1940’s.
The T-1 type with 18% W has not changed its composition since 1910 and was the
main type used up to 1940, when substitution by molybdenum took place. Nowadays,
only 5-10% of the HSS in Europe is of this type and only 2% in the USA.
The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total maximizes
efficiently the hardness and toughness of high speed steels and maintains these
properties at the high temperatures generated when cutting metals. The main use of
high speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various cutting tools: drills, taps,
milling cutters, gear cutters, saw blades, etc., although usage for punches and dies is
increasing. Some important grades of high speed steels are given in Table 6.

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 Table 6: Range of alloy content in various alloy steels.
High Speed Steel Varieties
Grade C Cr Mo W V Co
T-1 0.75 - - 18.0 1.1 -
M-2 0.95 4.2 5.0 6.0 2.0 -
M-7 1.00 3.8 8.7 8.7 2.0 -
M-42 1.10 3.8 9.5 9.5 1.2 8.0

Stainless Steels
Iron and the most common iron alloy steels, from a corrosion viewpoint, are
relatively poor materials since they rust in air, corrode in acids and scale in furnace
atmospheres. In spite of this, there is a group of iron-base alloys, the iron-chromium-
nickel alloys known as stainless steels, which do not rust in sea water, are resistant to
concentrated acids and which do not scale at temperatures up to 1100°C. These steels
have unique and universal usefulnesses, because of a very good combination of
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance at room temperature as well as high
temperature and manufacturing characteristics, which made them to be an
indispensable tool for the designers. The usage of stainless steel is small compared
with that of carbon steels (Figure 2), but exhibits a steady growth, in contrast to the
constructional steels. Stainless steels as a group is perhaps more heterogeneous than
the constructional steels and their properties are in many cases relatively unfamiliar to
the designer. In some ways, stainless steels are an unexplored world. In order to take
advantage of these materials an increased understanding of their basic properties is
very essential. For the corrosion-resistant steels, the system established by the AISI is
not based on composition, but on microstructure. Thus, the stainless steels are
classified as austenitic, ferritic, martensitic and precipitation-hardening types.

Austenitic Stainless Steels

These stainless steels have a microstructure of austenite at room temperature.
Thus, they are nonmagnetic. Austenitic stainless steel (such as the popular type 304)
has been called 18/8 stainless steel, because it contains nominally 18% Cr and 8% Ni.
There are 30 compositional variations in the standard austenitic stainless steels.
Austenitic stainless steels are essentially chromium-nickel alloys. The chromium varies
between 15 and 24% and the nickel between 3 and 22%. Austenitic stainless is very
soft and ductile. This steel does not respond to heat treatment. As a result, for higher
required strength, they are cold worked. The corrosion resistance of the austenitic
stainless steels is superior to other types of stainless steel. The microstructure of a
typical austenitic stainless steel is shown in Figure 8.

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 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8: Microstructures of (a) austenitic, (b) ferritic, (c) martensitic and (d) precipitation
hardening stainless steels.

Ferritic Stainless Steels

The number of standard grades of ferritic stainless steel is much smaller than the
austenitic grades. They are basically chromium steels with chromium ranging between
10.5 and 27%. These alloys deliberately lack high nickel contents, because nickel
renders the steels austenitic (as previously mentioned). The ferritic stainless steels are
the lower-cost stainless steels, because they contain less alloy, and they do not contain
nickel (nickel is more expensive than chromium). The microstructure of a typical ferritic
stainless steel is shown in Figure 8 and their some common applications are shown in
Figure 9.

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 Figure 9: Various products of ferritic stainless steels.

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic grades of stainless steel were developed in order to provide a group of
stainless alloys that would be corrosion resistant and hardenable by heat treating. The
martensitic grades are straight chromium steels containing no nickel. They are magnetic
and can be hardened by heat treating. The martensitic grades are mainly used where
hardness, strength, and wear resistance are required.
Martensitic stainless steels have chemical compositions similar to the ferritic steels.
However, due the addition of carbon and chromium, they can be hardened and
strengthened by heat treatment, in a similar way to carbon steels. The main alloying
element is chromium, typically 12 to 15%, molybdenum (0.2-1%) with or without nickel.
In the annealed condition, they have tensile yield strengths of about 275 MPa and so
they are usually machined, cold formed or cold worked in this condition. The strength
obtained by heat treatment depends on the carbon and chromium content of the alloy.
Optimum corrosion resistance is attained in the heat-treated, i.e. hardened and
tempered condition. In comparison with the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless
steels, martensitic stainless steels are less resistant to corrosion. In the hardened
condition the strength and hardness are high, but the ductility and toughness are low. In
order to obtain useful engineering properties, martensitic stainless steels are normally
tempered. As mentioned martensitic stainless steel have the highest strength but also
the lowest corrosion resistance of the stainless steels. Due to their high strength in
combination with some corrosion resistance, martensitic steels are suitable for
applications where the material is subjected to both corrosion and wear. Typical
applications are: aerospace, automotive, hydroelectric engines, cutlery, defense, power
hand tools, pump parts, valve seats, chisels, bushings, ball bearings, sporting
equipment industry, surgical instruments etc (Figure 10).

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 Figure 10: Various products of austenitic ferritic stainless steels.

Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are chromium and nickel containing steels
that provide an optimum combination of the properties of martensitic and austenitic
grades. Like martensitic grades, they are known for their ability to gain high strength
through heat treatment and they also have the corrosion resistance of austenitic
stainless steels.
The high tensile strengths of precipitation hardening stainless steels come after a
heat treatment process that leads to precipitation hardening of a martensitic or
austenitic matrix. Hardening is achieved through the addition of one or more of the
elements copper, aluminium, titanium, niobium and molybdenum. The most well known
precipitation hardening steel is 17-4 PH. The name comes from the additions 17%
chromium and 4% nickel. It also contains 4% copper and 0.3% niobium. 17-4 PH is also
known as stainless steels grade 630. The advantage of precipitation hardening steels is
that they can be supplied in a “solution treated” condition, which is readily machineable.
After machining or another fabrication method, a single, low temperature heat treatment
can be applied to increase the strength of the steel. This is known as ageing or age-
hardening. As it is carried out at low temperature, the component undergoes no
distortion. The specific compositional variations are listed in Table 7. The microstructure
of a typical precipitation-hardening stainless steel is shown in Figure 8 and some
products of precipitation hardened stainless are shown in Figure 11.

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 Table 7: Chemical compositions, properties and uses of various stainless steels.

AISI Compositions (wt%) Condition TS YS %El Applications

Number (MPa) (MPa) (50mm
GL)
Ferritic Stainless Steels
0.08 C, 11.0 Cr, Automotive exhaust
409 1.0 Mn, 0.50 Annealed 380 205 20 components, tanks for
Ni, 0.75 Ti agricultural sprays

Valves of high temp

446 0.20 C, 25 Cr, Annealed 515 275 20 applications, glass
1.5 Mn molds, combustion
chambers, etc.
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Glass, plate, basin,
304 0.08 C, 19 Cr, 9 Ni, 2.0 Annealed 515 205 40 chemical and food
Mn processing equipment,
cryogenic vessels, etc.

0.03 C, 17Cr, 12 Ni, Annealed 485 170 40 Welding constructions

316L 2.5Mo, 2 Mn
Martensitic Stainless Steels

410 0.15 C, 12.5 Cr, 1.0 Mn Annealed 485 275 20 Rifle barrels, cutlery,
Q&T 825 620 12 jet engine parts.

440A 0.7 C, 17 Cr, 0.75 Mo, Annealed 725 415 20 Cutlery, bearings,
1.0 Mn Q&T 1650 5 surgical tools, razors,
1790 etc.

Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

Springs, knives,
17-7PH 0.09 C, 17 Cr, 7 Ni, 1.0 Precipitation 1450 1310 1-6 hardened pressure
Al, 1.0 Mn vessels, etc.

Figure 11: Some applications of precipitation hardened stainless steels.

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