I.

Methodology

1. Map Study
While finding the alternative path of highway it is easier in doing it if the
topographical map of the area is available. Topographic maps are available from
the department of survey, Government of Nepal. The likely routes of the highway
can then be easily found out by studying these maps. The new maps are available
in 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 scales. The main features like rivers, hills, valley is
carefully shown in color in these maps. By the careful study of such maps it is
possible to have an idea of the several possible alternate routes so that the further
details of these may be studied later at the site. The probable alignment can be
located on the map from the following details available on the map,

1. Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

2. When road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a hill pass.

3. Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the
river if any.

4. When a road is to be connected between two stations, one on the top and the
other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view
the permissible gradient.

Thus map study suggests the alternative routes in a highway. It may also be
possible from map study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable
obstructions or undesirable ground in route. Thus, map study gives a rough
guidance of the routes necessary for the survey.
Fig: Phedi khola municipality
Fig: site location in map of Nepal

2. Site Selection(Optional)
Phedi khola municipality, the road from to this is choosen . Due to this
lockdown problem, we are unable to visit the site for our project so by primary
means, we have decided a site of phedi khola municipality.

3. Primary Method
3.1. Reconnaissance survey

The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance

to examine the general character of the area for deciding the most
feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a
fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of map
in the field using simple instruments like Abney level. All relevant details
not available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the
details to be collected during reconnaissance are mentioned as follows:
1. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures
and other obstruction along the route, which are not available in the map
study.
2. Approximate value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curves
of alternative alignments
3. Number and types of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level
and natural ground water level along the probable routes.
4. Soil type along the routes from the field identification tests and
observation of geological features
5. Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone
quarries.
6. When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional
data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata,
seepage flow etc may be observed so as to decide the stable and unstable
sides of the hill for highway alignment.

Aerial survey is the best method of reconnaissance especially when the

area is vast and the terrain is difficult. From the details collected during
the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after map study may be
altered or even changed completely for better design of road.

Reconnaissance is the first step in surveying. Reconnaissance work is

done for selected alignment. Detail survey was started from the first point
of the starting chainage with taking the bearing of the first line. At the
beginning of the road, Benchmark was fixed having RL as ………..m as
a reference point.
 3.2.Preliminary survey

Preliminary survey outlines the following objectives:

1. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the
reconnaissance and to collect all necessary details of topography,
drainage and soil.
2. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a
good alignment.
3. To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.

3.3.Final Location and Detailed survey:

The centerline is to be established in the field after the finalization of the
alignment as a first act of preliminary survey. The necessary data are
collected by the detail survey for the preparation of plans and construction
details for the highway project.
Benchmarks: Benchmark is a permanent point of reference whose
elevations with respect to some assumed datum is known.
Plan: It is the top view of project in a map. It consists of
a) North line
b) Location of IPs and BMs with references.
c) Location of road centerline, formation width and right of way.

I. Leveling: Leveling is the branch of surveying which deals with the

measurements of relative heights of different points on the surface of earth.
The objective of leveling is to find the elevations of given points with respect
to a given elevations or at a different elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum. Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. For
 the purpose of road construction, the profile leveling is carried out to
determine the R.L. of the centerline located with driven pegs. The leveling
determines the alignment of the road. The leveling is taken at the suitable
interval according to the site.
II. Composition of traffic: The alignment of road passing from shortest route is
deviated due to the volume and composition of traffic. For highway with
intensive heavy vehicles and high volume of traffic alignment yielding
minimum length of steep ascend/descend is much desirable than the shortest
route distance. Similarly, a highway leading to a recreation spot, or tourist
spot that might have predominant by light passenger car and had a few buses,
alignment may be chosen with higher slope. In addition, the origin and
destination study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be
drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. The alignment should be chosen
based on origin/ destination study, traffic desire lines, flow pattern, future
trends etc.
III. Geometric Features: Geometric design factors such as permissible limit of
descending or ascending slopes, sight distance requirements, degree of
curvature and bends, width of the road and many other dimensional features
of the road may also govern the final alignment of the highway.
IV. Economy: On the basis of above requirements the alignment should be
finalized and should also be economical. The initial construction cost might
be the governing factor due to budget constraints and alignment is selected
accordingly even if the road yields highest maintenance cost and vehicle cost.
The initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankments and
deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to balance
the cutting and filling.
4. Secondary Data
After selecting the proposed project area, necessary secondary data on planning
aspects and costs was gathered. Socio-economic status, geological and
demographic data of the area was collected. The temperature, rainfall,
vegetation, climate, of the area were studied which are important for analysis of
hydrological data. After the complete analysis of secondary data and decision of
alignment made, engineering survey was done along the proposed alignment
considering several geometrical parameters according to NRS2070. Collection
of several primary data such as type of the soil at different chainage, buildings,
type of crop production, deflection angle, and reduced level was done during
engineering survey. Cost estimate of the proposed road alignment was made
considering various types of works to be carried out during road construction
with the help of Road Design Software, AutoCAD and Excel program.

4.4.1 Geometric design of highway

The dimension and layout of visible features of highway such as alignment,

sight distance and intersections are dealt in the geometric design of road. To
provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at
reasonable cost, the geometry of the road should be designed carefully. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large
extent by the care with which the geometric design has been worked out.
Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is possible only if the design
elements have been meticulously considered .A well designed highway has to
be consistent with economy .Too liberal standards may not fit with the
available resources, whereas if the standards are too lows, the cost of operation
may mount up.

4.4.1.1 Longitudinal profile:

Leveling operation carried out to determine the elevations of the points at

known distances apart, and other salient features, along a given straight line is
called profile leveling. It is the process of determining the elevation of points at
short measured interval along a fixed line such as the centerline of highways or
canal. The fixed line may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a
succession of straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected by curves.
By means of such section, an engineer is enabled to study the relationship
between the existing ground surface and levels of the purposed construction in
the direction of its length. Longitudinal leveling is also called profile leveling.
The profile consists of the following:

 Ground level

 Formation level

 Chainage

 Cut-fill data

 Longitudinal gradient

4.4.1.2 Ground level:

Ground level in hilly terrain consists of steep land surface, which results in rise
and fall of the leveling. Hence, to maintain the gradient for the formation level
a larger number of retaining structures and deep cuttings are necessary.
4.4.1.3 Formation Level:

The gradients standards for the district roads need to be fulfilled according to
the norms provided by the NRS 2070. Special and practical considerations are
taken if it is in need. The maximum permissible gradient provided is 12% for
the maximum of 300m and then average 7% of gradient has been taken into
consideration.

4.4.1.4 Chainage:

The total length of the road alignment can be defined as the chainage. The
proposed road alignment consists of hilly terrain in almost all chainage. The
cross sections were taken at suitable intervals in all places.

4.4.1.5 Cut-fill Data:

The cut and fill data were such taken that the volume of cut and fill may be
balanced. But due to the location and the inaccessibility of the site and the
standards of the norm as per NRS 2070, it was not possible to maintain equal
cutting as filling. As a result of which the amount of filling exceeds the amount
of cutting.

4.4.1.6 Longitudinal Gradient:

The maximum longitudinal gradient to be provided should be according to

NRS 2070.

4.4.2 Cross-section:

Cross-sections run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side
of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. Cross-sections
provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes.
The scale selected for plotting is equal in both the axes. Cross-sections are
plotted for each elements of curve. The cross section consists of the following:

 Existing ground level

 Right of way

 Formation width

 Carriageway

 Retaining wall

 Pavement Width

 Shoulder width

 Side Drains

 Building line

 Control lines

4.4.2.1 Right of way:

The area of land acquired for the road along its alignment can be termed as the
right of way. The width of this acquired land is known as land width and it
depends on the importance of the road and possible future developments.
According to the recommendation provided by the NRS 2070 the right of way
should be kept as given distance on either side of the road.
4.4.2.2 Formation Width:

Formation width is the sum of width of pavement or carriageway including

median strips if any, and the shoulders. It is the top width of the highway
embankment or the bottom of highway cutting excluding the side drains.

4.4.2.3 Carriageway:

Deduction of the width of shoulders from the formation width gives the width
of the carriageway. It depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes.

4.4.2.4 Retaining wall:

The primary function of retaining wall is to resist the lateral thrust of a mass of
earth on one side and sometimes the pressure of subsoil water as well. And in
many cases the wall may be required to support vertical loads from a structure
above it called as surcharge load. It is constructed parallel to the centerline of
highway in general.

Functional requirements of retaining wall:

Retaining walls constructed parallel to the centerline of the road must

essentially possess the following requirements:

 Strength and stability

 Durability

The retaining wall must not

 Slide

 Overturn
 Overstress the materials of which the wall are constructed

 Overstress the soils in which the wall rest

4.4.3. Design

4.4.3.1 Designing of earth retaining structure: Penetration field test is

performed by using ½ inch can be used to determine the relative density of soil.

4.4.3.2 Design criteria for retaining wall: Considering per meter length wall
the lateral earth pressure denoted by 'p' is given by ranking's formula.

4.4.3.3 Earth pressure due to backfill soil

Above figure-Gravity retaining wall

Where,

a = top with of wall

b = bottom width

w = total downward force

R = resultant force

P = total active pressure

X = distance of CG form the face BC

H = height of wall

Ws = surcharge load

Fig: Different forces acting on retaining wall

Epa= active earth pressure

Epp= Passive earth pressure

F = friction force at inter face

RV = Vertical reaction

M = M ass of wall

Ws = Surcharge load

This pressure 'Pi' act at H/3 above the base of the wall.

This weight of the wall act at 'X' from face BC.

For the structure to be in equilibrium, the following condition must be

satisfied:

i. The algebraic sum of all the vertical force must be zero i.e. ƩV=0.
ii. The algebraic sum of all the horizontal force must be zero i.e. ƩH=0.
iii. The moment of all forces acting on the wall about any point must be
zero to check its overturning i.e. ƩM=0.

For the safe design, the following requirement must be satisfied

i. Safety against sliding

ii. Safety against overturning

iii. No tension case

Where,

iv. Safety against bearing failure:

a = top width of the retaining wall

b = bottom width of the retaining wall

e = eccentricity (m)

H = height of the wall (m)

ˠs = density of the soil in kg/m3

ˠm = density of the wall material in kg/m3

F = angle of response

Ws = weight of surcharge KN/m2

fmax = maximum compressive stress of the base of the wall(KN/m2)

SBC=safe bearing capacity of soil (KN/m2)

FOS=factor of safety
4.4.4 Design of pavement structure

4.4.2 Determination of pavement thickness:

The CBR value of the sub grade soil sample from the site is found out in the
lab. The appropriate design curve is chosen on the basis of no. of commercial
vehicles. The total thickness of flexible pavement needed to cover the sub
grade of the known CBR value os obtained.

Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on the strength

parameter of the sub grade soil and subsequent pavement material.

CBR test is performed for the soil samples collected at the field. Load Vs
penetration curve is plotted for different load and penetration combinations.
Thus the load for 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration of the soil sample is found
out.CBR value is obtained as,

Normally CBR value of 2.5 penetrations which is higher than of 5 mm is

reported as the CBR value of the sample. The higher value obtain is adopted as
CBR value of the sample. The thickness of the pavement is given by any of the
seven curves from the graph. The future traffic is estimated on the basis of
existing traffic and probable growth rate and it is given by:

P = N (1+r)n+10

Where,
P = Future traffic per day

N = Present vehicle no. per day

r = Probable growth rate

n = Construction period

4.4.3 Design criteria of super elevation:

Various steps in the design of super elevation in practice may be summarized

as given below:

i. The super elevation for 75% of design speed(V Kmph) is calculated

neglecting the friction.

ii. If the calculated value of e is less than 7% then the value so obtained is
provided. If the value of 'e' exceed 0.07 then provide the maximum super
elevation equal to 7% and proceed with steps given bellow.
iii. Check the coefficient of friction developed foe the maximum value of
e=7% at the full value of design speed.

If the value thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe
for the design speed. If not, calculated the restricted speed is given in step (iv).
ii. As an alternative to step (iii) the following allowable speed at the curve is
calculated by super elevation.

Calculate the safe allowable speed,

Or if the allowable speed, as calculated above higher than the design speed,
then the design speed is adequate and provides a super elevation of 'e' equal to
0.07. if the allowable speed is less than the design speed the speed is limited to
the allowable speed Va kmph calculated above.