Topic6 Piezoresistive Sensors PDF

MEMS 2017-1
Piezoresistive Sensors
Oscar E. Ramos
Objectives
• To understand the principle of piezoresistivity and how to

compute piezoresistance for generic cases
• To understand the relation between stress-strain and

piezoresistivity
• To discover some real applications of piezoresistive

sensing
2
Outline
• Introduction
• Piezoresistivity
• General Piezoresistance
• 2-D Piezoresistor
• Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements
• Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors
3
Introduction
Piezoresistive Sensors
- Discovered by Lord Kelvin (1856)
- Etimology: “piezo” from Greek piezein=“press”
• Principle:
- An electrical resistor changes its resistance when subjected to strain (deformation)
- Note: it cannot be used to generate voltage
• How to use it in sensors?

- Applications where some phenomenon causes beams or thin plates to deform
- The deformation is measured by resistance change
• Examples of MEMS devices that use piezoresistivity:

- Pressure sensors - Accelerometers
- Tactile sensors - Flow sensors
4
Introduction
Example: Pressure Sensors
• MEMS pressure sensor:

- Thin plate of silicon with pressure differential across the plate
- Resulting deformation causes strain along the edges of the plate
Top Side
View View
Diagram of Piezoresistive-based Pressure Sensor [Chang Liu]
- Resistors along the edge of the plate (they will change their resistance in proportion to
the applied strain)
5
Introduction
Example: Piezoresistive Accelerometer
• Structure:
- Large moving mass connected to a flexible beam
- As a result of acceleration of the mass, the beam will deform → strain
Case Study: 6.2 Diagram of Piezoresistive-based Accelerometer [Chang Liu]

6
Outline
• Introduction
7
Piezoresistivity
• Piezoresistor
Resistor whose resistance changes with applied strain
• Recall: resistance of a resistor

L
R
A
• When stress is applied:

- Strain is originated
- With strain, resistance changes:
• Due to shape deformation (physical change in dimensions): mainly in metal resistors
• Due to resistivity and strain dependency: mainly in semiconductors, e.g. Si
8
Piezoresistivity
Change in R due to Shape Deformation
• Stress generates deformation in shape:

- Resistance changes accordingly
- Dominant in metals
• The strain relation is given by Poisson’s ratio

sy sz lateral strain
  
sx sx axial strain
• Example: strain gauges
9
Piezoresistivity
Change in R due to Resistivity-Strain Dependency
• Stress generates strain

- Resistivity is a function of strain
- Dominant in semiconductors
• General relationship
Nonlinear function Assumption: linear relationship
• For semiconductor piezoresistors:

- This dependency is greater than the changes due to dimensions change
10
Piezoresistivity
Gauge Factor
• Gauge factor (G):

Relates change in resistance with the strain (change in length)
dR dL
G
R L
• Derivation of the gauge factor
- When solid is deformed, there is strain in all 3 axes
dr
2R A L
F Resistance: R
A
L dL
- Variation of R
 R   R   R 
dR    d     dL    dA
    L   A 
dR d  dL dA
  
R  L A
11
Piezoresistivity
Gauge Factor
dr
• Derivation of the gauge factor
2R A F
- Variation of R
dR d  dL dA L dL
  
R  L A
ST dr / r dL dr
dR d  dL dL Poisson’s ratio:      
   2 SL dL / L L r
R  L L
dR dL dL dL dA 2 rdr dr dL
E   2 Variation of area:   2  2
R L L L A  r2 r L
d
dR dL Change in resistivity by stress (σ):  
 (1  2   E ) 
R L
dL d dL
where gauge factor:   Es  E E
L  L
G  (1  2   E ) π: piezoresistance coefficient
E: Young’s modulus
12
Piezoresistivity
Gauge Factor
• When a solid body is deformed

It experiences strain in all three axes:
1 longitudinal + 2 transverse
• Total resistance change:

Summation of changes due to longitudinal and transverse strain components
dR  dR   dR  L: longitudinal
     GL sL  GT sT
R  R  L  R T T: transverse
• Examples:
Longitudinal Transverse
piezoresistor piezoresistor
13
Piezoresistivity
Gauge Factor: Summary
dR dL G  1  2   E
G
R L
Geometric Piezoresistance
term term
• In metals:
- Geometric term (1 + 2υ) dominates: G  1  2
- G small
• In semiconductors:
- Change in resistivity (πE) dominates: G   E
- |G| ≈ 50 - 200
• Some Gauge factors

Material Gauge factor (G)
CuNi 2.0
Platine/Iridium 6.0
Silicon type p (111) 170
Silicon type n (100) -130
14
Piezoresistivity
Exercise
Compare the Gauge factor of a piezoresistance made of Al with p-silicon having
stress in [110] direction. Which one is bigger?
Additional data:
- Piezoresistance coefficient for p-Si: π110 = 71.8 x 10-11 Pa-1
- Young modulus for p-Si: E110 = 168.7 GPa
- Poisson’s ratio for p-Si: υ110 = 0.0054
- Poisson’s ratio for Al: υAl = 0.33
G for Al ≈ 1.66
G for p-Si ≈ 121.12
15
Piezoresistivity
Wheatstone Bridge
• Often used to read resistance changes

• Circuit:
General Wheatstone bridge Common configuration
Rs  R  R
 R2 R4  1  R 
Vout     Vin Vout    Vin
R
 1  R2 R3  R4  2  2 R  R 
• Advantage: it is temperature insensitive

16
Piezoresistivity
Materials: a) Metal Strain Gauges
• Typical strain gauge patterns:
• For MEMS sensors, they are fabricated on mechanical beams and

membranes
- Usual material: metal alloys
- Metal resistors deposited and patterned
- Gauge factors from 0.8 to 3.0
• Metal can sustain greater elongation (than semiconductors) before
fracture
17
Piezoresistivity
Materials: b) Single Crystal Silicon
• Single crystal: uniform orientation throughout the entire material
Single crystal
• They undergo change due to strain

- Primarily due to change in physical resistivity of the material
• Semiconductor strain gauges:

- By doping silicon
- Piezoresistive coefficient influenced by orientation (crystallographic direction)
- Change in resistivity highly dependent on doping concentration of the doped
silicon
18
Piezoresistivity
Materials: c) Polycrystalline Silicon
• Polycristalline Silicon:
- Same crystal orientation within individual grains
- Grains separated by grain boundaries
Polycrystal
• Characteristics:
- Piezoresistivity with much smaller gauge factor
- Gauge factor not dependent on the orientation of the resistor
• They are required to have low stress and good conformity

- Different from polysilicon used in electronic devices
19
Outline
• Introduction
20
General Piezoresistance
Resistivity Tensor
• In metallic materials: usually isotropic (Ohm’s law)

- Similar in every direction
E: Electric field
E  J J: Electric current density
ρ: Resistivity
Ex   J x  Ex    0 0 Jx 
Ey   J y E    0  0   J y  In Cartesian coordinates
 y 
Ez   J z  Ez   0 0    J z 
• In single crystal material: usually anisotropic
 Ex    xx  xy  xz   J x 
E     yy

 yz   J y 
 y   yx Resistivity ρij
 Ez    zx  zy  zz   J z 
Resistivity tensor

21
Piezoresistive Coefficient Tensor
• Resistivity tensor is symmetric (Onsager’s theorem)
  xx  xy  xz   1 6 5 
 
ρ    yx  yy  yz     6 2  4 
  zx  zy  zz   5 4 3 

• General piezoresistance effect:

Stress tensor (T) in a crystalline material causes change of resistivity tensor
 1   11  12  13  14  15  16   T1 
     22  23  24  25  26  T2  Normal stress
 2   21
 3   31  32  33  34  35  36  T3 
   
 4   41
  42  43  44  45  46  T4 
 5   51  52  53  54  55  56  T5  Shear stress
    
 6   61  62  63  64  65  66  T6 
Variation in ρ Piezoresistive coefficient tensor Stress

 22
Piezoresistive Coefficient of Silicon
• Silicon: face-centered cubic (FCC) with symmetry in Oh group

• By symmetric operations: only 3 non-zero independent components in Π
 11  12  12 0 0 0 
 001   0 
 12  11  12 0 0
  12  11 0 0 0  When x,y,z axes line up with
   12  <100> direction
 010 
0 0 0  44 0 0 
 100 
0 For other directions, transformations required
0 0 0  44 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0  44 
• The coefficients are (in 10-11 Pa-1):
π11 π12 π44 ρ [Ωcm]

p-Si 6.6 -1.1 138.1 7.8
n-Si -102.2 53.4 -13.6 11.7
Oh: group for octahedral symmetry

23
Exercise
We have an n-Si filament in the [100] direction with cross sectional area of
A=1mm2. A tensile force of 10N is applied on the filament along the [100]
direction. What is the relative change of resistivity?
  0.01
24
Piezoresistance in Arbitrary Coordinate System
• Piezoresistance:
 : Piezoresistive tensor in initial coordinates
1  ' : Piezoresistive tensor in new coordinates
' N  N
where
 l12 m12 n12 2m1n1 2n1l1 2l1m1 

 2 
 l2 m22 n22 2m2 n2 2n2l2 2l2 m2   l1 m1 n1 
 l32 2 2
2l3m3 
N 
m3 n3 2m3 n3 2n3l3
 and R  l2 m2 n2 
l2l3 m2 m3 n2 n3 m2 n3  m3 n2 n2l3  n3l2 m2l3  m3l2  l3 m3 n3 
l l m3 m1 n3n1 m3n1  m1n3 n3l1  n1l3 m3l1  m1l3 
 31  Initial coordinates in terms
 l1l2 m1m2 n1n2 m1n2  m2 n1 n1l2  n2l1 m1l2  m2l1  of new coordinates
• Components of  ' :
6 6
 'ij  N ik  kl M lj M  N 1
k 1 l 1
25
 0   11   12   44
Bao, M. (2005). Analysis and design principles of MEMS devices. 26

 0   11   12   44
Bao, M. (2005). Analysis and design principles of MEMS devices. 27

Example 1
Calculation of rotated piezoresistive components π’11, π’12, π’66 for unit axes
X 110 , Y 110 , 001 in p-Silicon type
Coefficients in 10-11 Pa-1 for silicon wafer (100)

π11 π12 π44
p-Si 6.6 -1.1 138.1
Solution
R: Represents original system in terms of new coordinate system

(start with new, end up with original)
cos(45 )  sin(45 ) 0   12 1
2
0   l1 m1 n1 
   
Rz (45 )   sin(45 ) cos(45 ) 0     12 1
2
0   l2 m2 n2 

 0 0 1   0 0 1  l3 m3 n3 

28
Example 1
• Alternative 1: using analytical expressions
 '11   11  2 0  l12 m12  l12 n12  m12 n12   '12   12   0  l12l22  m12 m22  n12 n22 
1
  11  2 0l12 m12   12   0
2
1   
  11   0  11  12  44 1 1 1
2 2 2 2   11   12   44
2 2 2
 7.18  109 Pa 1
 6.63 1010 Pa 1
 '66   44  2 0  l12l22  m12 m22  n12 n22 

  44   0
  11   12
 7.7  1011 Pa 1  0   11   12   44
29
Example 1
• Alternative 2: using generic multiplications (e.g. in some software)

6 6
' N  N 1
or  'ij  N ik  kl N lj1
k 1 l 1
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1 
 
 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
N   M  N 1   
 0 0 0 0.5  0.5 0  0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 
   
 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0  0 0 0  0.5 0.5 0 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0  0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 
i=6; j=6; piprime = 0;

for m=1:6  '11  7.18 109 Pa 1
for n=1:6
Para piprime = piprime+N(i,m)*Pi(m,n)*M(n,j);
 '12  6.63 1010 Pa 1
66
end
end
 '66  7.7 1011 Pa 1
piprime
30
Common Cases
• Common cases:
- Effective longitudinal and transverse piezoresistive coefficient for most
commonly occurring cases when piezoresistor points in <100>, <110>, <111>
directions:
• Gauge factors computed as (why?):
G E
31
Example 2
A longitudinal piezoresistor is embedded on the top surface of a silicon cantilever
near the anchored base. The cantilever points in the <110> direction. The
piezoresistor is p-type doped with resistivity of 7.8 Ωcm. Find the longitudinal
gauge factor of the piezoresistor. Young modulus of silicon is 168 x 109 Pa.
32
Outline
• Introduction
33
2-D Piezoresistor
• In many microstructure applications:

- 1 dimension << other 2 dimensions → approximate as 2D
- Current flows only in one of the dimensions
• 2-D Piezoresistor scheme
z' V: applied voltage

x' h
I 'x y' I 'x Piezoresistance coordinates: x’, y’, z’
w Si crystal coordinates: x, y, z
l Both related by R
+ V -
• General Ohm’s law

The ‘ indicates the frame
 Ex   1 6 5   J x  of the resistance
 E       2  4   J y 
 y  6 E: Electric Field
 Ez   5  4 3   J z  J: Current density
34
2-D Piezoresistor
• Ohm’s law in 2D
- No perpendicular electric field (E’z = 0)
- No current normal to layer (J’z = 0)
- Since l >> w, J’y = 0 (except near electrodes)
 Ex   1 6   J x  Ex  1J x

 E    
 y   6  2   0  Ex   6 J x
- Total current: I x  J x A  J x wh
- Applied voltage generates: Ex  V / l
- Resistance:
V l l
R   1 R  1
I x wh A
35
2-D Piezoresistor
• Without stress: R0, ρ0

• Change in R only due to ρ
R  R  R0 R 1  0 R
l l   1 Sometimes called ∆1
R  1   0 R0 0 R0
A A
• Change in R due to stress (general case)
 1   '11  '12  '13  '14  '15  '16   x   x   T1

     '  '22  '23  '24  '25  '26   y      
 2   21  y  T2 
All in frame  3   '31  '32  '33  '34  '35  '36   z   z  T3
of resistor       
 
 4   '41
  '42  '43  '44  '45  '46   yz   yz  T4
 5   '51  '52  '53  '54  '55  '56   xz   xz  T5
        
 
 6   '61
  '62  '63  '64  '65  '66   xy   xy  T6
Only interested in x direction: 1   11  x   12  y   13  z   14  yz   15  xz   16  xy

36
2-D Piezoresistor
• Change in R due to stress:
1   11  x   12  y   13  z   14  yz   15  xz   16  xy
• In 2D:
- On surface of diaphragm or beam
- Neglect the z components
1   11  x   12  y   16  xy
- Relates change of R given values of

• Longitudinal stress (σ’x)
• Transversal stress (σ’y)
 x
• Shear stress (τ’xy)
 y
37
2-D Piezoresistor
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
• Idea: 4 piezoresistances in a Wheatstone bridge (in the Si substrate)

• Measure deformation on membrane
n n-type Si Vcc
p
p R4
p R1 R4
n n
R3 R1 [110] Vo
p-type Si n
Piezoresistance R3
p R2
R2 [110]
- There are:
• 2 R parallel to the surface (membrane edges) σp: stress parallel to the edge
• 2 R perpendicular to the surface σn: stress normal to the edge
38
2-D Piezoresistor
• Piezoresistive coefficients
[110]
[010]
45°
[110]
[100]
 44   11
- Change to proper direction (as in the example) In p-type Si:
 44   12
  '11   11  2 0  l1 m1  l1 n1  m1 n1 
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1  44
  11   0   11  ( 11   12   44 )  ( 11   12   44 )  '11 
2 2 2 2
  '12   12   0  l12l22  m12 m22  n12 n22 

1 1 1  44
  12   0   12  ( 11   12   44 )  ( 11   12   44 )  '12  
2 2 2 2
  '16  2 0  l13l2  m13 m2  n13 n2   0
39
2-D Piezoresistor
• Relative change in resistive values

n
p
R4
p p
σp: stress parallel to the edge
n n σn: stress normal to the edge
R3 R1
n
 '1   '11  x   '12  y   '16  'xy
p
R2
- For R1 and R3:
R1 R3 
   '11  n   12  p  44 ( n   p )
R1 R3 2
- For R2 and R4
R2 R4 
   '11  p   12  n  44 ( p   n )
R2 R4 2
40
2-D Piezoresistor
• Analysis of the Wheatstone bridge

Vcc
 R2   R3 
Vo  Vcc   V
 cc  
 R1  R2   R3  R4  R1 R4
- Adding variations to the resistances  
Vo
 R2  R2   R3  R3 
Vo  Vcc   V
 cc  
 R1  R1  R2  R2   R3  R3  R4  R4  R2 R3
  R2     R3  
 R2 1     R3 1   
 R2   V   R 3  
Vo  Vcc  cc
  R   R2     R   R4  
1 3
R
 1  1    R2 1    R
 3  1    R4 1   
  R 1   R2    R 3   R4 
- Relation to stress
R1 R3  44 R2 R4  44
  ( n   p )   ( p   n )
R1 R3 2 R2 R4 2
41
2-D Piezoresistor
• Analysis of the Wheatstone bridge Vcc

- Usually, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R
- After some algebraic simplifications: R1 R4
 
Vcc Vo
Vo   44 ( p   n )
2 R2 R3
Output voltage as a function of the parallel stress and

normal stress on the beam
42
Outline
• Introduction
43
Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements
Stress in Cantilevers
• Under condition of “pure bending”
Stress increases linearly from

neutral axis to the top and
bottom surfaces
44
Stress proportional to the

moment (M) at that position on
the beam
• Stress:
M: moment [Nm]
Mc c: distance to neutral axis [m]

I I: moment of inertia [m4]
- Strain at that point:
Mc E: Young Modulus
s
EI
45
Stress proportional to the

moment (M) at that position on
the beam
• To create a strain sensor on a beam, it can be doped in an apropriate

location to create a piezoresistor
• Conditions for design:

- The sensor should not interfere with or alter the system it measures
- The sensor location:
• Should maximize its sensitivity to the phenomena
• Should minimize the measurement noise
46
• Design of piezoresistive sensors on beams
Good Designs:
- Sensor element is minimally disruptive
to the structure
- Sensor is placed at best location to
maximize the sensitivity to strain
Poor Design: In this case size, it changes

the physical properties of the beam
Poor Design: Sensor on both sides of the

neutral axis provides poor sensitivity
(tensile and compressive strain-resistances
cancel each other out).
47
Stress in Cantilevers: maximum stress & strain
• Case 1: Beam in pure tension
- Stress or strain equal at all points
F F
 
A wt
F F
s 
AE wtE
48
• Case 2: Beam in pure bending about the x-axis
A
B
C
- Maximum stress or strain at points A, B, C, E
Mc ( FL)(t / 2) 6 FL
 max    2
I ( wt 3 /12) wt
Mc 6 FL
smax  
IE wt 2 E
49
• Case 3: Beam in pure bending about the z-axis
A
C
D
E
- Maximum stress or strain at A (compression) and C, D, E (tension):
Mc ( FL)( w / 2) 6 FL
 max    2
I ( wt 3 /12) tw
Mc 6 FL
smax  
IE tw2 E
50
• Case 4: Beam in pure bending about the y-axis
- Assuming pure torsion:

• Maximum shear stress or strain at B, G
51
Example
A fixed-free cantilever is made of single crystal silicon. The longitudinal axis of
the cantilever points in the [100] crystal orientation. The resistor is made by
diffusion doping, with a longitudinal gauge factor of 50. The length, width and
thickness of the cantilever are 200um, 20um and 5um, respectively. If a force
100uN is applied at the end of the cantilever in the longitudinal direction, what
would be the percentage change of resistance?
0.038%
52
Exercise
A fixed-free cantilever is made of single crystal silicon. The resistor has a
longitudinal gauge factor of 50. The depth of the doped region is less than
0.5um. The length, width and thickness of the cantilever are 200um, 20um, and
5um, respectively. If F=100uN is applied in the middle, what would be the
percentage change of resistance?
53
Stress and Deformation in Membrane
• Micro-membranes widely used as pressure sensors for fluids or gases

- State of membrane relates the pressure applied to it
- Sensor placement in the highest stress region
• Stress and strain analysis of membranes requires a 2-D analysis
Equation for displacement
4w 4w 4w p

4
2 2 2  4 
x x y y D
p: pressure
w: displacement Et 3
D
displacement stress D: rigidity of membrane 12(1  2 )
Stress along x and y:

Ez   2u  2u  Ez   2u  2u 
x    2  y    2 
1  2  x 2 y  1  2  y 2 x 
54
Stress and Deformation in Square Membranes
• Assuming a uniform pressure applied to the top surface
Side view
Top view
 pb 2 p: pressure [N/m2]
- Maximum stress at edges:  max  b: short edge length
t2 t: thickness
 2 pb 2
- Stress at center of the plate:  center 
t2 E: Young’s modulus
 pb 4

- Displacement in the center  center  Strain: s 
Et 3 E
55
Stress and Deformation in Square Membranes
• Constants for bending of rectangular plate under uniform pressure load
“Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain”, 7th edition, Warren C. Young, Richard
G. Budynas, McGraw-Hill, 1989, Page 508
56
Exercise
A MEMS pressure sensor was using silicon crystal wafer. A piezoresistor with a
nominal resistance of 1500 Ω, a gauge factor G = 40, and Young modulus E =
160 x 109Pa has been created along one of its outer edges. The size of the
membrane is 300 um x 200 um, by 4 um thick. What is the resistance of the
piezoresistor when a differential pressure exists across the sensor, with P1 =
101.3 kPa and P2 = 800 kPa?
Rf=1796 Ω
57
Outline
• Introduction
58
Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors
• Piezoresistive sensors are used in

- Inertial sensors
• Acceleration → inertial force → deformation on mechanical support → stress/strain
- Pressure sensors
• Thin deformable diaphragms
- Tactile sensors
• To measure contact forces
• To characterize surface profiles and roughness
- Flow sensors
• They reduce the impact on the flow
• Fluid can cause lifting force, drag force or momentum transfer → deformation on
microstructure
59
Single-Crystal Si Piezoresistive Accelerometer
• Acceleration induced force F, F=ma.

• The force induces stress at the fixed end of the cantilever beam.
• The stress is detected by chance in resistance.
Assumptions
• Entire resistance is
concentrated at the anchor
• For moment of inertia at the
end, ignore the thickness of
the resistor.
• Stress on the resistor is the
maximum value.
• The proof mass is rigid: it
does not bend because of
the significant thickness and
width.
60
Single-Crystal Si Piezoresistive Accelerometer
• Fabrication:
61
Bulk-Micromachined Si Accelerometer
• Case Study 6.2
62
Multi-axis Piezoresistive Tactile Sensor
• Example of tactile sensor using the following design:
Figure 6.18. Multi-Axis Tactile Sensor, [Chang Liu]

63
Piezoresistive Flow Shear-Stress Sensor
• Shear flow sensor to measure fluid flow using the piezoresistive effect:
Figure 6.19. Flow Shear Sensor, [Chang Liu]

64
References
• Liu, Chang. Foundations of MEMS, 2nd ed. New Jersey, USA:

Pearson Education, 2012 (Chapter 6)
• Castañer, L. (2015). Understanding MEMS: Principles and

Applications. John Wiley & Sons. (Chapter 4)
• Bao, M. (2005). Analysis and design principles of MEMS devices.

Elsevier. (Chapter 6)
65

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MEMS 2017-1

• To understand the principle of piezoresistivity and how to

• To understand the relation between stress-strain and

• To discover some real applications of piezoresistive

• Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements

• Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors

• How to use it in sensors?

• Examples of MEMS devices that use piezoresistivity:

• MEMS pressure sensor:

Case Study: 6.2 Diagram of Piezoresistive-based Accelerometer [Chang Liu]

• Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements

• Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors

• Recall: resistance of a resistor

• When stress is applied:

• Stress generates deformation in shape:

• The strain relation is given by Poisson’s ratio

• Example: strain gauges

• Stress generates strain

Nonlinear function Assumption: linear relationship

• For semiconductor piezoresistors:

• Gauge factor (G):

• When a solid body is deformed

• Total resistance change:

• Some Gauge factors

• Often used to read resistance changes

• Advantage: it is temperature insensitive

• Typical strain gauge patterns:

• For MEMS sensors, they are fabricated on mechanical beams and

• Single crystal: uniform orientation throughout the entire material

• They undergo change due to strain

• Semiconductor strain gauges:

• They are required to have low stress and good conformity

• Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements

• Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors

• In metallic materials: usually isotropic (Ohm’s law)

• In single crystal material: usually anisotropic

• Resistivity tensor is symmetric (Onsager’s theorem)

• General piezoresistance effect:

Variation in ρ Piezoresistive coefficient tensor Stress

• Silicon: face-centered cubic (FCC) with symmetry in Oh group

• The coefficients are (in 10-11 Pa-1):

π11 π12 π44 ρ [Ωcm]

Oh: group for octahedral symmetry

 l12 m12 n12 2m1n1 2n1l1 2l1m1 

Bao, M. (2005). Analysis and design principles of MEMS devices. 26

Bao, M. (2005). Analysis and design principles of MEMS devices. 27

Coefficients in 10-11 Pa-1 for silicon wafer (100)

R: Represents original system in terms of new coordinate system

• Alternative 1: using analytical expressions

 '66   44  2 0  l12l22  m12 m22  n12 n22 

• Alternative 2: using generic multiplications (e.g. in some software)

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1

i=6; j=6; piprime = 0;

• Gauge factors computed as (why?):

• Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements

• Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors

• In many microstructure applications:

• 2-D Piezoresistor scheme

z' V: applied voltage

• General Ohm’s law

 Ex   1 6   J x  Ex  1J x

• Without stress: R0, ρ0