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2011 1118 Published Land SAR Addendum 1.0 PDF
2011 1118 Published Land SAR Addendum 1.0 PDF
ADDENDUM
to the
National Search and Rescue Supplement
to the
International Aeronautical and Maritime
Search and Rescue Manual
Version 1.0
November 2011
Department of Homeland Security
Department of Interior
Department of Commerce
Department of Defense
Department of Transportation
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Federal Communications Commission
(www.uscg.mil/nsarc)
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Foreword
Land SAR.
The National Search and Rescue Committee (NSARC) defines “land SAR” as the provisioning
of civil SAR services for persons in distress or missing within the land areas of the U.S.,
including persons in distress in aircraft.
NSARC recognized there was a gap in national level guidance for land SAR planners and
responders. As a result, NSARC agreed to develop a Land Search and Rescue Addendum to the
National SAR Supplement (NSS) to the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and
Rescue Manual (IAMSAR Manual). This work was assigned to an NSARC Task Force led by
the U.S. Air Force (USAF), National Park Service, National SAR School, and coordinated
through the NSARC Secretariat.
The main objective of the Task Force was to draw on relevant best practices and established
training and procedures to provide official guidance to Federal land SAR authorities. The
Addendum was also envisioned to be used voluntarily for information, training, and operations
within the non-Federal SAR community.
Although much of the information in this Addendum is unique to land SAR, the Addendum does
not stand alone; it adds to relevant portions of the NSS and is a companion to other Addenda to
the NSS.
After two years of extensive research and development of the principles, search theory, and
practical guidance concerning land SAR operations, the NSARC Correspondence Work Group
presents the Land SAR Addendum to all Federal SAR responders as foundational guidance for
lifesaving operations.
Search theory, best practices shared, and lessons learned from previous SAR missions will
continue to improve the SAR responder’s ability to save lives. NSARC is committed to
improving this Addendum when new information is obtained.
It is the NSARC Correspondence Work Group’s desire that Federal SAR responders who
conduct land SAR missions, as well as other State, Tribal, Territorial, and local SAR authorities,
will find this Land SAR Addendum an invaluable resource in support of future lifesaving
missions.
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vi
Table of Contents
vii
Section 4-5: Rescue 4-37
Section 4-6: Non-Rescue Operations 4-41
Section 4-7: Geo-referencing 4-43
Section 4-8: SAR Case Documentation 4-53
Section 4-9: Briefing and Debriefing SAR Teams 4-55
Appendices TOC-1
Appendix A: Comparison – International SAR System vs. NIMS/ICS A-1
Appendix B: Cospas-Sarsat Doppler Location Technique B-1
Appendix C: SAR Pre-Plan Elements C-1
Appendix D: Search Urgency Determination Form D-1
Appendix E: Lost Person Questionnaire E-1
Appendix F: Initial Missing Person Checklist F-1
Appendix G: Lost Person Behavior Category: Dementia (Alzheimer’s) G-1
Appendix H: Requests for Federal SAR Assistance H-1
Index Index-1
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List of Figures
ix
Figure 5-4-3: Example #2 – Aircraft ELT Signal DF 5-34
Figure 5-5-1: Planning “P” Operations Planning Cycle 5-38
Figure 5-7-1: Initial PSR Values 5-44
Figure 5-7-2: Adjusted PSR Values (After Optimal Search of Top Four Segments) 5-45
Figure 5-7-3: Adjusted PSR Values (After Optimal Search of Top Seven Segments) 5-45
Figure 5-9-1: Example – PODcum 5-52
Figure 5-9-2: Formula for POCnew 5-52
Figure 5-9-3: Calculation of PODcum 5-52
Figure 5-9-4: Example – POCcum 5-53
Figure B-1: Distress Beacon Frequency Received by Satellite vs. Time for Two B-2
Satellite Passes
Figure B-2: Doppler Plot B-3
Figure G-1: Dementia (Alzheimer’s Initial Reflex Tasking Actions G-7
x
List of Tables
xi
Table 5-3-1: Comparison of Theoretical, Statistical, and Subjective-Deductive 5-23
Search Areas
Table 5-4-1: Distress Beacon Alert and Corresponding Emergency Phase 5-28
Table 5-4-2: Determining Location of ELT Signal 5-32
Table 5-4-3: Line of Sight Values for Aircraft 5-34
Table 5-4-4: Procedures for Locating Strong ELT Signals 5-34
Table 5-8-1: Instructions for Conducting POD Experiments 5-50
Table 5-9-1: Other Search Planning Considerations 5-54
Table A-1: Comparison – International SAR System vs. NIMS/ICS A-1
Table D-1: Search Urgency Determination Form D-1
Table E-1: Lost Person Questionnaire E-1
Table G-1: Distance (horizontal) from the IPP (miles) G-3
Table G-2: Distance (horizontal) from the IPP (kilometers) G-3
Table G-3: Elevation (vertical) Change from the IPP (feet) G-4
Table G-4: Mobility (hours) G-4
Table G-5: Survivability G-4
Table G-6: Find Location G-5
Table G-7: Scenario (%) G-5
Table G-8: Track Offset (meters) G-5
Table G-9: Dispersion Angle (degrees) G-6
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Glossary
xiii
awareness stage: A period during which the community emergency response team
SAR system becomes aware of an actual (CERT): A CERT is a group of people
or potential incident. organized as a neighborhood-based team
that receives special training to enhance
beacon ID (Cospas-Sarsat): The 15
their ability to recognize, respond to, and
hexadecimal characters that uniquely
recover from a major emergency or
identify each 406 MHz distress beacon.
disaster situation. Teams are trained by
catastrophic incident: Any natural or professional responders in areas that will
manmade incident, including terrorism, help them take care of themselves and
that results in extraordinary levels of others before, during and after a major
mass casualties, damage, or disruption emergency. As an organized team,
severely affecting the population, individuals can provide vital services in
infrastructure, environment, economy, the absence of and while waiting for the
national morale, and/or government arrival of emergency responders, and
functions. they often assist once responders arrive.
catastrophic incident search and rescue composite position: In the Cospas-Sarsat
(CISAR): Civil SAR operations carried system, a position generated by the
out as all or part of the response to an USMCC by combining data from two or
emergency or disaster declared by the more satellite passes over a beacon. Any
President, under provisions of the NRF ambiguity from previous satellite passes
and ESF #9 Annex is resolved and solutions from different
civil search and rescue (civil SAR): Search satellite passes merged to refine the
operations, rescue operations, and position of the beacon.
associated civilian services provided to conclusion stage: A period during a SAR
assist persons and property in potential incident when SAR facilities return to
or actual distress in a non-hostile their regular location and prepare for
environment. another mission. Conclusion stage is also
command center (CC): Multi-mission known as Demobilization Phase.
center that may perform the function of a conditional probability: The probability of
rescue coordination center in addition to an event given another event does in fact
having staff and capabilities to perform exist or has in fact occurred. (Example:
other functions. POD is the conditional probability that a
commence search point (CSP): Point sensor will detect a target given the
normally specified by the SMC where a target is in area being searched.)
SAR facility is to begin its search confinement: A search strategy (with many
pattern. possible tactics) to limit the possible area
into which the search objective might
travel undetected, or to establish that the
search objective has not already passed a
desired search area boundary.
xiv
consensus: a method to bring together and cumulative probability of success
consider the experiences, judgments, and (POScum): The accumulated probability
opinions of the search experts on the of finding the search object with all the
leadership team in order to develop a search effort expended over all searches
common ground on various parts of a to date. POSC is the sum of all individual
search plan; including, scenarios and search POS values.
their relative weights, the search area, datum: A geographic point, line, or area
regions, and probability of containment. used as a reference in search planning or
Cospas-Sarsat system: A satellite system mapping.
designed to detect distress beacons Direct User Access Terminal (DUAT):
transmitting on the 406 MHz frequency. DUATS is a weather information and
course: The intended horizontal direction of flight plan processing service contracted
travel. by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) for use by U.S. civil pilots and
coverage factor (C): The ratio of the search
other authorized users. The DUAT
effort (Z) to the area searched (A). C =
Service is a telephone- and Internet-
Z/A. For parallel sweep searches, it may
based system which allows the pilot to
be computed as the ratio of sweep width
use a personal computer for access to a
(W) to track spacing (S). C = W/S.
FAA database to obtain weather and
critical incident stress: Any event which aeronautical information and to file,
overwhelms the capacities of a person to amend, and cancel domestic IFR and
psychologically cope with an incident; VFR flight plans; and close domestic
the normal physical and psychological VFR flight plans. The DUAT Service
reactions of normal people experiencing provides direct access to weather
an abnormal event or demand. information via a National Airspace
Critical Incident Stress Management System (NAS) Data Interchange
(CISM): A comprehensive, integrated, Network II (NADIN-II) interface to the
systematic, multi-tactic form of crisis Weather Message Switching Center
intervention that is applied to manage Replacement (WMSCR) System and the
critical incident stress after traumatic Air traffic Control (ATC) Facilities for
events. filing flight plans.
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Domestic Event Network (DEN): A 24/7 emergency support function (ESF):
FAA sponsored, telephonic conference Provides the structure for coordinating
call network that includes all of the Air Federal interagency support for a
Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) Federal response to an incident. They are
in the U.S. It also includes various other mechanisms for grouping functions most
governmental agencies that monitor the frequently used to provide Federal
DEN. The purpose of the DEN is to support to States and Federal-to-Federal
provide timely notification to the support, both for declared disasters and
appropriate authorities that there is an emergencies under the Stafford Act and
emerging air-related problem or incident for non-Stafford Act incidents.
within the continental U.S.
extended communication search
Doppler Shift: Change in the apparent (EXCOM): Comprehensive
frequency of a wave as observer and communications search to find
source move toward or away from each information or clues about the location
other. Doppler Shift is used by the of missing persons. Normally conducted
Cospas-Sarsat system to determine the after a PRECOM has yielded no results,
position of a distress beacon that has or when the mission is upgraded to the
been energized. Alert phase.
effective sweep width (ESW): The area false alert: Distress alert received from any
under the lateral range curve. It is twice source, including communications
the range of a definite range law equipment intended for alerting, when
detection, such that the sensor and an no distress situation actually exists, and
equivalent definite range law sensor a notification of distress should not have
detect on the average the same number resulted.
of uniformly distributed targets. first alert: In the Cospas-Sarsat system, the
elemental solution (Cospas-Sarsat): Single first detection of a distress beacon by the
satellite pass solution, also used to Cospas-Sarsat System, position
determine a composite position. information may or may not be
available.
emergency locator transmitter (ELT):
Aeronautical radio distress beacon for flight plan: Specified information, relating
alerting and transmitting homing signals. to the intended flight of an aircraft, that
is filed orally or in writing with air
emergency phase: A generic term, that
traffic control.
describes the uncertainty phase, alert
phase, or distress phase of a potential or flight service station (FSS): An air traffic
ongoing SAR mission. facility that provides en route
communications and VFR SAR services,
emergency position-indicating radio
beacon (EPIRB): A device, usually assists lost aircraft and aircraft in
carried aboard maritime craft, that emergency situations, and originates
transmits a signal that alerts search and Notices to Airmen.
rescue authorities and enables rescue
units to locate the scene of the distress.
xvi
forward-looking infrared radar (FLIR): incident: A SAR case involving
An imaging system, mounted on board investigation and telephone
surface vessels or aircraft, designed to communications searches; generally
detect thermal energy (heat) emitted by associated with the Uncertainty Phase of
search objects and convert it into a a search.
visual display. (IAMSAR Manual) incident action plan (IAP): Contains
geostationary Earth orbiting local user objectives reflecting the overall incident
terminal (GEOLUT): In the Cospas- strategy and specific tactical actions and
Sarsat system, a ground receiving station supporting information for the next
that detects, processes, and recovers the operational period. The plan may be oral
coded transmissions of 406 MHz distress or written. When written, the plan may
beacons, and relays the appropriate have a number of forms as attachments
information to a Mission Control Center (e.g., traffic plan, safety plan,
communications plan, map, etc.). See
Global Positioning System (GPS): A
also search action plan.
specific satellite-based system used in
conjunction with mobile equipment to incident command system (ICS): (1) An
determine the precise position of the all-risk on-scene system of coordination
mobile equipment. for any type of incident involving
multiple responding authorities and
grid cell: A square or rectangular area
multiple jurisdictions.(2) A standardized
formed by pairs of adjacent,
on-scene emergency management
perpendicular, grid lines.
concept specifically designed to allow its
grid: Any set of intersecting perpendicular user(s) to adopt an integrated
lines spaced at regular intervals. organizational structure equal to the
ground speed (GS): The speed an aircraft is complexity and demands of single or
making relative to the earth's surface. multiple incidents, without being
hindered by jurisdictional boundaries.
hasty search: see ‘rapid search’
incident commander (IC): The individual
heading: The horizontal direction in which a responsible for the management of all
craft is pointed. incident operations at the incident site.
homeland defense (HD): An activity See also on scene coordinator (OSC).
undertaken for the military protection of information request (INREQ): A message
the territory or domestic population of request for information about an
the United States, or of infrastructure or unreported or overdue aircraft in United
other assets of the United States States domestic airspace. Corresponds to
determined by the Secretary of Defense the declaration of the Uncertainty phase.
as being critical to national security, This is an FAA term.
from a threat or aggression against the
United States (32 USC 901). initial action stage: A period during which
preliminary action is taken to alert SAR
image (mirror image): In the Cospas-Sarsat facilities and obtain amplifying
system, of the two positions associated information.
with a single satellite pass, the one from
which a signal is not emanating. initial reflex search: See rapid search.
xvii
instrument flight rules (IFR): Rules local user terminal (LUT): An earth
governing the procedures for conducting receiving station that receives beacon
instrument flight. Also a term used by signals relayed by Cospas-Sarsat
pilots and controllers to indicate type of satellites, processes them to determine
flight plan. The term “IFR” is also used the location of the beacons, and forwards
in the U.S. to indicate weather the signals.
conditions less than minimum VFR location: Exact geographical position of a
requirements. distress beacon or other search object on
instrument meteorological conditions the surface of the earth.
(IMC): Meteorological conditions
low Earth orbit local user terminal
expressed in terms of visibility, distance (LEOLUT): A ground receiving station
from clouds, and ceiling less than in the Cospas-Sarsat system that detects,
minimum VFR requirements. characterizes and locates distress
initial planning point (IPP): The point that beacons, and forwards the appropriate
is initially used to plan the search information to an MCC.
incident. The IPP may be the original mass rescue operations (MRO): Civil
Point Last Seen (PLS) or the Last search and rescue services characterized
Known Position (LKP).The IPP may by the need for immediate response to
also be a point entirely separate based on large numbers of persons in distress,
the best available investigative such that the capabilities normally
information. IPP does not move after available to search and rescue authorities
planning begins. are inadequate.
investigation: The systematic inquiry and merge: In the Cospas-Sarsat system, the
examination of all aspects and process of developing composite
information surrounding a SAR case; solutions by combining matched single
includes all activities outside of the pass (elemental) solutions.
active field search for clues and for the
search object. meteorological visibility: The maximum
range at which a large object, such as
knot (kt): A unit of speed equal to one landmasses or mountains, can be seen.
nautical mile per hour. Also referred to as meteorological range.
last known position (LKP): (1) It is the last mission: A SAR case in which facilities
substantiated position based on clues or have been committed to actively search;
evidence belonging to the missing generally associated with the Distress
subject and indicating that the missing Phase of a search.
subject was known to be at that location.
(2) Last witnessed, reported, or mission control center (MCC): In the
computed position of a distress person or Cospas-Sarsat system, the station that
craft. accepts alert messages from the local
user terminal(s) and other mission
lateral range curve: Graph of the
control centers to distribute to the
probability of detection as a function of
appropriate rescue coordination centers
lateral range.
or other search and rescue points of
contact.
xviii
National Incident Management System National Special Security Event (NSSE):
(NIMS): A system prescribed by A designated event that, by virtue of its
Homeland Security Presidential political, economic, social, or religious
Directive 5 to coordinate emergency significance, may be the target of
preparedness and incident management terrorism or other criminal activity.
among various federal, state, and local National Track Analysis Program
agencies. NIMS provides a uniform (NTAP): An FAA system for retrieval of
nationwide approach to work effectively computer-stored radar data to locate a
and efficiently together to prepare for, missing aircraft's last position.
respond to, and recover from domestic
incidents no matter what the cause, size National Wildfire Coordinating Group
or complexity, including catastrophic (NWCG): A group formed under the
acts of terrorism and disasters. direction of the Secretaries of the
Interior and Agriculture to improve the
National Response Framework (NRF): A coordination and effectiveness of
guide to how the Nation conducts all- wildland fire activities and provide a
hazards response. It is built upon forum to discuss, recommend
scalable, flexible, and adaptable appropriate action, or resolve issues and
coordinating structures to align key roles problems of substantive nature.
and responsibilities across the Nation,
linking all levels of government, on scene coordinator (OSC): A person
nongovernmental organizations, and the designated to coordinate search and
private sector. It is intended to capture rescue operations within a specified
specific authorities and best practices for search area. See also incident
managing incidents that range from the commander (IC).
serious but purely local, to large-scale on scene endurance: The amount of time a
terrorist attacks or catastrophic natural search unit may spend at the scene
disasters. engaged in SAR activities.
National Search and Rescue Committee on scene: The search area or the actual
(NSARC): Federal committee distress site.
comprised of the Departments of
Homeland Security, Defense, operational period (ICS): The period of
Transportation, Interior, and Commerce, time scheduled for execution of a given
Federal Communications Commission, set of operational objectives as specified
and the National Aeronautics and Space in the Incident Action Plan. Operational
Administration. Established to oversee periods can be of various lengths,
the National Search and Rescue Plan and although usually not over 24 hours.
act as a coordinating forum for national operations stage: A period during a SAR
SAR matters. incident when SAR facilities proceed to
National Search and Rescue Plan (NSP): the scene, conduct search, rescue
An interagency agreement providing survivors, assist distressed craft, provide
national arrangements for coordination emergency care for survivors, and
of search and rescue services to meet deliver survivors to a suitable facility.
domestic needs and international
commitments.
xix
optimal search area: The search area which posse comitatus: The Posse Comitatus Act
will produce the highest probability of (18 U.S.C. 1385) prohibits the use of any
success when searched uniformly with part of the Army or the Air Force to
the search effort available. execute or enforce the laws, except as
authorized by the Constitution or Act of
optimal search plan: A plan that maximizes
Congress; includes prohibition of direct
the probability of success of finding the
participation in a search, seizure, arrest,
search object using the available search
or other similar activity. This restriction
effort.
is in addition to the constitutional
overdue: A situation where a search object limitations of the power of the Federal
has failed to arrive at its intended Government at the local level.
destination when expected and remains
possibility area: (1) The smallest area
missing.
containing all possible survivor or search
overlap zone: In the Cospas-Sarsat system, object locations. (2) For a scenario, the
an area of predetermined width common possibility area is the smallest area
to two or more service areas. containing all possible survivor or search
personal locator beacon (PLB): Personal object locations that are consistent with
radio distress beacon used by individuals the facts and assumptions used to form
for distress alerting. the scenario.
xx
probability along track (PT): The probability of offset (Po): The likelihood
likelihood the missing craft is located the missing aircraft is located within the
between the last known position and the given offset distance from the centerline
given percentage of the distance of the of the intended or expected track or
intended or expected route of flight; route of flight; based on ASAD
based on ASAD statistical data and statistical data and assumes equal
assumes the entire length of the route of likelihood left and right of track
flight from last known position to centerline.
intended destination, not just the portion probability of success (POS): The
being searched. probability of finding the search object
probability density (pDen): Probability of with a particular search. For each sub-
containment per unit area; often area searched, POS = POC x POD.
POC/mi2. pDen is constant throughout Measures search effectiveness.
any given region. ramp check: a telephone call requesting the
probability map: A set of grid cells responsible agency at an airport
covering a scenario’s possibility area physically check the field and hangars
where each grid cell is labeled with the for a specific aircraft being sought.
probability of the search object being in rapid search: Also known as ‘hasty search’
that grid cell. That is, each grid cell is and ‘initial reflex search.’ Quickly
labeled with its own POC value. looking for the search object along likely
probability of area (POA): See probability routes of travel, linear geographical
of containment (POC). (Note: POA and features or in high probability locations.
POC are synonymous.) RCC controller: The SAR mission
probability of containment (POC): The coordinator's duty officer in the RCC.
probability that the search object is region POC: The probability of
contained within the boundaries of an containment of an individual region;
area, sub-area, or grid cell. (Note: POA often determined by a consensus of the
and POC are synonymous.) on-scene leadership team.
probability of detection (POD): The
probability of the search object being
detected, assuming it was in the areas
that were searched. POD is a function of
coverage factor, sensor, search
conditions and the accuracy with which
the search unit navigates its assigned
search pattern. Measures sensor
effectiveness under the prevailing search
conditions.
xxi
region: A delineated portion or subset of the SAR Coordinator (SC): One or more
search area within which there is a persons or agencies within an
nearly uniform distribution of likelihood Administration with overall
for containing the missing object; that is, responsibility for establishing and
the missing object is equally likely to be providing SAR services, and ensuring
at any point in a given region, although that planning for those services is
different regions may have different properly coordinated.
likelihoods of containment. Thus, SAR facility: (1) Any mobile resource,
probability density (pDen) is constant including designated SRUs, used to
within any given region. Regions and conduct SAR operations. (2) Fixed
region boundaries are based solely on facilities for the incident; may include
the factors that affect the location and the Incident Base, feeding areas,
POC of the missing object; factors sleeping areas, sanitary facilities, etc.
affecting searchers are considered in
defining segments, not regions. Often, SAR incident: Any situation requiring
regions are further subdivided into notification and alerting of the SAR
segments in order to be effectively system and which may require SAR
searched. Region boundaries should be operations.
distinguishable by searchers (e.g., SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC): The
stream, drainage, ridge, natural official temporarily assigned to
geographical feature, etc.). coordinate response to an actual or
rescue: An operation to retrieve persons in apparent distress situation.
distress, provide for their initial medical SAR mission: Any SAR situation involving
or other needs, and deliver them to a dispatch of SAR resources.
place of safety.
SAR plan: A general term used to describe
rescue coordination center (RCC): A unit documents which exist at all levels of
responsible for promoting efficient the national and international SAR
organization of SAR services and for structure to describe goals,
coordinating the conduct of SAR arrangements, and procedures which
operations within a search and rescue support the provision of SAR services.
region. See also search action plan and
rescue sub-center (RSC): A unit incident action plan.
subordinate to an RCC established to SAR stage: Typical steps in the orderly
complement the latter according to progression of SAR missions. These are
particular provisions of the responsible normally Awareness, Initial Action,
authorities. Planning, Operations, and Mission
responsible authority: The government Conclusion.
agency or agencies who have legal scenario: a consistent set of known facts
responsibility for finding missing and assumptions describing what may
persons and have jurisdiction over the have happened to the survivors.
area where the person becomes missing.
search: An operation, normally coordinated
by an RCC or RSC, using available
personnel and facilities to locate persons
in distress.
xxii
search action plan: Message, normally search speed (V): The speed (or velocity)
developed by the SMC, for passing with which a search facility moves over
instructions to SAR facilities and the ground when searching.
agencies participating in a SAR mission. search sub-area: A designated area to be
See also incident action plan. searched by a specific assigned search
search and rescue region (SRR): An area facility or possibly two facilities
of defined dimensions, associated with working together in close coordination.
an RCC, within which SAR services are search subject: The person being searched
provided. for, commonly referred to as the
search and rescue unit (SRU): A unit “Subject”. Searches focusing primarily
composed of trained personnel and on the discovery of objects as opposed to
provided with equipment suitable for the person, e.g. aircraft or vessels,
expeditious conduct of SAR operations. commonly utilize the term “search
object”.
search area: The area, determined by the
search planner, that is to be searched. segment: (1) A delineated portion or subset
This area may be sub-divided into search of the search area bounded and sized to
sub-areas for the purpose of assigning be searchable by assigned facilities.
specific responsibilities to the available Segments and their boundaries are based
search facilities. on factors that affect the searchers. For
the purposes of tracking POC and search
search effort (Z): A measure of the
progress, it is generally inadvisable to
[effective] area a search facility can
allow a segment to cross-region
search within the limits of search speed,
boundaries. See also region. (2) In ICS,
endurance, and sweep width. Search
a segment is a geographical area in
effort is computed as the product of
which a task force/strike team leader or
search speed (V), search endurance (T),
supervisor of a single resource is
and sweep width (W).
assigned authority and responsibility for
Z = (V) X (T) X (W)
the coordination of resources and
search endurance (T): The amount of implementation of planned tactics. A
“productive” search time available at the segment may be a portion of a division
scene. This figure is usually taken to be or an area inside or outside the perimeter
85% of the on scene endurance, leaving of an incident.
a 15% allowance for investigating
sightings and navigating turns at the segment POC: The probability of
ends of search legs. containment of an individual segment;
determined as a proportion of its region
search object: A ship, aircraft, person or POC, based on the ratio of the area of
other craft missing or in distress or the segment to the area of the region.
survivors or related search objects or Segment POC cannot be reliably
evidence for which a search is being established if a segment crosses region
conducted. boundaries.
search pattern: A trackline or procedure
assigned to an SRU for searching a
specified area.
xxiii
sensors: Human senses (sight, hearing, true air speed (TAS): The speed an aircraft
touch, etc.), those of specially trained is traveling through the air mass. TAS
animals (such as dogs), or electronic corrected for wind equals ground speed.
devices used to detect the object of a Uncertainty Phase: A situation wherein
search. doubt exists about the safety of an
sortie: Individual movement of a resource in aircraft or a marine vessel, and of the
conducting a search or rendering persons on board.
assistance. unified command: In ICS, Unified
sound search: Synonymous with Sound Command is a unified team effort which
Sweep, with the latter being the proper allows all agencies with responsibility
term for the specific grid-type technique. for the incident, either geographical or
The use of sound (e.g. calling a subject’s functional, to manage an incident by
name), in conjunction with other types establishing a common set of incident
of direct searching tactics is common, objectives and strategies. This is
but should not be referred to as a “sound accomplished without losing or
search”. abdicating agency authority,
responsibility, or accountability.
sound sweep: An effective search technique
that combines a sound attraction tactic vector: A graphic representation of a
with the direct tactic of wide spaced grid physical quantity or measurement, such
searching. The use of sound, typically as wind velocity, having both magnitude
whistle blasts, is closely choreographed and direction.
with simultaneous blasts followed by a visual flight rules (VFR): Rules governing
uniform listening period for subject procedures for conducting flight under
response. The use of this technique visual meteorological conditions. In
presumes a responsive subject and, thus, addition, used by pilots and controllers
is most effectively utilized in the early to indicate type of flight plan. (The term
stages of a search. "VFR" is also used in the U. S. to
strategy: The general plan or direction indicate weather conditions equal to or
selected to accomplish incident greater than minimum VFR
objectives. requirements.)
sweep width (W): A measure of the visual meteorological conditions (VMC):
effectiveness with which a particular Meteorological conditions expressed in
sensor can detect a particular object terms of visibility, distance from cloud,
under specific environmental conditions. and ceiling meeting or exceeding the
minimums specified for VFR
time of closest approach (TCA): Time
requirements.
during a satellite pass when the satellite
is closest to a signal source.
track spacing (S): The distance between
adjacent parallel search tracks.
xxiv
List of Acronyms
xxv
EPIRB emergency position-indicating ICAO International Civil Aviation
radio beacon Organization
EPLO Emergency Preparedness ICP incident command post
Liaison Officer ICS incident command system
ESF emergency support function IDEA integrated detection experiment
ESW effective sweep width assistant
ETA estimated time of arrival IFF identification, friend or foe
ETD estimated time of departure IFR instrument flight rules
EXCOM extended communication search IMO International Maritime Organization
FAA Federal Aviation Administration INREQ information request
FAR federal aviation regulation IPP initial planning point
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation IST incident support team
FCC Federal Communications JRCC joint rescue coordination center
Commission KHz kilohertz
FDOA frequency difference of arrival km kilometers
FEMA Federal Emergency kt knot (nautical miles per hour)
Management Agency L length
FLIP flight information publication l search sub-area length
FLIR forward-looking infrared LEO low Earth orbit
FM frequency modulation LEOLUT low Earth orbit local user terminal
FSH flight service hub LKP last known position
FSS flight service station LOS line of sight
GA general aviation LUT local user terminal
GARS global area reference system m meters
GEO geostationary Earth orbit MCC mission control center
GEOLUT geostationary earth orbit local MEO medium Earth orbit
user terminal
MGRS Military Grid Reference System
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
MHz megahertz
GNSS global navigation satellite
system MOA memorandum of agreement
GOES geo-synchronous orbiting earth MOU memorandum of understanding
satellite MRA Mountain Rescue Association
GPS global positioning system MRCC maritime rescue coordination center
HD Homeland Defense MRO mass rescue operation
HSPD Homeland Security Presidential n number of required track spacings
Directive N number of SAR resources
IAMSAR Manual International NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Aeronautical and Maritime Administration
Search and Rescue Manual NASAR National Association for Search and
IC Incident Commander Rescue
xxvi
NAWAS National Alert Warning System POC probability of containment;
NIFOG National Interoperability Field can be subscripted for regions,
Operations Guide segments, and search periods
NIMS National Incident Management POD probability of detection
System can be subscripted for regions and
segments
NIUSR National Institute for Urban
Search and Rescue PODcum cumulative probability of detection
nm nautical mile POS probability of success (can be
subscripted for regions and
NOAA National Oceanic and
segments)
Atmospheric Administration
POScum cumulative probability of success
NOTAM notice to airmen
PR personnel recovery
NPS National Park Service
PRECOM preliminary communication search
NRF National Response Framework
PSR probable success rate
NSARC National Search and Rescue
Committee QALQ Data Request On Aircraft
NSP National Search and Rescue RADES radar evaluation squadron
Plan RANPs regional air navigation plans
NSS National Search and Rescue RAP rescue action plan
Supplement RCC rescue coordination center
NSSE National Special Security Event RDF radio direction finder
NTA National Track Analysis RF radio frequency
NTAP National Track Analysis RHIB rigid hull inflatable boat
Program
RSC rescue sub-center
NTSB National Transportation Safety
SAP search action plan
Board
SAR search and rescue
NVOAD National Voluntary
Organizations Active in Disaster SARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided
Tracking
OPOS overall probability of success
SATCOM satellite communications
OPOScum cumulative overall probability
of success SC SAR coordinator
OSC on scene coordinator SDSA subjective deductive search area
OSE on scene endurance SEND satellite emergency notification
device
P parallel pattern
SITREP situation report
pDen probability density
SMC SAR mission coordinator
PIO public information officer
SPOC search and rescue point of contact
PLB personal locator beacon
SRR search and rescue region
PLS point last seen
SRS search and rescue sub-region
POA probability of area (replaced by
POC) SRU search and rescue unit
POB persons on board SSA statistical search area
T search time available
xxvii
TACAN Tactical Air Navigation USN United States Navy
TDOA time difference of arrival USNG United States National Grid
TFR temporary flight restriction UTC coordinated universal time
TRACON Terminal Radar Approach UTM universal transverse Mercator grid
Control UTV utility vehicle
TSO technical standard order V SAR facility ground speed
UC unified command VFR visual flight rules
UHF ultra high frequency VHF very high frequency
USAF United States Air Force VMC visual meteorological conditions
USAR urban search and rescue (may w search sub-area width
also be written as US&R) W sweep width
USC United States Code WADS Western Air Defense Sector
USCG United States Coast Guard Z effort; effective area swept
USMCC United States Mission Control Zt total available effort
Center
xxviii
Introduction
The National Search and Rescue Plan • Search and rescue of persons missing or
(NSP), signed by the member agencies of in distress.
the National Search and Rescue Committee
The guidance within this Addendum is
(NSARC), was originally signed and
intended to assist SAR personnel without
implemented over 50 years ago. Even with
preempting their experience and sound
the passing of time, the purpose,
judgment. SAR planning in particular is
responsibilities, and mission of the signatory
both an art and a science, relying greatly on
agencies has always remained the same: a
the creativity and experience of the
commitment to always improve the
personnel involved. Because of the many
interagency coordination and conduct of
variables encountered during SAR
search and rescue (SAR) operations in the
operations and the uniqueness of each
United States and globally.
individual SAR case, any guidance must be
The primary implementing guidance for the tempered with sound judgment, having
NSP is provided in the International regard for the individual situation. Nothing
Aeronautical and Maritime Search and in this Addendum should be construed as
Rescue Manual (IAMSAR) Manual and the relieving SAR personnel of the need for
United States National Search and Rescue initiative and sound judgment. Therefore,
Supplement (NSS) to the IAMSAR Manual. few actions or procedures discussed in this
This Land Search and Rescue Addendum, to Addendum are mandatory.
be used in conjunction with both the Of importance to the SAR planner is the
IAMSAR Manual and the NSS, has been standardization of search planning theory.
also developed as a foundational resource Extensive work has been conducted in this
for SAR managers, planners, and the field to provide guidance and information
lifesaver. NSARC’s purpose in developing that explains the procedures for determining,
the Land SAR Addendum was to provide based on the available SAR resources, how
standardized guidance and information to plan for and implement a search. Training
concerning land-based SAR operations. on search theory and search planning is
The two general categories of land SAR available from the National SAR School
discussed in this Addendum are: (Inland SAR Planning course) and the Air
Force Rescue Coordination Center (Basic
• Aeronautical SAR involving persons in Inland SAR course).
distress in aircraft on or over land areas,
particularly in wilderness areas; and
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xxx
Part 1: U.S. SAR System
Section 11: Land SAR 13
Section 12: Key References 113
Section 13: Federal SAR Authorities 115
Section 14: Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs) 125
Section 15: NonFederal SAR Responsibilities 133
Section 16: International SAR System 135
Section 17: NIMS 143
Section 18: International SAR System NIMS/ICS System
Integration 145
Section 19: Special SAR Operations 149
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1-2
Section 11: Land SAR
Overview and General Concepts
SAR Coordinator (SC)
SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC)
Rescue Coordination Center (RCC)
International SAR System
National Incident Management System (NIMS)/Incident Command
System (ICS)
General Principles
Types of Civil SAR
Terminology and Acronyms
Saving Property
1-3
Cross jurisdiction rescues should normally appropriate Federal Rescue Coordination
be allowed when: Center (RCC) or the National Park Service
(NPS) can coordinate use of available
• The responsible jurisdiction is not able
Federal SAR facilities.
to immediately respond;
SAR Coordinator (SC)
• The location of the distress is reasonably
well-known; and Federal SAR responsibilities under the
National Search and Rescue Plan (NSP) are
• A suitable rescue resource is available to assigned to SAR Coordinators (SC). The SC
conduct the rescue. is a person or agency with overall
Land SAR, as discussed in this Addendum, responsibility for establishing and providing
is the provision of civil SAR services for SAR services for one or more Search and
persons in distress or missing within the Rescue Regions (SRRs) for which the U.S.
land areas of the United States, including has primary responsibility. Table 1-1-1
aircraft. These searches involve locating details the assignment of Federal SCs in the
persons in distress and are normally NSP and other SAR responsibilities.
conducted by State or local authorities. If
additional assistance is required, the
Recognized SC for all other U.S. aeronautical and maritime SRRs. This
U.S. Coast Guard includes the State of Hawaii as well as waters over which the U.S. has
jurisdiction, such as navigable waters of the U.S.
Outside the above listed SC and Federal civil SAR responsibilities, State
States and Local and local authorities are responsible for land-based SAR, or may designate
Jurisdictions a person to be SC (Responsible Authority) within their respective
jurisdictions.
1-4
The SC can either provide SAR services or To enable competent and timely response to
make suitable arrangements, with SC distress, the SC delegates considerable
oversight for services to be provided by authority to the SMC to make decisions
State, Tribal, Territorial, local or other concerning the SAR operation and ensures
entities. that persons who serve as SMC are properly
trained and experienced to coordinate and
As previously stated, SCs are responsible for
oversee SAR operations.
establishing and providing SAR services
within a SRR, which are internationally The SMC is responsible for planning the
recognized areas of defined dimensions search and rescue of persons in distress and
associated with an RCC. coordinating transit of SAR resources to the
scene.
Figure 1-1-1 graphically displays the U.S.
SAR Regions. (Note: Additional information concerning
Each SRR has one 24-hour RCC, and both SMC responsibilities is located in the
the SRR and its RCC are recognized by an IAMSAR Manual.)
appropriate international body operating Rescue Coordination Center (RCC)
under the umbrella of the United Nations A Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) is a
(either the International Maritime unit responsible for promoting efficient
Organization (IMO), International Civil organization of SAR services and
Aviation Organization (ICAO), or both). coordinates the conduct of SAR operations
RCCs coordinate aeronautical and maritime within an SRR. The U.S. has established 11
SAR operations within their designated SRR Federal RCCs:
as part of the global SAR system, which
divides the surface of the Earth into a • The Coast Guard operates 9 RCCs;
patchwork of aeronautical and maritime • U.S. Northern Command operates an
SRRs. Under this system, countries are not RCC for the continental U.S. other than
responsible for rescuing their own citizens Alaska; and
worldwide, but rather the SC, in accordance
with treaty provisions, is responsible for • U.S. Pacific Command operates an RCC
providing SAR services within their for Alaska.
respective SRR. The SC is required to have A rescue sub-center (RSC) is a unit
provisions in place to search for and rescue subordinate to an RCC established to
persons in distress regardless of their compliment the RCC according to particular
nationality, status, or circumstances. provisions of the responsible authorities.
SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC) The Coast Guard operates two RSCs (Puerto
Rico and Guam).
RCCs assign a person, either on a case-by-
case basis or on a pre-designated basis, to (Note: Further information on RCCs can be
serve as SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC) found in Section 1-4.)
for each SAR case or incident. SMC
responsibility may be transferred as
necessary for operations of long duration.
1-5
Figure 1-1-1: U.S. SAR Regions
1-6
Table 1-1-2: International SAR System
Mission Planning
Definition: The official temporarily assigned to coordinate the response to an actual or
apparent distress situation (IAMSAR Manual). SMC duties include, but are not limited to:
• Obtain and evaluate emergency data;
SAR Mission • Plot search areas and develop Search Action Plans;
Coordinator • Coordinate activities with the RCC/IC;
(SMC) • Evaluate incoming reports and modify the action plan as appropriate;
• Coordinate logistics support for SAR assets;
• Coordinate SAR reporting activities; and
• Prepare final results report.
Operational Oversight
Definition: A person designated to coordinate SAR operations within a specified area.
OSC duties include, but are not limited to:
On-Scene • Assume operational coordination of SAR facilities on-scene;
Coordinator • Implement the search action plan;
(OSC) • Keep the SMC advised of any changes to the search action plan;
• Develop and implement the rescue plan (if required); and
• Make consolidated situation reports to the SMC.
1-7
• Optimizing information flow and system is integrated into the ICS (Figure 1-
coordination; 1-2). The SAR response may also include an
OSC and an Aircraft Coordinator (ACO) to
• Understanding joint priorities;
assist managing critical SAR resources, as
• Respecting legal requirements; and required.
• Maximizing probability of success under In some cases, the person serving as IC may
a single plan. also be designated as the SMC. The terms
“Incident Commander” or “Operations
When the ICS is implemented, the SMC/IC
Section Chief” are not interchangeable with
function will be placed under the umbrella
titles associated with SAR response
of the NIMS organizational structure.
functions.
Typically, the SAR Branch Director or SAR
Group Supervisor is placed in the
Operations Section, where the SAR response
Incident Command
with SAR Operations
Command Staff
Public Information
Incident/Unified Officer
Command
Safety Officer
Liaison Officer
1-8
consider implementing an NIMS/ICS responsibilities generally flow from the local
Unified Command. to Federal levels.
There must be a continuum of There are certain SAR principles that may
responsibilities so there are no gaps in help in understanding the NSP, National
providing SAR services. Generally, Response Framework (NRF), and related
aeronautical SAR responsibilities (e.g., the responsibilities among the various levels of
rescue of persons from an aircraft government responsible for SAR.
accident/incident) generally flow from the Table 1-1-3 provides general principles for
Federal to local levels, whereas land SAR Federal SAR response agencies:
1-9
Table 1-1-4: General Principles for States, Tribes, Territories, and Local
Governments Concerning SAR Responsibilities
1. States, Tribes, Territories, and local jurisdictions are not required to comply with the NSP.
2. When States request Federal SAR assistance, they should coordinate that assistance through prearranged agreements;
3. States, Tribes, Territories, and local jurisdictions are normally not involved in actions necessary to comply with
international treaties, guidance, and agreements related to SAR;
4. States, Tribes, Territories, and local jurisdictions will generally retain SAR responsibilities within their jurisdictions for
incidents primarily local or intrastate in character. In such cases, appropriate agreements are generally made between
Federal SCs and relevant State authorities to coordinate the use of requested Federal assistance;
5. States, Tribes, Territories, and local Jurisdictions are generally responsible for land-based SAR. States normally accept these
responsibilities through legislation, plans, agreements and other means, and are encouraged to designate a person to serve
as State SC to oversee State SAR services and coordinate with Federal SCs; and
6. States should develop cooperative arrangements with other authorities (Federal, military, State, Tribal, Territorial, local
and volunteer SAR responders) to ensure that SAR services can be effectively provided within their jurisdiction.
1-10
Saving Property discretionary and secondary to lifesaving
and any other higher priority operation.
SAR authorities are not required to “rescue”
property; such operations are always
1-11
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1-12
Section 12: Key References
International Treaties, Conventions, and Agreements
International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue
(IAMSAR) Manual
National SAR Plan (NSP)
National SAR Supplement (NSS)
National Response Framework (NRF)
Summary
SAR doctrine, policy and procedures for SAR, the IAMSAR manual applies from an
Federal SAR agencies are provided in aeronautical SAR perspective.
primary publications that broadly apply to The IAMSAR Manual consists of three
civil SAR, and which may be inter-related or volumes:
supplemented.
• Volume 1 (Organization and
Since these publications are discussed
Management) discusses the:
thoroughly within the NSP, NSS, Addenda
to the NSS and other places, this Section o Global SAR system concept;
provides only general information. o Establishment and improvement of
International Treaties, Conventions, national and regional SAR systems;
and Agreements o Cooperation with neighboring States
There are numerous international treaties to provide effective and economical
and agreements that apply to civil SAR SAR services; and details SC
within the U.S. and with neighboring responsibilities.
countries. The primary international
• Volume 2 (Mission Coordination)
convention of interest to land SAR provides guidance to personnel who plan
authorities is the Convention on and coordinate SAR operations and
International Civil Aviation (Annex 12 - focuses on information for RCC
Search and Rescue) applies to persons in personnel and SMCs.
distress in both domestic and international
flights. • Volume 3 (Mobile Facilities) is intended
to be carried aboard rescue units,
International Aeronautical and
aircraft, and vessels to help with
Maritime Search and Rescue
performance of a search, rescue, or OSC
(IAMSAR) Manual
function.
The IAMSAR Manual provides guidance on
The IAMSAR manual is available in
aeronautical and maritime SAR applicable
multiple languages and available for
both internationally and nationally. For land
1-13
purchase from various sources, including the The NRF is developed under the authority of
IMO and ICAO websites. the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and
Emergency Assistance Act (“Stafford” Act)
National SAR Plan (NSP)
and at the direction of the President. It has
The NSP is a Federal cabinet-level inter- 15 ESF Annexes; ESF #9 concerns SAR.
agency document that describes how the
The NRF is the Federal plan-of-action for
U.S. will meet its international legal and
responding to disasters that meet the
humanitarian obligations to provide SAR
following criteria:
services. It establishes over-arching Federal
SAR policy, assigns SAR responsibilities to • The State and local response capabilities
Federal Agencies, and adopts the IAMSAR are overwhelmed;
Manual and the NSS for use by U.S. SAR
• The State government requests Federal
agencies. The NSP, NSS and other Federal
assistance; and
SAR documents can be found at the NSARC
website: www.uscg.mil/nsarc. • The President formally declares that a
National SAR Supplement (NSS) disaster has occurred, activating the
disaster assistance authority outlined in
The NSS, which is complemented by this the Stafford Act (42 USC. § 5121 et
and other Addenda, provides implementing seq.).
policy guidance for the NSP. It also
describes the national SAR system, expands Once these criteria have been met, the
on topics covered by the IAMSAR Manual, Federal Government may implement any or
and provides guidance that applies uniquely all of the 15 ESFs that are described in the
for the U.S. NRF. Guidance for implementing ESF #9 is
provided in the CISAR Addendum
National Response Framework (NRF) (available for download at the NSARC
website). The NRF and its ESF Annexes are
available at: www.fema.gov/emergency/nrf/
Summary
International SAR-related treaties,
conventions, and agreements to which the
U.S. is Party, and their implementing
guidance (e.g., the IAMSAR Manual), apply
to U.S. civil SAR operations.
The NSP and its implementing guidance
(e.g., the NSS and its Addenda) not only
expands on international obligations and
guidance, but is broader in scope,
establishing the U.S. national SAR system
as an integral part of the global SAR system.
1-14
Section 13: Federal SAR Authorities
Federal Inland SAR Coordinator (SC)
Aeronautical SAR
Key Federal Land SAR Agencies and Organizations
National SAR Committee (NSARC)
Department of Defense (DoD)
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
National Park Service (NPS)
Other Relevant Federal Agencies
U.S. Forest Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Department of State (DOS)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
Federal Land SAR Coordinator (SC) This does not mean that
CDRUSNORTHCOM, as the Federal SC for
CDRUSNORTHCOM is the recognized
the continental U.S., is only responsible for
Federal SC for the aeronautical SRR
aeronautical SAR (assistance to persons in
corresponding to the continental U.S. other
distress in aircraft). As a Federal SC,
than Alaska.
CDRUSNORTHCOM is responsible for
assisting State SCs/Responsible Authorities
1-15
and providing SAR coordination among respective RCCs for each SRR are
multiple agencies and authorities within the responsible not only for aeronautical SAR,
continental U.S. (Langley SRR), which is but for any appropriate Federal involvement
internationally recognized as an aeronautical in any type of civil SAR covered by the
SRR. NSP.
Why does the NSP identify the continental The Chicago Convention (Annex 12) applies
U.S. SRR as an aeronautical SRR? to SAR services for persons in distress in
any type of aircraft, not just aircraft that are
Internationally, there are two primary
subject to the other provisions of the
conventions that govern international SAR:
Convention (i.e., aircraft on international
• IMO’s International Convention on flights). Therefore, coordination and
Maritime Search and Rescue (1979); and provision of any aeronautical SAR services,
regardless of the type of aircraft involved, is
• ICAO’s Convention on International
Civil Aviation (1949) Annex 12 (Search the responsibility of the U.S. Government as
and Rescue). 1 a “Contracting State” to the Convention.
The U.S. fulfills these international
There is no international regime that governs obligations by assigning SC responsibilities
land-based SAR within a nation’s sovereign in the NSP. Treaty provisions may be further
territory. limited or expanded by international
As a result, CDRUSNORTHCOM’s AOR is agreements to which the U.S. is Party.
internationally recognized through the While Federal SCs can arrange via
Chicago Convention, which governs the agreements for States to coordinate
implementation of aeronautical SAR. aeronautical SAR, and they may be directly
Aeronautical SAR involved in responding to an aeronautical
incident on an infrequent basis, the overall
This Addendum focuses on land SAR international responsibility for ensuring that
coordination, procedures, search planning, aeronautical SAR services are provided as
and rescue operations. For aeronautical SAR required in international standards, lies with
that may occur over land, the governing the Federal SCs.
convention is the Chicago Convention
(Annex 12 - Search and Rescue). Other Regardless of the State, Tribal, Territorial,
documents that concern aeronautical SAR or local SAR authorities involved, a Federal
include the: RCC should normally coordinate
aeronautical SAR operations that involve:
• ICAO North America Regional Air
Navigation Plan (RANP); • Overdue general aviation (GA) aircraft
on an interstate flight;
• IAMSAR Manual;
• DoD aircraft in distress; and
• NSP;
• Commercial aircraft on missions of
• NSS; and other national concern (e.g., National Special
• Addenda to the NSS. Security Events, Special Events for
Homeland Security, etc. During these
The ICAO-recognized U.S. aeronautical events, the Domestic Event Network
SRRs are described in the NSS. The (DEN) is the controlling authority.).
1
Also known as the “Chicago” Convention.
1-16
Department of Defense (DoD)
Key Federal Land SAR Agencies and
Organizations
National SAR Committee (NSARC)
1-17
contract personnel, and DoD agencies and for natural and man-made disasters that
components, in response to requests in primarily require USCG air, ship, boat, and
anticipation of, and for assistance from civil response team operations, and supports
SAR authorities for emergencies, law unified SAR operations conducted in
enforcement support and other domestic accordance with the NSP.
activities, or from qualifying entities for USCG sponsors and chairs the NSARC
special events. Requests for DSCA come which oversees the national SAR system and
through established procedures from U.S. involvement in international SAR.
recognized civil authorities.
Additional information on Coast Guard SAR
CDRUSNORTHCOM has responsibility for is available at the Office of Search and
homeland defense (HD) and providing Rescue, Coast Guard Headquarters website:
DSCA within its assigned AOR, including http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-o/g-opr/G-
Alaska. CDRUSPACOM has responsibility OPR.htm .
for HD, and DSCA for Hawaii, U.S.
Territories, and other areas that may be Federal Emergency Management
assigned within its AOR. Agency (FEMA)
More DSCA information is available in the
CISAR Addendum to the NSS.
Both DoD and DOI/NPS are NRF ESF #9
Primary Agencies for Land SAR when a
State requests Federal SAR resources for
disaster operations.
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)
FEMA, operating under the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS), is the Federal
coordinating agency (ESF Coordinator) for
the NRF’s ESF #9. FEMA coordinates
Federal resources during CISAR and may be
involved in SAR operations not covered by
the NRF.
FEMA is an ESF #9 Primary Agency with
The USCG, operating under the Department responsibility under the NRF for urban SAR
of Homeland Security (DHS), is the Federal (US&R).
SC of the U.S. aeronautical and maritime
US&R is structural collapse SAR, and
SRRs in the oceanic environment, the Great includes operations for natural and man-
Lakes, and all U.S. navigable waters. USCG
made disasters and catastrophic incidents as
SAR policy is located in the Coast Guard well as other structural collapse events that
Addendum to the NSS. require SAR operations.
USCG conducts land and CISAR operations FEMA coordinates Federal US&R planning
as required. activities, and each of the ten FEMA regions
Under the NRF’s ESF #9, USCG is the produce supplemental response plans,
Primary Agency for Maritime/Coastal/ including sections on US&R, based upon
Waterborne SAR which includes operations known resources, capabilities, and State,
1-18
Tribal, Territorial, and local authorities in National Park Service (NPS)
their areas of responsibility.
FEMA develops national US&R policy,
provides planning guidance and
coordination assistance, standardizes task
force procedures, evaluates task force
operational readiness, funds special
equipment and training within available
appropriations, and reimburses, as
appropriate, task force costs incurred as a
result of ESF #9 deployment.
FEMA activates the National Urban Search NPS, operating under the Department of
and Rescue Response System for incidents Interior (DOI), provides SAR services on
requiring a coordinated Federal US&R lands and waters administered by NPS and
response. Upon activation under the NRF, aids authorities in neighboring jurisdictions.
US&R task forces are considered Federal Civil SAR operations, including emergency
assets under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster medical aid, are conducted in a wide variety
Relief and Emergency Assistance Act and of environments such as remote, rural and
other applicable authorities. The System roadless areas, lakes, rivers and oceans, and
integrates US&R task forces, Incident deserts, mountains and caves, and often
Support Teams (ISTs), and technical require extended response times and use of
specialists in support of unified SAR specialized equipment. NPS works closely
operations conducted in accordance with the with Federal, State, Tribal, Territorial, and
NSP. The task forces support State, Tribal, local SAR organizations.
Territorial, and local response efforts to
locate survivors and manage recovery National Parks have established local SAR
operations. plans that provide park managers with
direction and guidance in establishing and
FEMA reimburses for authorized US&R managing SAR operations.
deployments to Stafford Act declaration
sites, but does not have the authority or NPS provides visitor protection services,
funding to reimburse activities absent a including varying levels of SAR, and
Stafford Act declaration. Non-Stafford Act provides aid and assistance to visitors,
US&R deployments are reimbursed by the which may include search, rescue, and
Federal authority requesting US&R medical assistance.
assistance in accordance with provisions Qualified SAR services in local
contained in the Financial Management communities may be utilized if they can
Support Annex to the NRF. provide a timely response to SAR incidents
Further information on FEMA US&R is within an NPS area. When such services are
available at: not available, the NPS will make a
http://www.fema.gov/emergency/usr. reasonable effort to provide a level of SAR
service commensurate with park needs.
NPS, Branch of Emergency Services,
provides oversight, direction, and
coordinates the Service-wide SAR Program.
1-19
NPS considers search to involve finding lost national forests and grasslands. USFS has
persons in a wide variety of environments law enforcement personnel and other staff
from buildings to high mountains and that help ensure the safety of persons using
transporting them to safety, and considers national forests and who respond to
rescue to involve accessing, stabilizing, emergencies in those locations, and has
extricating and transporting stranded or resources applicable to specific areas
injured persons using available resources throughout the country.
ranging from hand-carried litters to hoist- USFS has agreements with local authorities
capable helicopters. in many areas to facilitate mutual assistance.
NPS cooperates with and supports State, Further information on the USFS is
Tribal, Territorial, and local governments available at: http://www.fs.fed.us/.
where its units are located. States may not
regulate the NPS without specific National Oceanic and Atmospheric
congressional consent; however, park areas Administration (NOAA)
may adopt all or part of the State SAR
policies and guidelines as long as they don’t
conflict with NPS Director’s Orders.
NPS, along with DoD, is a Primary Agency
under the NRF’s ESF #9 responsible for
land SAR. Other DOI assets will be
coordinated and utilized to enhance the
NPS’s capabilities.
Further information on the NPS is available NOAA, operating under the Department of
at: http://www.nps.gov/index.htm. Commerce (DOC), is the lead U.S. agency
for U.S. Search and Rescue Satellite Aided
Other Relevant Federal Agencies Tracking (SARSAT) Program, which is a
SAR sometimes requires the services of component of the International Cospas-
other Federal agencies. While each agency’s Sarsat Programme. NOAA operates the U.S.
involvement in SAR varies with their Mission Control Center (USMCC) as part of
primary mission and availability of the U.S. SARSAT program ground system,
resources, all are integral to the National and is responsible for maintaining the US
SAR System. 406 MHz Beacon Registration Database.
The Cospas-Sarsat system automatically
U.S. Forest Service (USFS) forwards distress beacon alerts and
registration data to RCCs and other SAR
Points of Contact (SPOCs).
Information on the Beacon Registration
Database is available at:
http://www.beaconregistration.noaa.gov.
Information on the U.S. SARSAT program
is available at:
http://www.sarsat.noaa.gov/usmcc.html.
USFS, operating under the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA), manages the
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Information on the International Cospas- Immigration and Customs
Sarsat Programme is available at: Enforcement (ICE)
http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/index.php.
Customs and Border Protection
(CBP)
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assistance from Federal, State, other Tribal, participation in international urban SAR
and local SAR authorities. activities, particularly with the United
Nations.
To request ESF #9 SAR assistance under the
NRF, Tribes shall be included in a State’s Further, as discussed in the NSP, any SAR-
request for Federal disaster assistance. After related international treaty or agreement or
a disaster declaration has been approved, the any type, or its implementation, is subject to
Tribe(s) may work directly with the Federal DOS oversight.
Government to obtain SAR resources and Further information on DOS is available at:
assistance. http://www.state.gov/.
Further information on the BIA is available
Federal Aviation Administration
at: http://www.BIA.gov/.
(FAA)
Department of State (DOS)
• The FAA, with support of NSARC Once alerted, the RCC and FAA work
Member Agencies, leads and coordinates together to locate the aircraft, reviewing
U.S. participation in SAR- related radio communications (if available) and
initiatives at ICAO; radar data to ascertain as closely as possible
a good last known position (LKP).
• NOAA leads and coordinates U.S. Concurrently, other FAA facilities conduct
participation in the International Cospas- “ramp” checks at airports where an aircraft
Sarsat Programme and associated may have landed.
international programs;
The FAA can recall recorded radar data and
• The USAF and USCG each provide a identify and trace aircraft that are at a
SAR expert to serve as a member of the sufficient altitude to be tracked by radar.
ICAO-IMO Joint SAR Working Group; RCCs can seek this radar data from the
and FAA, which can greatly assist in aircraft
searches, as well as providing route and last
• United States Agency for International
radar position data.
Development (USAID)/Office of
Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) Most aircraft are required by the FAA to
leads and coordinates national carry emergency locator transmitters (ELTs)
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that are designed to automatically activate in makes it a Federal felony, punishable by
the event of a accident. significant imprisonment and/or a monetary
fine, for anyone who knowingly and
Further information about the FAA and its
willfully communicates a false distress
SAR capabilities is available at:
signal, and the FCC has been a supporting
www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications and
agency in past Coast Guard actions.
FAA Order JO 7110.10 series (Flight).
Further information on the FCC is available
Federal Communications
at: http://www.fcc.gov/.
Commission (FCC)
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA)
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causes of every civil aviation accident in the expertise to solve complex transportation
U.S. and significant accidents in the other safety problems.
modes of transportation (e.g., railroad, NTSB maintains an accident database that
highway, marine and pipeline) and issuing may help identify previous wreckage
safety recommendations aimed at preventing locations.
future accidents.
Further information on the NTSB is
NTSB maintains a Go Team that begins available at: http://www.ntsb.gov/
investigation of a major accident at the
accident scene as quickly as possible,
assembling a broad spectrum of technical
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Section 14: Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs)
Overview
RCC Requirements
RCC Information Sources
Inland RCCs
RCC Tyndall (AFRCC)
RCC Elmendorf (AKRCC)
RCC Honolulu
National Park Service (NPS)
Canada and Mexico
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• 24-hour availability; functions should be considered when
determining staffing requirements. An RCC
• Trained personnel;
must be in a constant state of operational
• Charts and maps which apply to the readiness. Where the RCC does not
RCC’s SRR; maintain sufficient continuous staffing on
duty, provision must be made for stand-by
• Means of plotting;
RCC staff to be rapidly mobilized.
• Ability to receive distress alerts from An SMC should be designated (may be
equipment normally used for alerting pre-designated) for each specific SAR
within the SRR (e.g., Mission Control operation, and adequate numbers of
Centers (MCCs), air traffic services personnel qualified to perform the SMC
(ATS), cell phones, and other alerting function must be readily available on a 24-
posts, etc.); hour basis. This is a temporary function that
• Immediate communications with may be performed by a designated SAR
associated FAA facilities and other duty officer, assisted by as many staff as may
RCCs; be required.
• Rapid and reliable communications with A SAR operation may continue over a
parent agencies of SAR facilities, prolonged period of time. The SMC is in
meteorological offices, and SAR facilities charge of a SAR operation until a rescue
conducting SAR operations; has been concluded or until it has become
apparent that further efforts would be of no
• Phone, fax, computers, software, email, avail.
databases, and any other such tools that
are needed for efficient and effective RCC personnel should be trained, qualified,
RCC operations; and and certified to coordinate SAR operations
and effectively stand the RCC watch.
• Plans of operation. Qualification and certification processes
Additional information that should be ensure that RCC personnel have the
available to RCC personnel includes: prerequisite experience, maturity, and
judgment to coordinate SAR operations.
• Applicable international, national, State During the qualification process, RCC
and other useful SAR publications; personnel must, by demonstration of
• Air navigation regulations; abilities, show mental and physical
competence to perform as part of a team.
• Communications publications; RCC personnel certification is official
• Aeronautical information publications recognition by the SAR organization that it
(AIPs); trusts the person in the conduct and
coordination of SAR operations.
• Indexes of names, addresses, telephone
and facsimile numbers; and Each RCC must prepare comprehensive
plans of operation for the conduct of SAR
• Relevant checklists and forms. in its SRR. These plans must cover potential
RCC personnel must be trained and SAR scenarios for the whole SRR and be
capable of planning and coordinating the based on agreements between authorities
volume and types of SAR operations that responsible for the RCC and the providers
may occur within the SRR. If the RCC staff of SAR facilities or other support for SAR
has duties besides SAR, the additional operations.
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RCC Information Sources (Note: 18 USC § 2702 (b)(8) states that, “A
An RCC should possess investigative provider... may divulge the contents of a
capabilities to assist in all phases of a SAR communication to a Federal, State, or local
event. governmental entity, if the provider, in good
faith, believes that an emergency involving
Telephone investigations. Telephonic danger of death or serious physical injury to
communications search may resolve SAR any person requires disclosure without
events before alerting and dispatching a delay of communications relating to the
SAR facility. Such investigations should emergency.”)
attempt to:
Radar forensics. During aircraft missions,
• Establish and maintain communications radar forensics can facilitate locating the
with the Reporting Source(s); search object, usually by providing a LKP.
• Locate missing persons, aircraft and/or The RCC should have agreements with
vessels; sources of radar information. Radar requests
should include the relevant date and time of
• Identify where aircraft and/or vessels the incident, transponder code, LKP,
have or have not departed from or altitude, flight route, and aircraft type.
transited;
Air Defense Sectors (ADS). The Western Air
• Determine intentions of missing persons; Defense Sector (WADS) and Eastern Air
and Defense Sector (EADS) have access to radar
sites not normally used by the FAA; data is
• Search for and validate leads and clues
retained for 365 days.
in an attempt to establish disposition of
objective and narrow the search area. National Alert Warning System (NAWAS).
NAWAS is a special purpose telephone
Internet investigations. The internet is a tool
system that is a component of the Federal
for investigating incidents. When
Civil Defense Warning System. NAWAS
information such as a tail or hull number,
selectively disseminates warning and
telephone numbers, and the names of
emergency information within FEMA
missing persons are available, RCC
regions/States to Federal, State, and other
personnel may find information on the
law enforcement agencies using public
internet to help coordinate a suitable
service systems. Often police, highway
response.
patrol, and county sheriffs are linked to State
SARSAT alert correlation. Distress beacon networks and can assist in collecting and
alert correlation can help RCC personnel broadcasting information. RCCs may issue,
transition from the Alert Phase to the through FEMA, a NAWAS request for
Distress Phase during a potential SAR assistance from law enforcement agencies,
incident. subject to State NAWAS restrictions.
Cell phone forensics. Agreements and Aircraft Wreckage Locator Database
standard operating procedures with cellular (AWLD). The AFRCC maintains an AWLD
service providers can be used to obtain with all reported aircraft wreckage sites
needed information. Cellular service within the continental U.S. The AWLD is an
providers and other sources will typically important source that can identify aircraft
assist SAR authorities in locating the origin wreckage already in a search area. The file
of cell calls. contains geographic location, wreckage
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description (including aircraft type and coordinated search and rescue network
color) and crash date. ensuring timely, effective lifesaving
operations whenever and wherever needed
The AFRCC works closely with the NTSB
through cooperation, coordination, and
to determine the disposition of wreckage
education.”
after a SAR mission. If the NTSB, aircraft
owners, and insurance companies decide to AFRCC’s mission is derived from ICAO’s
leave the wreckage in place, then data is Chicago Convention and the IAMSAR
added to the database. The AWLD is Manual. These international requirements
accessible at: are satisfied via the NSP and NSS, providing
the U.S. with a national plan for
https://1afnorth.region1.ang.af.mil/AFRCC/
coordinating SAR services to meet U.S.
default.aspx.
domestic needs and international
Inland RCCs commitments. Further implementing DoD
The U.S. has three RCCs that have land guidance is provided in Department of
SAR responsibilities. These three RCCs are: Defense Directive (DODD) 3003.01, DoD
Support to Civil Search and Rescue.
• RCC Tyndall (AFRCC),
The AFRCC has no SAR command or
• RCC Elmendorf (AKRCC), and control authority, but supports domestic civil
• RCC Honolulu. authorities by coordinating DoD civil SAR
services to the fullest extent practicable on a
RCC Tyndall (AFRCC) non-interference basis with primary military
duties, and according to applicable national
directives, plans, guidelines, and
agreements. No DoD resources are assigned
or tasked for aeronautical civil SAR. The
AFRCC has no tasking authority, SAR
facilities, or other assigned SAR resources.
AFRCC is the SMC for incidents and
missions involving:
RCC Tyndall (AFRCC) is co-located with • Overdue GA interstate flights;
the 601st Air and Space Operations Center • DoD aircraft;
(601 AOC) at Tyndall Air Force Base,
Panama City, Florida. The AFRCC • Commercial aircraft; and
coordinates SAR services for aeronautical • Missions of national concern (e.g.
and other types of land-based SAR within National Special Security Events -
the aeronautical SRR corresponding to the NSSEs).
continental U.S. other than Alaska. The
AFRCC seeks to encourage a cooperative As SMC, the AFRCC operates with the full
SAR network with other Federal, State, operational authority of the Federal SC for
Tribal, Territorial and local SAR authorities the continental U.S. (Commander, U.S.
to help coordinate assistance for persons in Northern Command).
distress. AFRCC receives all:
The AFRCC is chartered with the
responsibility of “continuously building a
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• Aircraft ELT and personal locator • Email: afrcc.console@tyndall.af.mil
beacon (PLBs) distress beacon alerts
RCC Elmendorf – Alaska (AKRCC)
registered in the U.S.;
• Any distress beacons registered in other
countries which are geographically
located and activated in the Langley
SRR (continental U.S.); and
• All distress beacon alerts that are U.S.
registered, but are geographically
located outside the U.S.
If located in the continental U.S., the The Elmendorf RCC (also called the Alaska
AFRCC works closely with other SAR Rescue Coordination Center; AKRCC) is
authorities to: associated with the 611th Air and Space
Operations Center (611 AOC) at Elmendorf
• Respond to aeronautical and ground AFB, Anchorage, Alaska, and is
distress beacon reports; administratively referred to as the 11th Air
• Investigate the reports in coordination Force RCC. The AKRCC coordinates SAR
with Federal, State, Tribal, Territorial, services for aeronautical and other types of
and local SAR authorities; and land-based SAR within the aeronautical
SRR corresponding to Alaska. The AKRCC
• Determine the required type and scope also coordinates SAR services for military
of response. SAR as well as DoD support to any other
Through SAR agreements with States, the civil SAR providers within the Alaskan
AFRCC may be a coordinating authority for AOR. AKRCC will assume SMC for
specific land SAR events other than incidents involving:
aeronautical. These events may include • DoD assets;
patient transport, search, rescue, and SAR
unit transport. • Any aviation incident; or
Each State in the contiguous U.S. has SAR • When asked by another civil SAR
agreements on file with AFRCC to delineate provider (USCG, National Parks
a responsible SC/SAR coordinating agency Service, or Alaska State Troopers) when
and coordinating requirements for all SAR their resources or capabilities have been
missions. exceeded.
The AFRCC coordinates Federal SAR The AKRCC seeks to encourage a
capabilities at the request of other cooperative SAR network with the other
designated RCCs, as well as other Federal Federal, State, Tribal, Territorial, and local
and State SCs in support of ongoing civil SAR authorities to help coordinate
SAR operations. assistance for persons in distress.
AFRCC can be contacted at: Federal SC responsibility for Alaska has
been delegated from CDRUSPACOM to
• Toll Free: 1-800-851-3051; CDRPACAF to Commander, of 11th Air
• Local (both emergency and non- Force (11 AF/CC), which coordinates SAR
emergency): 850-283-5955. operations through the AKRCC. AKRCC is
a unit of the Alaska Air National Guard
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(ANG), manned entirely by AK guardsmen responsibilities and SAR responders.
with an AK ANG administrative chain of AKRCC works closely with the FAA to
command and an active duty, 11th Air respond to audible aeronautical and ground
Force, operational chain of command. distress beacon reports, investigates overdue
aircraft reports, and determines appropriate
Like the AFRCC, AKRCC’s mission is
type and scope of response to an incident.
derived from ICAO’s Chicago Convention
and the IAMSAR manual, along with the AKRCC can be contacted at:
NSP, NSS and DoDD 3003.01, DoD support
• Toll-Free: 1-800-420-7230
to civil SAR. Additionally, by agreement
with USCG District 17, Juneau, Alaska, the • Commercial: 907-551-7230
AKRCC will assume SMC for aeronautical
• DSN: 317-551-7230
SAR events in Cook Inlet above 60 degrees
north latitude, while the Juneau RCC will • Fax (comm. or DSN prefix): 551-7245
assume SMC for land SAR events below 58 • Email: rcc.messages@elmendorf.af.mil.
degrees north latitude (Aleutian Chain) and
east of 141 degrees west longitude RCC Honolulu
(Southeast AK).
The AKRCC has no SAR command and
control authority, but actively coordinates
SAR operations of all available resources in
Alaska. In addition to the normal DoD
support to civil SAR on a non-interference
basis with primary military duties common
to all DoD assets, the Alaska ANG
maintains a 24-hour alert response with HH- USCG RCC Honolulu operates under
60G, HC-130 and Guardian Angel forces. In Commander, 14th Coast Guard District in
accordance with the SAR agreement Honolulu, Hawaii.
between 11th AF and the Alaska ANG,
RCC Honolulu has responsibility for:
mission priorities for the Alaska ANG
rescue assets are: • Maritime and aeronautical SAR within
1. RCC-directed SAR operations in support the U.S. SRR that includes a large
of DoD assets; portion of the Northern Pacific Ocean;
and
2. Combat mission readiness training;
• Aeronautical and other types of land
3. RCC-directed civil SAR operations; and SAR in the State of Hawaii, as requested
4. Operational support to DoD. (most land SAR operations in Hawaii are
conducted by State and local SAR
In accordance with these priorities, alert authorities).
force response posture is dictated by a
combination of fighter aircraft operations As a USCG RCC, RCC Honolulu’s specific
and time of day. SAR guidance is contained in the U.S. Coast
Guard Addendum to the NSS.
AKRCC receives all Cospas-Sarsat distress
beacon alerts located in the Alaska SRR. National Park Service (NPS)
AKRCC shares distress beacon information While the NPS does not operate a Federal
with civil SAR agencies with SMC RCC, it does, however, maintain a national
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Emergency Incident Coordination Center Canada and Mexico
(EICC) that is responsible for coordinating International SAR agreements have been
response resources throughout the NPS concluded between the U.S. and several
system. other countries.
National Parks are located throughout the SAR across the land border with Mexico is
U.S., with diverse physical environments authorized through diplomatic channels.
and a diverse visiting public. Maritime SAR cases are coordinated with
Varying levels of SAR services may be the Mexican Navy.
required based on the challenges associated Canada has three RCCs which cooperate
within each Park. Park SAR operations are closely with U.S. RCCs:
normally conducted by highly trained Park
Rangers. Each Park has SAR plans that • JRCC Halifax;
identify possible scenarios and response • JRCC Trenton; and
procedures.
• JRCC Victoria.
As one of three Federal Agencies
responsible for conducting SAR operations Canadian land SAR, similar to the situation
(the USCG and DoD are the other two), in the U.S., is largely conducted under the
NPS works closely with Federal RCCs and legal authority of the individual Provinces
other authorities and volunteers to provide and Territories. The Canadian Cospas-Sarsat
mutual support. MCC is co-located with Joint RCC (JRCC)
Trenton.
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Section 15: NonFederal SAR Responsibilities
Introduction
State SAR Responsibilities
State SAR Plans
Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC)
Tribal, Territorial, and Local Responsibilities
1-33
depending on the State’s requirements and assistance is not providing needed goods and
accepted SAR responsibilities. Working services to an affected State. Requests for
relationships between a State and an RCC are assistance are made at the discretion of the
established by agreement. affected State; States retain the choice of
seeking resource support from other States,
(Note: AFRCC maintains Federal-State SAR
the Federal Government or both, depending
agreements, which can be obtained by
on the situation.
contacting the AFRCC.)
Further information on EMAC is available at:
States may have a variety of agreements that
http://www.emacweb.org/ .
in some way support civil SAR; these could
be with local, Tribal, or Territorial authorities, Tribal, Territorial, and Local SAR
commercial entities, volunteer organizations, Responsibilities
etc. Native American and Alaska Native
Emergency Management Assistance communities vary in geographic size,
Compact (EMAC) complexity, and sophistication. Larger Tribes
and communities have well established public
safety infrastructure that includes law
enforcement, emergency medical services,
structural fire, and wild land fire capabilities.
Each Tribe or community may elect to
organize themselves with other local
resources or maintain their own capability. In
either case the Tribal Chief Executive has
authority over actions and personnel working
Every State is a member of the Emergency on Tribal lands.
Management Assistance Compact (EMAC), a
national interstate mutual aid agreement that DOI is charged with managing Federal affairs
enables States to share resources during times within U.S. Territories. DOI has a wide range
of disaster. EMAC has become the nation's of responsibilities (including the regulation of
system for providing mutual aid through Tribal and Territorial governments, basic
operational procedures and protocols that stewardship of public lands, etc.), but is not
have been validated during disasters where responsible for local government or for civil
assistance was provided under the compact. administration.
EMAC acts as a complement to the national Tribes and Territories may request assistance
disaster response system, providing relief to directly from Federal Agencies. In cases
States requesting assistance from compact where Tribes and Territories are seeking
members struggling to preserve life, the Federal assistance under the Stafford Act,
economy, and the environment. EMAC does these requests are submitted through ESF #15,
not replace Federal assistance, but can be External Affairs.
used in conjunction with or when Federal
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Section 16: International SAR System
Background
SAR Stages
SAR Phases
Awareness Stage
Initial Action Stage
Planning Stage
Operations Stage
Conclusion Stage
Incidents
Missions
Concluding a SAR Mission
Mission Suspension
Mission Termination
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Practices. The three volumes of the IAMSAR measures to expedite entry of SAR facilities
Manual provide guidance for a common into the territory of other Parties.
aviation and maritime approach to organizing Plans developed under both conventions
and providing SAR services. States are divide the globe into SRRs, each with an
encouraged, by use of the manual, to develop RCC, to help ensure the provision of adequate
and improve their SAR services and to shore-based communication infrastructure,
cooperate with neighboring States.” efficient distress alert routing, and proper
IMO’s 1979 International Convention on operational coordination to support SAR
Maritime Search and Rescue (“SAR services. Under this geographically-based
Convention”) provides that Parties follow scheme, RCCs respond to persons in distress
relevant IMO guidelines for SAR, which are without regard to the nationality or status of
incorporated into the IAMSAR Manual. the persons or the circumstances in which
they are found.
The U.S. is signatory to both the Chicago and
Maritime SAR Conventions. SAR Stages
Annex 12 and the SAR Convention are the As discussed in the IAMSAR Manual
basis for developing and implementing (Volume 2), the response to a SAR incident
international SAR plans so that no matter usually proceeds through a sequence of five
where a distress situation occurs, persons in stages, which are.
distress will be rescued by a SAR Associated with these stages are groups of
organization, and when appropriate, by activities typically performed by the SAR
cooperating SAR organizations of system in responding to a SAR incident from
neighboring countries. the time the system becomes aware of the
Parties to these conventions must ensure that incident until its response to the incident is
effective arrangements are in place to provide concluded. The response to a particular SAR
adequate SAR services, and should enter into incident may not require performance of every
agreements with neighboring nations stage. For some incidents, the stages may
involving the establishment of SAR regions overlap with actions for two or more stages
(SRRs), pooling of SAR facilities, being performed simultaneously. The five
establishment of common procedures, SAR stages are described in Figure 1-6-1 on
training, liaison, and the implementation of the next page.
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Awareness Knowledge by any person or agency in the SAR system that an
emergency situation exists or may exist.
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will continuously loop until the mission is incident is classified by the notified RCC as
complete. being in one of three phases:
Conclusion Stage • Uncertainty;
During the mission conclusion stage, • Alert, or
documentation is complete; and SAR
facilities return to their home base to be • Distress.
debriefed, refueled, replenished, and re- The emergency phase may be reclassified by
staffed to prepare for future SAR missions the SMC as the situation develops. The current
(demobilization). phase should be referred to in all
SAR Phases communications about the SAR incident as a
means of informing interested parties of the
SAR phases, also detailed in the IAMSAR current level of concern for the safety of
Manual (Volume 2), are based on the level of persons who may need assistance.
concern for the safety of persons who may be
in distress. Upon initial notification, a SAR The three SAR phases are detailed in Table 1-
6-1 below:
Declared when there is doubt about the person(s) who may be in distress. The situation may need to be
monitored and investigated, and more information gathered by a person trained in SAR investigative
techniques. Additionally, preliminary communication (PRECOM) actions may begin (See Note below). This
Uncertainty phase is generally investigative in nature with a low urgency in committing SAR facilities.
(Note: PRECOMs are preliminary communication searches; initial limited communications checks normally
directed by the SMC during the uncertainty phase, of areas where the missing persons may be.)
Exists when the person(s) in distress has difficulty and may need assistance, but is not in immediate danger or
in need of immediate response. This phase may be indicated by a continued lack of information concerning
location or progress when persons are overdue. PRECOM may be followed by Extended Communication
(EXCOM) searches and SRUs might be dispatched to investigate high probability locations (See Note below).
Alert Other facilities might be alerted to the possibility of a mission. This corresponds to the intermediate or
measured response score on the urgency determination for use of ground searches.
(Note: EXCOMs are extended communications searches to find information or clues about the location of
missing persons; EXCOMs are normally conducted after PRECOMs have yielded no results or when the
mission is upgraded to the alert phase.)
Reasonable certainty that the craft or person requires an immediate response. May be indicated when all
reasonable communications searches and other forms of investigation have not succeeded and no other
Distress actions are likely to be able to confirm non-distress. SRUs are launched immediately and/or other facilities are
requested to take immediate action. This is the highest urgency or urgent response.
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not normally involve dispatching SAR maximum number of possibilities from further
facilities to conduct SAR operations. consideration through the investigative
IAMSAR Manual (Volume 2) provides process.
general considerations when evaluating and If the search object is discovered during the
re-evaluating incident information: investigation, the SMC/IC must deactivate all
alerted resources involved in the incident.
To co-ordinate a response to a SAR incident
most effectively, the SMC should have Missions
accurate, timely, and complete information A mission is a SAR operation conducted to
about the incident and the subsequent status assist persons who are in actual or apparent
of survivors. Usually, not all the needed distress. Such persons may be aboard an
information is provided to the SMC. In fact, aircraft, vessel or other craft. A mission is
the fate of the distressed craft and any initiated when there is reasonable certainty
survivors is often a mystery in the early stages that persons are in distress and may need
of the incident. For this reason, the SMC immediate assistance, or if the existence of a
should initiate and actively pursue an distress situation cannot be determined by
investigation of the incident and related other means.
circumstances so the needed information can
be obtained. Such investigative efforts are A mission number is assigned and the
often similar in outline to scientific or police incident SMC/IC or another SMC/IC is
investigations. The SMC should interview, or designated for the mission.
have other qualified persons interview, Before issuing a mission number, the SMC/IC
anyone who might have some knowledge of should determine that:
the distress incident, distressed craft, or the
persons aboard the distressed craft. These • A valid or perceived distress situation
interviews may lead to additional persons, exists (normally assessed in terms of a
agencies, or other sources of information. The threat to life, limb, or eyesight or of undue
SMC should try to determine the most likely suffering);
cause of the distress, if not already known, by • The responsible agency has requested the
consulting weather bureaus, ships, and mission; and
aircraft, and by locating any known hazards
to the distressed craft on an appropriate map • No known legal restrictions on activities
or chart. There is almost no limit to the or funding apply (e.g., Posse Comitatus
number of possible sources of information or Act, Stafford Act, etc.).
the number of possible scenarios for what Missions normally fall into one of the mission
might have happened to the distressed craft. types identified in Table 1-6-2 on the
This means that the SMC should perform two following page:
apparently opposite activities: think of
additional possibilities which should be
investigated, and try to eliminate the
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Table 1-6-2: Land SAR Missions
• Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) - emergency distress beacons that most U.S. civil aircraft are
required to carry; these distress beacons alert via satellites on 406 MHz or via audibly to overflying aircraft
or ground stations on 121.5 MHz;
• Emergency position-indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) – emergency distress beacons that many ships,
Distress boats, and other marine craft carry that alert via satellites on 406 MHz; and
Beacon • Personal locator beacons (PLBs) – multi-environment emergency distress beacons that individuals carry
Missions that alert via satellites on 406 MHz.
Each of these types of distress beacons typically transmits a continuous 121.5 MHz signal that SAR forces can
use for homing, and SAR forces may also be equipped to home on the 406 MHz alerting signal. Any of these
beacons can be activated manually, but many ELTs and EPIRBs are designed to activate automatically when
an aircraft crashes or a vessel sinks.
Support to recognized State or other SAR authorities for missions not involving aeronautical SAR such as
Non-Aircraft missing person(s), rescue, medical evacuation, patient transport, mercy missions (e.g. transport of organs,
Missions blood, and specialized equipment), mass rescue operations (MROs), or transport of SAR personnel or facilities.
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Normally, the SMC is best qualified to decide determination, taking into account the SMC’s
or to recommend to an IC or higher authority recommendation.
when to suspend or terminate a mission. The Closed, suspended, or terminated missions
IC or higher authority within the SMC’s may be classified as per Table 1-6-3 below:
agency may reserve the right to make the final
Saved Survivor(s) was in distress, could not self-recover, and was rescued;
Person(s) remains unlocated after all leads and search efforts have
Missing been exhausted.
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signal ceases without any additional clues to • Determined to be criminal activity or
further an investigation. threat to SAR resources; or
For Federal SMCs/ICs, non-aircraft SAR • It is verified that a distress situation no
missions are terminated when the search longer exists.
object is:
Aircraft missions are terminated once the
• Located and delivered to a medical aircraft is located or contact has been made
facility or place of safety; with the pilot to confirm that no distress
exists.
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Section 17: NIMS
Incident Command System Overview
HSPD5
NIMS – Six Components
1-43
o Public Information Systems refers to communications, information
processes, procedures, and systems for management (collection, analysis, and
communicating timely and accurate dissemination), and information sharing at
information to the public during crisis all levels of incident management;
or emergency situations;
• Supporting Technologies - Technology
• Preparedness - Effective incident and technological systems support
management begins with activities implementation and refining NIMS. These
conducted on an ongoing basis in advance technologies include communications
of any potential incident. Preparedness systems, information management
involves integrated planning, training, systems, data display systems and
exercises, personnel qualification and specialized technologies; and
certification standards, equipment
• Ongoing Management and Maintenance -
acquisition and certification standards,
This involves NIMS strategic direction
and publication management processes
and oversight.
and activities;
For ICS, an incident is an occurrence caused
• Resource Management - NIMS defines by people or natural phenomena that requires
standardized mechanisms and establishes response to prevent or minimize loss of life or
requirements for processes to describe, environmental or property damage. Examples
inventory, mobilize, dispatch, track, and of incidents include: structural and wild land
recover resources over the life cycle of an fires; natural disasters; disease outbreaks;
incident; search and rescue; hazardous materials
• Communications and Information incidents; terrorist and criminal acts; and
Management - NIMS requires a security events such as Presidential visits or
standardized framework for the Super Bowl.
1-44
Section 18: International SAR System NIMS/ICS
System Integration
Introduction
Incident Command System (ICS)
International SAR System NIMS/ICS Comparison
Combining the International SAR System and NIMS/ICS
1-45
between both the international SAR system
and NIMS/ICS.
1-46
Command
Finance/
Operations Planning Logistics Intelligence
Administration
Conducts tactical Develops the action plan Provides support to Monitors incident costs; Provides analysis and
operations to carry out to accomplish the meet incident needs: provides accounting, sharing of information
the plan. objectives; collects and provides resources procurement, time and intelligence during
Develops tactical evaluates information; and services. recording, and cost an incident.
objectives and directs all maintains resource analysis.
resources analysis. status.
1-47
NIMS are fully compatible and work well in SAR personnel can perform functions such
combination. as supporting the IC, serving as the IC’s
liaison with the international SAR system,
For example, when a disaster is declared by
helping to coordinate use of resources for
the President and CISAR operations are
the overall response (typically with priority
conducted under the NRF’s ESF #9, the
given to lifesaving), and requesting support
NSP still applies, and the provisions of the
for SAR from the IC without significantly
NRF (and NIMS) come into play as
changing the way either the international
additional (but compatible) requirements.
SAR system or NIMS operates.
This process essentially takes the
international SAR system and plugs it into Often one of these SAR personnel can serve
NIMS by linking it with one or more as the SAR Branch Director or SAR Group
appropriate SAR representatives supporting Supervisor for the IC within the command
the IC in the Operations Section of the structure.
Incident Command.
1-48
Section 19: Special SAR Operations
Mass Rescue Operations (MROs)
Catastrophic Incident Search and Rescue (CISAR)
The “Olive” SAR Model
1-49
not be apparent. However, it is important to “Normal” SAR
understand that flexible response options are Operations
available for these progressive or potentially (24/7)
overwhelming events. The CISAR Addendum
provides standardized guidance for the
conduct of CISAR operations.
Provisions of the NSP, NSS, and relevant
Catastrophic
addenda always apply to civil SAR regardless Incident
of whether the operations are CISAR. If the SAR
operations are CISAR, then provisions of the
NRF and its relevant supporting documents Mass Rescue
also apply. Operations
For most CISAR operations, the NRF’s ESF
#9 (Search and Rescue) Annex will be
activated and an overall Primary Agency for
the event will be designated by the ESF #9
Coordinator (FEMA). The ESF #9 overall Figure 1-9-1: The “Olive”
Primary Agency designation is dependent on In the Olive, the green area represents SAR
the type of catastrophic incident (Structural operations conducted under the authorities of
Collapse SAR – DHS/FEMA; the NSP by designated Federal SCs and other
Maritime/Coastal/Waterborne SAR – SAR authorities on a daily basis (e.g., NPS,
DHS/USCG; or Land SAR – either DoD or U.S. Coast Guard, and CDRUSNORTHCOM/
DOI/NPS) and the nature of the SAR CDRUSPACOM)
response.
The yellow area represents MROs; SAR
Another important aspect of CISAR is that operations not considered “normal” or routine
Federal Agency costs for such operations are SAR, but also do not meet the criteria of a
generally reimbursed under provisions of the Catastrophic Incident.
Stafford Act. For example, for NRF related
operations in support of ESF #9, DoD’s role The red area represents civil SAR operations
in CISAR is always considered to be a DSCA when a catastrophic incident has occurred and
event and is conducted in accordance with will normally be associated with a
DoD’s DSCA directives. Most Federal Presidential emergency or disaster declaration
Agencies have similar policy documents and additional provisions of the NRF (ESF
relating to Stafford Act operations. #9) will apply. As stated in the previous
section, the NSP still applies, and the
CISAR operations are covered in the CISAR provisions of the NRF (and NIMS) come into
Addendum to the NSS. play as additional (but compatible)
The “Olive” SAR Model requirements.
NSARC created a SAR model that There is no line between “normal” SAR
categorizes the severity of SAR operations operations and MROs. Each event is unique
conducted by the NSARC member agencies to each agency, circumstances surrounding
and other SAR authorities. This SAR model the incident, SAR resources available to
has been called the “Olive” (Figure 1-9-1). respond, type of SAR conducted (e.g., land,
aeronautical, maritime, urban, etc.), weather
and on scene conditions, as well as many
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other factors. There is a line between associated with each type of SAR response.
catastrophic incidents and MROs to NSARC member agencies, States, Tribes,
symbolize that a catastrophic incident is a Territories, and local SAR authorities need to
clearly defined NRF incident normally plan for regular SAR, but also for possible
associated with a Presidential declaration. MROs and CISAR as well.
The purpose of the Olive is to highlight the
differences and understand the challenges
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1-52
Part 2: Resources and Capabilities
Section 21: Land SAR Resources 23
Section 22: SAR Personnel Considerations 219
Section 23: SAR Volunteers 221
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2-2
Section 21: Land SAR Resources
Introduction
Aviation Resources
Rotary Wing Aircraft
Fixed Wing Aircraft
Land Resources
Ground Searchers
Search Dogs
Human Trackers
Rough Terrain SAR Responders
Swift Water and Underwater SAR Responders
Winter Environment SAR Responders
Specialized Vehicle SAR Responders
Confined Space SAR Responders
Collapsed Structure SAR Responders
Horse/Mounted SAR Responders
Department of Defense (DoD)
84th Radar Evaluation Squadron (RADES)
National Park Service (NPS)
National US&R Response System
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)
Volunteer Auxiliaries
Civil Air Patrol (CAP)
Coast Guard Auxiliary (CGAUX)
2-3
Section 21: Land SAR Resources (continued)
Federal Aviation Administration
Air Traffic Organization (ATO)
FlightFollowing and Alerting Services
Radar Nets
National Track Analysis Program (NTAP)/National Track
Analysis (NTA)
National Search and Rescue School
Nationallyorganized Resources
National Association for Search and Rescue (NASAR)
Mountain Rescue Association (MRA)
National Cave Rescue Commission (NCRC)
National Ski Patrol
National Voluntary Organization Active in Disasters (NVOAD)
U.S. SARSAT Program (Overview)
CospasSarsat System Satellites
LEOLUTs and GEOLUTs
USMCC
2-4
Aviation Resources appearance of the search object, the local
environmental conditions, and the searchers’
Rotary Wing Aircraft
training and experience in clue detection.
Helicopters make excellent SAR platforms
Ground searchers:
and are routinely used in land SAR
operations for: • Provide rapid route or area search of a
specific area;
• Visual and electronic searching over
priority search areas; • Are normally self sufficient and have
good navigation skills; and
• Directing ground personnel to an area
from the air; • Can locate clues to eliminate or redefine
a search to a smaller search area.
• Inserting and/or extracting rescue
personnel and victims; and Search Dogs
• Movement or transport of equipment and There are several canine SAR disciplines.
personnel. As per Table 2-1-1, dogs can be classified
broadly as either:
Fixed Wing Aircraft
Fixed wing aircraft can be used for land • Air scenting dogs; or
SAR operations for: • Tracking/trailing dogs.
• Visual and electronic searching large
areas quickly;
• Searching for larger search objects, such
as aircraft or automobiles; and
• Movement or transport of equipment and
personnel.
Land SAR Resources
Ground Searchers
Ground searchers are used to conduct Biloxi, Miss., September 3, 2005 - A member of the Indiana
confinement, attraction, rapid (hasty) and Task Force 1 Urban Search and Rescue (US&R) team and
area searches (Section 4-4). Search his canine partner enter a damaged house to search for
thoroughness largely depends on the type of victims of Hurricane Katrina. (Photo: FEMA/Mark Wolfe)
terrain being searched, the size and
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Table 2-1-1: Search Canines – General Categories
Type Description Uses
Air scent dogs can:
Air scent dogs primarily use airborne human, • Search large areas efficiently;
Air Scent
normally non-discriminate, scent to home in on
Dogs subjects. • Search difficult areas more easily than humans; and
• Can easily integrate into a search area.
• Tracking dogs are highly efficient;
• Follow the ground scent of the last person who
passed through the search area;
Tracking dogs are scent discriminating, work on-
Tracking/
lead and follow the footsteps of the subject
• Are commonly used among law enforcement and
Dogs correctional departments;
utilizing ground scent.
• Discriminate a lost subject from other persons; and
• Can function independently for long periods of time.
(Note: Scent-article is not required.)
Tracking dogs not only follow non-human Both trailing and tracking dogs require a
ground disturbance scent, but also follow an source of the individual’s scent, but not
individual’s contact scent. necessarily an actual scent article. Both
types of dog can be started off a footprint or
The main difference between a trailing dog
contact point, from a gauze pad that has
and a tracking dog is the tracking dog works
footprint to footprint with nose on the been allowed to absorb scent off of a car
seat, steering wheel, etc., or a scent article
ground, while the trailing dog normally
such as a piece of the search object’s
holds its head higher, does not work footstep
clothing.
to footstep and is usually farther from the
actual track. Other non-scent discriminate canine SAR
disciplines are described in Table 2-1-2:
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Table 2-1-2: Search Dogs – Non-Scent Discriminate Canine SAR Disciplines
Type Description
Wilderness Area Used to search large areas for the presence of a live and/or human subject(s)
Cadaver/Human Remains Used to search for the presence of human remains on the surface, hanging, or buried.
Detection (HRD) They are used in a large variety of search environments, especially in disaster situations.
Used from a boat or the shore to search for the presence of submerged human remains
Water in water (salt or freshwater).
Avalanche Used to search avalanche debris flows for the presence of humans buried in snow.
Disaster/US&R Used to search debris piles or urban areas for the presence of live human subjects.
2-7
• Mountain biking teams. Horse/Mounted SAR Responders
Confined Space SAR Responders Horse/mounted SAR responders are trained
searchers mounted on horses, with riding or
Confined space responders are searchers that
pack animals used for searching remote or
have technical skills and equipment to
rough areas, or responders that assist by
operate in caves, caverns, mines, tunnels,
transporting supplies and equipment with
shafts, tanks, etc. These specialized search
horses and pack animals. Horse/mounted
personnel are usually members of:
search personnel are usually members of:
• National Cave Rescue Commission/
• Organized mounted SAR units;
National Speleological Commission;
• Sheriff or auxiliary units;
• Fire services;
• Local riding clubs or associations; and
• FEMA;
• Ranchers, outfitters, wilderness guides,
• Mine Safety and Health Administration;
etc.
• Office of Surface Mining; and
Department of Defense (DoD)
• “Cavers” or local Speleological Groups. DoD civil SAR activities involve a broad
Collapsed Structure SAR Responders spectrum of all domain resources.
Depending on the scale of an incident,
Collapsed structure responders are searchers
effective SAR operations may require any or
that have technical skills and equipment to
all of the following:
operate in collapsed structures.
• Incident, Awareness, and Assessment
(IAA) capability (manned, unmanned,
satellite);
• Light, medium, and heavy lift
helicopters;
• Fixed wing aircraft;
• Small boat and utility vessels;
• Amphibious and high water vehicles;
Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 18, 2010 – FEMA Urban • Search and extraction elements;
Search and Rescue. Rescue of earthquake victims in
collapsed structures. (Photo: USAID/Gruber) • K9 and general purpose personnel (Area
These specialized search personnel are search & US&R support); and
usually members of: • Aircraft radar evaluation/tracking.
• Search dog units; SAR planners need to understand that not all
• Urban Rescue Teams; and DoD resources are SAR-equipped and not
all crews are SAR trained and experienced.
• FEMA US&R Task Forces.
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84th Radar Evaluation Squadron
(RADES)
The Radar Data Interface System (RDIS), Each PTB lists the performance
designed and built by 84 RADES engineers requirements (tasks) for a specific position
and present at all Air Defense Sectors and in a format that allows a trainee to be
Alaska, supports their EA process. evaluated against written guidelines.
Successful performance of all tasks, as
National Park Service (NPS) observed and recorded by an evaluator, will
NPS has a wide array of SAR capabilities result in a recommendation that the trainee
and is equipped to deal with most be certified in that position. A more detailed
emergencies that could arise in national description of this process, definitions of
parks (391 areas of 84 million acres) and terms, and responsibilities are included in
monuments, as well as other SAR operations the Wildland Fire Qualification System
as requested outside the national parks. Guide (NWCG PMS 310-1) and National
Park Service All-Hazard Incident
Qualification System Guide.
NPS SAR position tasks include the
following:
• Mountain Search and/or Rescue
Technician searches and rescues those in
trouble in urban, wilderness,
mountainous environments, or
environments usually greater than 25
2-9
degrees inclination, or wherever rope ISTs provide coordination and logistical
systems or three points of contact are support to US&R task forces during
commonly necessary, and includes areas emergency operations. They also conduct
commonly known as snow or ice needs assessments and provide technical
covered terrain, glaciers, crevasse, advice and assistance to State, tribal, and
backcountry, and alpine; local government emergency managers. The
ISTs are staffed by personnel from US&R
• Swiftwater/Flood Rescue Technician
task forces; Federal, State, tribal, and local
carries out rescues from shore and in
government emergency response
water;
organizations; and private-sector
• Wilderness Search and Rescue Leader organizations.
leads a SAR team or crew, searching for
Technical specialists provide expertise in
and rescuing those in trouble in
various US&R disciplines and are mobilized
wilderness, rural, urban, suburban and
as needed.
other environments; and
• Wilderness Search and Rescue
Technician searches for and rescues
those in trouble in wilderness, rural,
urban, suburban and other environments.
National US&R Response System
FEMA, with support from Federal, State,
Tribal, Territorial and local SAR authorities,
the nation’s top technical US&R specialists,
and other interested groups, developed the
National Urban Search and Rescue Sabine Pass, TX, September 14, 2008 - Members of the
Response System. This system includes FEMA Urban Search and Rescue team, Indiana Task
building/structural collapse SAR operations Force 1 go into neighborhoods impacted by Hurricane Ike
for natural disasters as well as other building to search for people needing help evacuating the area.
(Photo: Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA)
collapse operations that primarily require
DHS/FEMA US&R task force operations. U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)
The National US&R Response System The USCG maintains SAR resources,
integrates DHS/FEMA US&R task forces, (aircraft, cutters, and boats) primarily
Incident Support Teams (ISTs), and dedicated to maritime SAR throughout the
technical specialists. U.S. Because of the USCG’s 24/7 readiness
The System is built around a core of task posture and the seamless facilities along the
forces prepared to deploy immediately and entire coast, Great Lakes, and inland
initiate operations in support of ESF #9. waterways, the USCG is often available to
These task forces are staffed primarily by support inland SAR.
local fire department and emergency USCG aircraft include long-range HC-130,
services personnel who are highly trained medium-range HU-25 fixed-wing aircraft,
and experienced in collapsed structure SAR HH-60and HH/MH-65 Rescue Swimmer/
operations and possess specialized expertise EMT equipped helicopters that operate in
and equipment. any weather, day or night, with capabilities
that include raft, and Datum Marker Buoy
2-10
(DMB) insertion, hoisting and sling Civil Air Patrol (CAP)
operations, shipboard capability forward-
looking-infrared (FLIR), and a wide
spectrum of communications capability
(VHF-FM, VHF-AM, UHF, HF and
SATCOM) that may be utilized for IAA,
search, rescue, and transport.
2-11
As with all USCG resources, requests for http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/
and tasking of CGAUX resources are ATpubs/AIM/aim.pdf
conducted through the appropriate USCG
Air Traffic Organization (ATO)
RCC.
FAA ATO maintains a nationwide
Further information on the CGAUX is
communications net, coordinated with
available at: http://nws.cgaux.org/ .
international aeronautical communications
Federal Aviation Administration services for the control, coordination, and
assistance of civil and military air traffic.
Primary FAA resources that may be used for
SAR are noted below.
Flight-Following and Alerting
Services
ARTCC and ATCT/TRACON facilities
provide flight-following service for aircraft
on flight plans under instrument flight rules
The Federal Aviation Administration
(IFR) or when aircraft are receiving visual
(FAA), operating under the Department of
flight rules (VFR) advisory service. When
Transportation (DOT), provides air traffic
ATCT/TRACON facilities provide service
control services to include monitoring and
and the aircraft becomes overdue they will
flight following aircraft through its Air
forward the missing aircraft report to the
Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC),
nearest ARTCC who will alert the RCC.
Airport Traffic Control Towers
ARTCC facilities providing service to an
(ATCT)/Terminal Radar Approach Controls
aircraft that becomes overdue will report the
(TRACON), and Flight Service Stations
occurrence directly to the appropriate RCC.
(FSS). The FAA may be the first agency to
alert an RCC of an aviation emergency or FSSs and Flight Service Hubs (FSHs) that
overdue aircraft. provide flight-following service for aircraft
on flight plans under visual flight rules
The FAA also monitors emergency
(VFR) or who receive a report of a missing
frequencies for 121.5/243.0 MHz emergency
aircraft will alert RCC’s when these aircraft
locator transmitter (ELT) signals. Most
become overdue.
aircraft are required by the FAA to carry
ELTs that are designed to automatically Radar nets
activate in the event of a crash. Radar nets are independent and joint radar
Further detailed information about the FAA sites operated by the FAA and the Air Force.
and SAR (see FAA Order JO 7110.65 Air They provide almost complete coverage of
Traffic Control, JO 7110.10, Flight Services, the continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii,
or the Aeronautical Information Manual) are Panama, and Puerto Rico. All sites are
available at: equipped with IFF interrogators for Air
http://www.faa.gov/documentlibrary/media/ Traffic Control (ATC) use. Most major civil
order/atc.pdf and military aerodromes have short-range
terminal radar that may obtain radar contact
http://www/faa.gov/documentlibrary/media/
with distressed aircraft in the vicinity.
order/fss.pdf
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National Track Analysis Program National SAR School
(NTAP)/National Track Analysis (NTA)
Radar information in the form of Continuous
Data Recordings (CDR) from TRACON
facilities or National Track and Analysis
Program (NTAP)/National Track Analysis
(NTA) from most ARTCC facilities can be
requested by RCC’s. This information can
greatly assist an aircraft search by providing
the route of flight and last known position to The National SAR School, located in
the extent radar information exists. Yorktown, Virginia, is sponsored by the
NTAP/NTA can retrieve computer-stored USCG and the USAF. The school offers
radar data up to 15 days old to pinpoint a courses in Land Search Planning and
missing aircraft's last known position. The Maritime Search Planning, with instructors
key item for a successful radar solution is from the USCG and USAF. Land Search
the object's last fix. Many aircraft have been Planning courses are offered to personnel
found near the end of their radar track. from government agencies at any level, law
However, due to the possibility of errors in enforcement, emergency management,
producing radar tracks, or when multiple military, CAP, and members of volunteer
tracks exist, search planners should not organizations. There is no tuition charge for
disregard other search leads. U.S. citizens directly involved in SAR.
Distress may not be the only reason an Further information concerning the Inland
aircraft is lost from radar coverage. Aircraft SAR Planning course can be found on the
radar tracks can disappear and reappear National SAR School website:
more than once along a route of flight due to http://www.uscg.mil/tcyorktown/Ops/SAR/I
terrain interference. nland/default.asp
NTAP/NTA and other radar information Nationally Organized Resources
should be requested through the RCC that is National Association for Search and
coordinating with the radar facility for the Rescue (NASAR)
release of data.
The more information provided to FAA
assets, the more likely the aircraft will be
located. To properly process a radar request,
the following information should be
provided:
• Correlating time and location; NASAR focuses on education and
certification in introductory and basic SAR
• Direction of travel; and skills, search management, search theory,
• Intended destination. search planning and management of search
incidents. The focus of its education is in
SAR skills for the field responder and search
management. Membership is open to local
SAR organizations, local authorities,
training institutions and individual SAR
2-13
responders, both paid and unpaid specifically NOT a functional cave rescue
professionals. team, rather it provides training and
development opportunities for persons and
Further information on NASAR can be
organizations engaged in cave rescue
found at www.nasar.org.
activities. Thus, while many of the persons
Mountain Rescue Association (MRA) associated with the NCRC perform rescues,
they do this as members of their local rescue
squads, civil defense units, or cave rescue
groups. The NCRC is a component of the
Department of the Administrative Vice-
President of the National Speleological
Society.
Further information concerning NCRC can
be found at
The MRA is an organization with over 90 http://www.caves.org/ncrc/national/.
government-authorized units in the U.S., National Ski Patrol
Canada, and other countries. Members
include those who have expertise in The National Ski Patrol is a member-driven
technical mountain SAR. professional organization of registered ski
patrols, patrollers and others, both paid and
The MRA also specializes in rescue and volunteer. The NSP supports its members
mountain safety education. through credentialed education and training
Further information on the MRA can be in leadership, outdoor emergency care,
found at www.mra.org. safety and transportation services, which
enables members to serve the community in
National Cave Rescue Commission the safe enjoyment of outdoor recreation.
(NCRC)
Further information on the National Ski
Patrol can be found at
http://www.nsp.org/1/nsp/home.
National Voluntary Organizations
Active in Disaster (NVOAD)
National Voluntary Organizations Active in
Disaster (NVOAD) is a forum where
organizations share knowledge and
The National Cave Rescue Commission resources throughout the disaster cycle
(NCRC) received its charter from the (preparation, response, and recovery) to help
National Speleological Society in 1979, and disaster survivors and their communities.
serves as the Society’s representative on
Further information on NVOAD is available
issues of cave rescue training and
at http://www.nvoad.org/.
operations. It is a volunteer group developed
primarily to train and track cave rescue
resources throughout the U.S. The NCRC is
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U.S. SARSAT Program (Overview) MHz frequencies (by comparison, EPIRBs
and PLBs both transmit on 406 MHz only,
as well as transmit a low power 121.5 MHz
signal for direction finding when activated).
121.5 MHz ELTs only transmit an analog
signal that does not contain any information
about the distress beacon or user.
Alternatively, the 406 MHz distress beacons
transmit a digital code that contains
information about the type of beacon and
The U.S. SARSAT (Search and Rescue possibly the beacon’s location (derived from
Satellite Aided Tracking) program is an Doppler calculation, Global Positioning
integral part of the International Cospas- System (GPS), or other navigational
Sarsat Programme (“Cospas” is a Russian system). Each 406 MHz distress beacon in
acronym that stands for “Cosmicheskaya the world has a unique identifier. The unique
Systyema Poiska Aariynyich Sudov” which identifier allows for the registration
translates loosely into “Space System for the information to be linked to each distress
Search of Vessels in Distress.”). The basic beacon.
system concept involves the use of distress After the satellite receives signals from an
beacons, satellites, and ground equipment to ELT, EPIRB or PLB, it relays the signals to
relay distress location and identification earth stations referred to as Local User
information (referred to as distress alerts) to Terminals (LUTs).
SAR authorities. SAR instruments are flown
on low-Earth polar orbiting (LEO) and The LUT, after computing the location of
geostationary-orbiting (GEO) satellites the distress beacon, transmits an alert
provided by the United States, Russia, India message to its respective Mission Control
and the European Organization for the Center (MCC) via a data communication
Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites network. The MCC performs matching and
(EUMETSAT). Canada and France provide merging of alert messages with other
the SAR instruments for the U.S. LEO received messages, geographically sorts the
satellites. These instruments are capable of data, and transmits a distress message to an
detecting signals on the Earth’s surface appropriate SAR authority (RCC or foreign
transmitted from distress beacons. SAR Point of Contact (SPOC)). The distress
message may also be sent to another MCC.
Although the International Cospas-Sarsat
Programme ceased satellite processing of Figure 2-1-1 provides an overview of the
121.5 MHz signals as of 01 February 2009, Cospas-Sarsat System.
ELTs still operate on 121.5 MHz or 406
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Figure 2-1-1: Overview – International Cospas-Sarsat Program
2-16
position on the surface. The geosynchronous NOAA also manages and operates two
plane is approximately 36,000 kilometers GEOLUTs in Suitland, Maryland, to track,
above the Earth, high enough to allow the receive, and process distress alerts through
satellites to view approximately 1/3 of the the GOES East and GOES West satellites.
Earth. Because the GOES (or GEO) Both sets of LUTs perform error detection
satellites stay above a fixed position on the and correction on 406 MHz distress beacon
earth’s surface, they provide a constant vigil messages and automatically generate alert
for distress beacon activated within their messages to the U.S. MCC (USMCC).
footprint. Additionally, one LEOLUT and GEOLUT
in Maryland serve as backup equipment and
test beds.
USMCC
The USMCC (NOAA Satellite Operations
Facility, Suitland, Maryland) receives alert
data from other international LUTs and
MCCs. It matches distress beacon signals to
identify those coming from the same source
and merges the data to improve position
accuracy.
The USMCC appends 406 MHz distress
beacon registration information for beacons
registered in the U.S., then geographically
NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites sorts the data to determine the appropriate
(GOES) recipient (national RCC (Air Force or
LEOLUTs and GEOLUTs USCG), foreign SPOC, or other
international MCC).
NOAA manages and operates LEOLUTs to
track, receive, and process alerts from the The USMCC filters redundant data and
POES, European Meteorological performs system support and monitoring
Operational (METOP), and Russian functions. System support functions include
Nadezhda satellites. Dual LEOLUTs are relaying SAR instrument telemetry from the
located at: Environmental Processing Satellite Center
(ESPC) to the Canadian MCC (CMCC) and
• Andersen Air Force Base, Guam; the French MCC (FMCC) and relaying SAR
• USCG Communication Station, Hawaii; instrument commands from the CMCC and
FMCC to the Satellite Operations Control
• NOAA Command and Data Acquisition Center (SOCC).
Station, Alaska;
The U.S. LEOLUTs and USMCC have the
• Vandenberg Air Force Base, California; capability to detect and locate interference in
and the 406 MHz band. This information is
• USCG Communication Station, Florida. automatically forwarded to the FCC for
further investigation.
Dual LEOLUTs at each site allow NOAA to
resolve satellite tracking conflicts and
provides redundancy in case of failure.
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Section 22: SAR Personnel Considerations
SAR Training, Qualification, and Certification
Exercises
Vulnerability Assessments
Critical Incident Stress Management
2-19
• Provide learning experience; and • Geographic factors; and
• Improve liaison and coordination skills. • Availability, training, and experience of
SAR resources.
Generally, there are three levels of SAR
exercises: The vulnerability assessment should contain
a synopsis of what has occurred in the
• Simple communications exercises
jurisdiction and what may occur under
require the least amount of planning and
different conditions. A properly prepared
consist of testing communications to
assessment will help in future SAR
ensure its capability for actual
operations by determining type and number
emergencies between potential users.
of SAR resources available and identifying
• Coordination exercises involve a hazards to SAR personnel. Additionally, this
simulated response to a crisis based on a tool can be used to determine the risk to
series of scenarios. SAR managers, SAR responders.
planners, and coordination teams are
Critical Incident Stress Management
involved, but no fielding of SAR teams.
(CISM)
This requires considerable planning and
normally one to three days to execute. Tragedies, deaths, serious injuries, plane
crashes, shootings - these all can seriously
• Full-scale or field exercises are affect people who respond in emergencies
conducted to deploy and exercise actual and encounter highly stressful events.
SAR resources and agencies. These Sometimes an event is so traumatic or
exercises are the most complex, time overwhelming that people may experience
consuming, and most expensive, but are significant stress reactions. These events are
extremely effective in evaluating and known as critical incidents. Critical incident
training involved personnel, SAR stress is the body’s normal reaction to a very
organizations, and agencies. abnormal event.
The evaluation process of a SAR exercise is SAR responders can undergo these normal,
crucial. Those observing and evaluating the although uncomfortable stress reactions.
exercise must have the expertise in the area
they are evaluating and clearly understand CISM is a comprehensive, integrated,
what is being evaluated. Identification of systematic form of stress intervention that is
weaknesses and development of applied to manage critical incident stress
recommendations for improvement is the after traumatic events. Elements of CISM
outcome. must be in place before the traumatic event
occurs. Pre-incident stress education is
Vulnerability Assessments essential for organization and individuals. It
Vulnerability assessments are conducted to is also important that standard operating
accurately assess the local SAR response procedures be developed for the
capabilities within a certain geographic organization and individual be developed.
region. It usually contains the following CISM teams need to be properly trained.
information: (Note: Further information on CISM can be
• Area demographics; found in the CISAR Addendum.)
• History of the area in relation to past
SAR operations;
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Section 23: SAR Volunteers
Role of Volunteers
Good Samaritans
Unaffiliated Volunteers
2-21
someone who renders aid in an emergency volunteers can provide significant resources,
to an injured person on a voluntary basis. because they do not have pre-established
relationships with emergency response
SAR authorities should be familiar with
organizations, verifying their training or
related laws in the States where they
credentials and matching them with the
operate or with legal precedence when
appropriate service areas can be difficult. In
Federal Agencies provide SAR services.
addition, Federal Agencies cannot accept
Usually, if a volunteer assists an injured or voluntary services except where authorized
ill person who is a stranger, the person by law. Therefore, Agencies should confirm
giving the aid owes the stranger a duty of the availability of such legal authorization in
being reasonably careful. In some States it advance or encourage individuals to
is considered an act of negligence if a associate with a volunteer organization
person does not at least call for help. already participating with the SAR effort.
Generally, a Good Samaritan can help an
unconscious victim on the grounds of
implied consent. However, if the victim can
respond, a person should ask their
permission to assist.
Even though some States offer immunity to
Good Samaritans, a claim could result if the
injuries or illness were made worse by the
volunteer's negligence. Statutes typically do
not exempt a Good Samaritan who acts in a
willful or reckless manner in providing the
care, advice, or assistance. Houston, TX, September 2, 2005 - Families displaced by
hurricane Katrina in New Orleans look for needed items at
SAR personnel should be aware of certain the Houston Astrodome. Hundreds of unaffiliated
legal terms that relate to rendering volunteers brought clothing, food and other goods to the
assistance. Lawsuits tend to arise from Astrodome and left them in the parking lot. (Photo: Ed
Edahl/FEMA)
perceptions of unmet expectations. The
Volunteer Protection Act of 1997 (Public The NRF has a Volunteers and Donations
Law 105-19) protects volunteers of a non- Support Annex
profit organization or governmental entity (http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nr
who are acting prudently within the scope f-support-vol.pdf ) that describes
of the volunteer’s duties and meet certain coordination processes used to support the
other requirements. The Act is subject to a State during disaster response operations.
number of unprotected exceptions and does State, Tribal, Territorial, and local
not limit the liability of the volunteer governments have primary responsibility to
organization itself. develop and implement plans to manage
Unaffiliated Volunteers volunteer services and donated goods.
Volunteers unaffiliated with any volunteer Full use of existing volunteer and donations
organization offer to help or self-deploy to management resources at the local level is
assist in emergency situations and may encouraged before seeking assistance of the
arrive on scene without fully coordinating State or Federal Governments.
their activities. Although unaffiliated
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Part 3: Communications and Public Relations
Section 31: Communications 33
Section 32: Family, Media, and Public Relations 39
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3-2
Section 31: Communications
Communications Plans
Interoperability Field Operations Guide (NIFOG)
Communications Support
Distress Beacons: International CospasSarsat Program
Wireless Communications
Satellite Emergency Notification Devices
SAR Action Plans and Reporting
3-3
• Media and public relations materials; Field Operations Guide (NIFOG), which
and provides a framework for interoperable
communications.
• Signs.
NIFOG is a pocket-sized guide of technical
National Interoperability Field reference material for technicians
Operations Guide (NIFOG) responsible for radios that will be used in
SAR responders require a communications SAR response applications. The NIFOG
plan that effectively addresses interoperable covers regulations on interoperability,
communications for events of any potential available channels, and commonly used
scope. Of course, these plans must be emergency frequencies.
supported with arrangements for the
The NIFOG is not a replacement for a
communications capabilities prescribed in
communications plan, but it does provide
the plans.
the basis for constructing a mission specific
In assessing communications needs, a good plan.
starting place is the National Interoperability
3-4
The SAR Pre-plan can identify satellite system, they should still be reported
communications support agencies in the area to the appropriate aviation or SAR
of operation. authority.)
Distress Beacons: International 406 MHz distress beacons transmit a
Cospas-Sarsat Program continuous, low-power 121.5 MHz homing
signal. In addition to using the 121.5 MHz
signal for homing, many SAR authorities are
equipping aircraft and ground SAR
responders with the capability to DF on the
406 MHz signal, which transmits for about a
half-second every 50 seconds.
406 MHz distress beacons transmit a unique
code that allows the alert to be associated
with registration data for a particular
beacon. Both international and national
guidance requires that distress beacons be
registered. In the U.S., the FCC requires (by
rule) that 406 MHz distress beacons with
U.S. codes be registered with NOAA.
Distress beacons may be registered in
various national or regional databases
around the world, or in the Cospas-Sarsat
International Beacon Registration Database
Distress Beacons (Photo: NOAA) (IBRD). When a 406 MHz distress beacon is
(Note: The NSS includes extensive activated, the registration data for the U.S.
information about distress beacons and the coded beacon is forwarded to the
Cospas-Sarsat system.) appropriate RCC along with distress alert.
Distress beacons are manufactured to RCCs receive many distress beacon alerts
stringent national and international standards every day, and should be familiar with the
and are designed to operate anywhere in the format and contents of the alerts and where
world. When activated, distress beacons to retrieve associated registration data. The
notify SAR authorities of a distress situation most important registration data is the
and the location via satellite. identity of the distress beacon owner and
associated owner’s emergency contact
The beacons transmit distress alerts through
information.
the International Cospas-Sarsat Program
satellite system on 406 MHz to the More information on distress beacon is
appropriate RCC or other SAR point of available at: www.sarsat.noaa.gov and
contact worldwide. www.Cospas-Sarsat.org.
(Note: Older generation beacons transmit The types of distress beacons include the
on 121.5 MHz. These distress beacons can following:
only be detected by aircraft or other
• Emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) –
receiver that detects the 121.5 MHz distress
emergency distress beacons that most
beacon signal. Even though these signals
U.S. civil aircraft are required to carry.
are not detected by the Cospas-Sarsat
These distress beacons alert via satellites
3-5
on 406 MHz or via audibly to overflying a reliable means of notifying the SAR
aircraft or ground stations monitoring system of a distress situation.
121.5 MHz. ELTs are designed to Due to the limitations of cell phones, SAR
activate on the impact of an aircraft checklists should include the following
crash to indicate the crash location, as additional items for incidents involving cell
well as manually; phone use:
• Emergency position-indicating radio • Caller’s complete cellular telephone
beacons (EPIRBs) – emergency distress number including area code;
beacons that ships, boats and other
marine craft carry that alert via satellites • Type of cell phone;
on 406 MHz. EPIRBs are not intended to • User’s cellular service provider or
be used on land, can be activated carrier;
manually, or upon submersion in water;
• Whether or not other means of
• Personal locator beacons (PLBs) – communications are available;
multi-environment emergency distress
beacons individuals carry that alert via • Remaining battery strength in cell
satellites on 406 MHz. phone;
Some distress beacons (e.g., location- • Establish a communications schedule or
protocol distress beacons) can transmit a require the caller to call back at a
GPS position, either from an internal GPS scheduled time if possible;
chip installed in the distress beacon, or from
• Ensure user understands that the cell
navigation equipment aboard an aircraft or
phone, if there is sufficient battery
vessel. GPS positions are very accurate, but
strength, must not be turned off so that
the accuracy is limited by the number of bits
further communications can be
available in the distress beacon to transmit
established;
the position.
• Ask if the user has an alternate power
Regardless of whether the distress beacon
source available;
has the ability to transmit its position, the
position will be calculated and forwarded • Ask if the user has the ability to send
with the alert by the satellite ground system and receive text messages to conserve
using a Doppler technique, and is usually battery life; and
accurate to within 3-5 km.
• Obtain a good alternative point of
Note: See Appendix B for more information contact.
on how Cospas-Sarsat satellites locate
Most cellular service providers offer some
beacons.
of the following services to assist in locating
Wireless Communications the origin of cellular calls:
Wireless communication (e.g., cellular, • Call Trace/Cellular Tower Locator – As
other mobile systems, etc.) usage is growing long as there is a connection, the
rapidly, and the public is increasingly carrier’s technician can determine which
relying on cell phones in conjunction with, cell tower is receiving the call, and if
or sometimes instead of, more suitable or power and antenna height are available,
dedicated means of calling for assistance. an approximate arc of distance from the
However, in some cases, cell phones can be cell tower.
3-6
• Call Trace Modified – After the call is SAR Action Plans and Reporting
initiated and the technician is notified, The SMC/IC should develop a search action
the caller can be instructed to call back plans (SAP) and a rescue action plans (RAP)
at a specified time and the technician can as appropriate. These plans are provided to
determine through the use of signal the OSC and SAR facilities on scene and
strength at several cell sites, a more should include:
accurate probable position of the caller.
• A summary of the on scene situation,
• Cell Traffic Recording – A carrier can including the nature of the emergency;
determine the cell location of the last
call placed by the subscriber given the • What to search for (search object(s));
cellular telephone number. • Weather information;
• Tap – This function provides notification • Summary of SAR facilities on scene;
when a call is made from the user’s
phone; beneficial in overdue cases. • A listing of the appropriately-described
search area(s) and sub-areas that can be
Satellite Emergency Notification searched by the SAR facilities in the
Devices allotted time;
The emergence of several non Cospas-Sarsat
• On land or flooded areas, georeferencing
type certified Satellite Emergency
grids may be added to designate
Notification Devices (SENDs) warrants
positions; and
awareness by SAR authorities. These
devices are readily available to the general • The assignment of communications
public and require an annual subscription to frequencies to include primary and
enable all the features. Their “911” function secondary control channels, on scene,
does not alert traditional Federal SAR monitor and press channels, and special
services. These alerts are forwarded to a radio procedures, schedules, or relevant
commercial call center which uses a Public communication factors.
Safety Answering Point (PSAP) database to Reporting requirements differ widely by
alert police, firefighting, and ambulance unit. Each SAR entity should establish the
services in the alert area. These agencies reporting requirements for their units.
may or may not be the agency having
jurisdictional authority for SAR in that area.
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3-8
Section 32: Family, Media, and Public Relations
Media and Public Relations
Family Support Services
3-9
trust needed in establishing lines of • Positive, but not inaccurate or leading to
communication. false hopes;
The family liaison must be able to give the • Informative; and
family needed emotional support by
providing honest reassurances and progress • Professional, instilling confidence that
updates. To minimize stress and worry, all possible actions are being taken.
briefings to the family should be: In general, the search agency should not
ignore the family. Assign a family liaison
• Scheduled to meet the needs of the
officer, and keep them constantly informed.
family and the search debrief cycle;
3-10
Part 4: Operations
Section 41: Awareness and Initial Actions 43
Section 42: Land SAR Missions (NonAircraft) 47
Section 43: Missing Aircraft SAR Missions 49
Section 44: SAR Resource Strategies and Tactics 415
Section 45: Rescue 437
Section 46: NonRescue Operations 441
Section 47: GeoReferencing 443
Section 48: SAR Case Documentation 453
Section 49: Briefing and Debriefing SAR Teams 455
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4-2
Section 41: Awareness and Initial Actions
General
Actions on Arrival at SAR Incident
Implementing ICS
Missing Person Profile
Initial Search Actions
Lost Person Behavior
The IC must be prepared to take decisive • Complete the Lost Person Questionnaire
action in an effort to locate the search object (Appendix E);
quickly. ICs and first responders should be • Complete the Missing Person Checklist
knowledgeable and trained on initial actions (Appendix F);
to take (or consider) in order to start a search
“on the right foot”. • Begin investigation and protect the
LKP or PLS;
4-3
• Establish Incident Command Post; Missing Person Profile
• Assign a staging area manager and set Using the Initial Missing Person Checklist,
up staging area; begin to construct a missing person profile:
• Establish check in procedures and check • Interview direct family members, friends
in all SAR personnel on-scene (ICS who were with the subject at the time of
Form 211); the disappearance, extended family
members, and individuals who may have
• Analyze mission and prioritize tasks; knowledge of terrain, map features,
and unmarked trails, and other landmarks to
• Immediately after a SAR incident gain as much information as possible.;
begins, plan for personnel relief (failure • Compile the information to complete a
to relieve fatigued personnel could lead Lost Person Questionnaire;
to critical errors in search operations and
planning). • Compile all known intelligence
(searching and planning) data from all
Implementing ICS previously completed tasks;
Using ICS principles, designate a Command
• Determine search urgency;
and General staff. Staff should be based on
required functions. • Based on all the information, determine
a theoretical, statistical, and subjective
A single person may carry out more than
distance the subject could have traveled,
one function, but a single function should
then select an area to target with initial
not be held by more than one individual
search actions; and
unless the additional person is to serve as
relief. • Consider calling out additional resources
At a minimum, the ICS functions that should early in the search to increase the areas
be considered include: covered by the initial search actions and
improve the chances of finding the
• Incident Command (IC); subject quickly.
o Safety Officer; Initial Search Actions
o Public Information Officer; The IC will need to plan and conduct a
o Liaison Officer; Rapid (Reflex/Hasty) Search, which may
include trackers, canines, and sound teams,
• Operations Section; as well as tasks such as perimeter patrols
• Planning Section; and trail checks as indicated by the situation
and missing person profile developed.
• Logistics Section;
• For searches where the LKP/PLS is a
• Communications Unit; and residence or structure, once personnel
• Other Liaisons as appropriate. have been assigned to cover hazards,
perform a thorough check of all
Under the ICS principle of Unified buildings in the vicinity of the LKP/PLS
Command, all agencies having jurisdiction to include attics, rafters, lofts, and
may have position in the Incident basements of all structures, as well as
Command. tall grass areas, scrub, and wood lines
around the perimeter of the property;
4-4
• Establish confinement: Perimeter road After all Rapid (Reflex/Hasty) Search
patrols, if used, should strive for visual resources have deployed to the field, the
checks of roads/ditches in the area focus of activity in the command post
covered by Rapid Search at least once should shift to the Communications and
every 30 minutes; Situation functions, who will handle radio
traffic, position and status reports from the
• Perform trail checks or trail-running and
field. While the Rapid Search is taking
have searchers scan the trails and
place, the General Staff should begin
environment/terrain to either side of
planning for the next operational period.
trails;
Lost Person Behavior
• Keep one or several people available to
follow up on intelligence sources or Studies on how missing persons act and
leads as they become available (Law where they are located can be useful to SAR
enforcement personnel may be a good planners and ICs. The likely behavior of the
choice for this task); missing person is an important consideration
in establishing search efforts.
• Send law enforcement personnel (if
available) to check nearby businesses While lost person behavior studies provide
such as taverns or stores for the subject, numbers and percentages, their key use is in
and to gather additional intelligence, as the information they provide about the
well as check nearby homes; varieties, similarities, differences,
possibilities, and impact of how different
• Consider sound searches; people behave when lost.
• Tracking and sign cutting are important Data may help make decisions regarding
tasks during initial response and Rapid determination of a distance beyond which
(reflex/hasty) Search phase. As people there is no reason to search, in the absence
walk, they will leave signs of their of more clues. Some of the information may
passage. Skilled trackers can acquire, help determine what types of resources to
age, and follow sign. Trackers can work use and tactics, as well as likely routes of
with canine teams without the two teams travel and likely locations to search early
interfering with each other; and and quickly. Distance information assists
• Canine resources may provide with confinement efforts.
significant clues for the search. Lost person behavior studies by William
During the Rapid Phase; Syrotuck, Ken Hill, Barry Mitchell, and
Robert Koester are all readily available. The
• Brief all field teams; largest is the International Search and
• Maintain confinement; Rescue Incident Database (ISRID)
developed by Koester. The data refines the
• Perform Rapid Search actions as called statistics for missing persons, and is divided
for by the mission profile; into temperate and dry climates,
• Debrief all returning teams; mountainous, non-mountainous, and urban
regions. The ISRID includes statistics on
• Record all efforts (for example, this may dispersion angles and find locations.
be accomplished using ICS 214); and
Based on these studies, lost people tended to
• Analyze mission profile to prioritize exhibit characteristics that could be
Rapid (Reflex/Hasty) Search tasks. categorized according to their age and the
4-5
activity they were engaged in. Different the missing person, as well as their physical
“categories” of people tended to travel capabilities (e.g., Does the person know
different distances from the places where he/she is lost?).
they were last seen. Where people were The ISRID has sufficient data to report on
found (distance from Initial Planning Point - 41 subject categories plus overdue aircraft,
IPP) was not necessarily related to how the and are listed in Table 4-1-1 below.
people arrived there or how long the people
traveled. (Note: An example ISRID Lost Person
Behavior Category - Dementia
When selecting a category, refer to subject
(Alzheimer’s), can be found in Appendix G.)
profiles in the studies. Consider the mental
state, purpose, intention, and motivation of
Lost person behavior statistics are a useful intentions of the lost person, can help
tool for initial and extended search efforts. determine areas where planners may wish to
Statistics that give probabilities of where the focus search efforts and assist in
subject might be located and an overview of determining a desired search area.
types of behaviors, likely actions, and
4-6
Section 42: Land SAR Missions (NonAircraft)
Types of Operations
Use of Federal Resources
SRU Facility Reporting
4-7
• Requests for Federal SAR resources SAR Facility Reporting
should normally be for a capability, not During all missions, SAR facilities should
for a specific type of asset. submit a report to the SMC at specified
Appendix H provides additional information intervals. This interval may vary depending
for evaluating Federal SAR resource on the tempo, size or complexity of the SAR
requests. operations, but should always be submitted
at least daily.
4-8
Section 43: Missing Aircraft SAR Missions
Overdue or Missing Aircraft
Notification Sources
Investigation Searches
Preliminary Communications (PRECOM)
Extended Communications (EXCOM)
RCC Actions
Search Mission
Distress Beacon Operations
Distress Beacon Response Policy
SAR Process
Incident Stage
Mission Stage
SAR Facility Reporting
4-9
• Domestic Event Network (DEN) - The Investigation Searches
DEN is an interagency teleconference (Note: Common information sources for
that may provide timely notification to investigation searches are discussed in
the appropriate authority if there is an Section 1-4: Rescue Coordination Centers.)
emerging air-related problem or incident
within the continental U.S.; The FAA is responsible for initiating actions
to locate overdue or unreported aircraft by
• Aeronautical Information System- generating a request for information from
Replacement (AIS-R) – The AIS-R is a the Departure Station/Facility (QALQ),
web-based system designed to collect Information Request (INREQ), and Alert
and distribute weather, flight plan data, Notice (ALNOT) messages.
NOTAM messages, pilot report
messages, and other operational Internally, FAA ARTCCs serve as the
information to all ARTCC and FSS central points for collecting information, for
facilities. AIS-R serves as a backup coordinating with the RCC, and for
system in the event the primary Flight conducting a communications search by
Service Operational System is distributing any ALNOTs concerning:
unavailable; • Overdue or missing IFR aircraft;
• Hazardous Area Reporting Service – • Aircraft in an emergency situation
FSS facilities when requested will occurring in their respective area; and
provide Lake, Island, Mountain, or
Swamp reporting services which require • Aircraft on a combination VFR/IFR or
a radio contact with the pilot every 10 an airfield IFR flight plan and 30
minutes (or at designated position minutes have passed since the pilot
checkpoints) while crossing a hazardous requested IFR clearance and neither
area. If contact with the pilot is lost for communication nor radar contact can be
more than 15 minutes, search and rescue established with it (For SAR purposes,
authorities will be alerted; and these aircraft are treated the same as IFR
aircraft.).
• Other FAA sources - Organizations
monitoring distress/beacon and other Flight Service Stations (FSS) serve as the
frequencies (e.g., ARTCC, FSS, central points for collecting and
ATCT/TRACON, transiting aircraft, disseminating information on an overdue or
etc.) may receive a distress missing aircraft which is not on an IFR
report/distress beacon signal; this flight plan.
notification comes to an RCC via When a VFR aircraft becomes overdue, the
telephone, fax, or email. FAA will attempt to locate the aircraft by
RCCs receive all 406 MHz emergency checking the destination airport, all adjacent
locator transmitter (ELT) or personal locator airports that could accommodate the aircraft,
beacon (PLB) distress alerts from the and air traffic control facilities near the
Cospas-Sarsat satellite system via the destination airport. If this communications
USMCC. search does not locate the aircraft, the FAA
will initiate a QALQ (Request for
The RCC is normally notified of family Information from the departure
concerns, local sightings and other reports station/facility) message and, when
via local law enforcement or emergency appropriate, to the Direct User Access
response authorities.
4-10
Terminal (DUAT) vendor or facility where ALNOT search area will conduct a
the flight plan information is on file. communications search of those flight plan
area airports which fall within the ALNOT
(Note: When an IFR aircraft becomes
search area that could accommodate the
overdue the FAA will immediately issue an
aircraft and were not checked during the
ALNOT.)
INREQ search. Each ATCT and ARTCC
If the reply to the QALQ is negative, or the within the ALNOT search area will review
aircraft has not been located within 30 their records in an attempt to locate the
minutes after it becomes overdue, an aircraft. The results of the search will be
INREQ message to the departure facility, forwarded to the ALNOT originator and to
base of operations (BASOPS), en route the RCC. All possible sources of
FSSs, and ARTCCs along the route will be information concerning the missing aircraft
transmitted. The facilities receiving the or person should be contacted. This is
INREQ will search for the aircraft by normally conducted after the Uncertainty
checking facility records and all airports Phase but during the Alert Phase.
within their jurisdiction along the proposed
The RCC normally opens an active
route of flight that could accommodate the
“Incident” and assigns an SMC once the
aircraft.
INREQ communications search has been
The RCC should compare COSPAS- completed.
SARSAT distress beacon messages with
The SMC should:
INREQ and ALNOT messages and advise
the INREQ/ALNOT originator or lead FAA • Compare distress beacon messages and
authority of any correlations. other notification sources with the
If the replies to the INREQ are negative, or INREQ message;
if the aircraft is not located within 1 hour • Review weather over the filed or
after transmission of the INREQ, whichever suspected route of flight;
occurs first, an Alert Notice (ALNOT) will
be transmitted to the FAA Regional Office • Review available aircraft
and those facilities within the search area. registry/persons on board (POB) data to
The search area is normally that area assess the capabilities of the aircrew and
extending 50 miles on either side of the aircraft; and
proposed route of flight from the last • Evaluate the impact of the environment
reported position to the destination. The to help formulate a rough search area if
search area may be expanded to the the aircraft is not found during
maximum range of the aircraft at the request PRECOM.
of the RCC or by the ALNOT originator. In
Table 4-3-1 on the next page provides a
addition, DUAT vendors and the RCC will
summary of QALQ/INREQ/ALNOT
be notified.
requirements, emergency phases, and time
Upon receipt of an ALNOT, each FSS requirements.
whose flight plan area extends into the
4-11
Table 4-3-1: Summary of Missing Aircraft Investigative Processes
QALQ/INREQ ALNOT SAR Mission
If INREQ is negative, or if the
FAA initiates a QALQ or aircraft is not located within 1 hour If the search fails to locate the
INREQ when a VFR aircraft after transmission of the INREQ, or aircraft, or if 2 hours has
Time has not been located within 30 the aircraft is on an IFR flight plan elapsed since the ALNOT was
minutes after becoming and becomes overdue (whichever transmitted, the Distress Phase
overdue. comes first), the FAA will initiate an commences.
ALNOT.
Emergency
Uncertainty Phase Alert Phase Distress Phase
Phase
Investigation fails to confirm
Investigation Preliminary and/or flight plan Extended communication and non-distress no later than 2
Search area search begins. record search begins. hours after the ALNOT is
transmitted.
Check all airports and facilities Check airports and facilities within Based on available information,
Area to be
along the filed or suspected 50 miles on either side of the filed the SMC develops the search
investigated route of flight. or suspected route of flight. area; conducts SAR operation.
4-12
GA interstate flight missions, supporting and silence any activated distress beacon
SAR authorities will be alerted for each within the continental U.S. and Alaska.
State which the aircraft’s filed or
Beacon Response Policy
suspected flight route transits);
When the RCC receives a distress beacon
• Coordinate use of any Federal SAR alert and/or audible distress beacon alert
assets such as DoD, CAP, Coast Guard, (airborne and ground), the investigation
or ICE facilities; should be expanded as necessary to
• Coordinate Federal non-aircraft aggressively pursue the cause of each alert
capabilities, including: and dispatch SAR resources to assist as
circumstances require.
o Radar Forensics (e.g., CDR/NTAP);
Audible airborne reports, typically received
o Cell phone triangulation;
from the ARTCC, normally include the
o Use of personal information; following information:
o National Alert Warning System • Aircraft altitude;
(NAWAS);
• Where and when the signal was first
o Weather reporting; heard;
o Coordination of controlled airspace; • Where and when maximum signal
o NOTAM/TFR coordination; strength was heard; and
o Distress beacon alert correlation; and • Where and when the signal faded or was
lost.
o Information Awareness/Assessment
(IAA). The RCC should correlate reports with
known open incidents and missions and with
A “lead” is information pertaining to the any Cospas-Sarsat alerts. If no correlation
search mission; leads come to the attention exists, a new incident is opened and an
of the RCC in a number of ways, such as investigation begins.
from the results of the Federal non-aircraft
capabilities listed above, local law Ground reports, typically received from
enforcement and first responders, and airfields and FSSs, normally include:
eyewitness accounts. All leads should be • Time heard;
recorded and communicated to the
appropriate State SAR authority, IC, other • Frequency; and
investigatory agency, or investigated and • Signal strength.
resolved by the SMC.
The RCC should correlate reports with
Distress Beacon Operations known open incidents and missions and any
The AFRCC and AKRCC are responsible Cospas-Sarsat alerts. If no correlation exists,
for the management of inland distress a new incident is opened and an
beacon searches (121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz investigation begun. Airfield managers may
and 406 MHz ELTs for aircraft; 406 MHz have the ability to locate the signal and
EPIRBs for the maritime environment; and silence it. When this capability does not
406 MHz PLBs for personal use in multiple exist, the RCC should immediately open a
environments). RCCs coordinate the use of mission to silence the distress beacon to
Federal and DoD assets to search for, locate,
4-13
prevent masking potential signals from other • A distress situation is confirmed and a
distress beacons in the area. SAR facility is tasked;
SAR Process • A SAR facility needs to be dispatched to
Incident Stage determine whether a distress situation
exists;
During the incident stage, the RCC should
determine whether a distress or overdue • A medevac appears to require a SAR
situation exists. facility to help save life, limb or
eyesight, or to mitigate undue suffering;
Only enough credible data to begin an or
investigation is required to open an incident.
An event will remain at the incident stage • An ALNOT is issued by the FAA.
until it can be validated that a person(s) is During the mission stage, the RCC should
actually at risk. Events that typically warrant actively maintain control of Federal assets,
an incident include: and the RCC should monitor the mission
• First or composite distress beacon alert; process through completion.
• Request for assistance from another SAR asset selection is based on matching
RCC or SMC, e.g. State Troopers, asset capabilities of available military and
National Park Service, USCG, military civilian assets with the mission
police, first responders or a civilian requirements.
Medevac company; and SAR Facility Reporting
• Notification of an overdue aircraft from During all missions, SRUs should submit a
the FAA. report to the SMC at intervals specified by
Mission Stage the SMC. The interval may vary depending
on the tempo, environmental conditions, size
An incident is normally upgraded to a or complexity of the SAR operations, but
mission when: should always be submitted at least daily.
4-14
Section 44: SAR Resource Strategies and Tactics
Identify Resources
Search Patterns
Passive (Indirect)/Active (Direct) Ground Search Team Strategies
Canine SAR Teams
Mounted, All Terrain Vehicles (ATV), Snowmobile, and Bicycle SAR
Teams
Tracker SAR Teams
Aeronautical SAR Resources
Boat SAR Teams
Dive SAR Teams
4-15
Strategies lead to tactics employed to considerations on gathering information
implement the strategy. The tactic is how regarding the subject, why the subject is
you plan to have your searchers execute missing, containing/confining the subject,
your strategy. For example, Rapid Search and attracting the subject out of the search
tactics could include route or points of area.
interest (spot) searching. Possible tactics for Active (Direct) Approach (Table 4-4-2)
a “confinement” strategy could include includes strategies, tactics, and
road/trail blocks or track traps. considerations for active searching using a
By developing objectives for a search, the variety of search resources.
SMC/IC can determine the strategies and After determining tactics, individual search
tactics needed to achieve the objectives. resources can be assigned to accomplish the
Passive (Indirect)/Active (Direct) desired tactics.
Ground Search Team Strategies What follows are several Tables and Figures
Two major ground search strategies include: that provide strategies, tactics, and
considerations for various types of SAR
• Passive (Indirect) Approach.
resources used in the conduct of search
• Active (Direct) Approach. operations.
Passive (Indirect) Approach (Table 4-4-1)
includes strategies, tactics, and
4-16
Table 4-4-1: Ground SAR Team Strategies, Tactics, and Considerations
Passive (Indirect) Approach
Strategy Tactics Considerations
Keep subject within search area, detect if subject has left search area; locate subject on roads or trails.
• Established on all roads/trails leading into and out of area; and
Road/trail blocks
• May be used in conjunction with string lines and signs.
• If possible, combine with attraction if possible;
String lines/signs • Placed waist high with paper arrows pointing toward camp or road; and
Confinement
• Also due to the lookouts height it would attract the subject; and
• Look-over’s, scenic views, bridges, are forms of lookouts.
• Aircraft flyovers may attract the missing subject to come out to a clearing or
Helicopter/Airplane open area and be seen; and
Flyovers
• Use of public address systems mounted on aircraft may also attract subject.
Public Address Sound • Use of public address systems to call for the subject; and
Devices (Sirens) • Must be stationary so the mobile subject can go toward the sound.
Obtaining missing person information and determining why the missing subject went missing.
Investigation
Missing Person
Questionnaire • Complete missing person questionnaire.
4-17
Confinement/Attraction Tactics
Road Blocks
Track Traps – Natural and Manmade
Trail Blocks
String Lines
Lookouts
Helicopter Flyovers
Ladder, Tower, or Aerial Truck
Calling from PA / Sound Device
Campfires
Road/Trail Block
Helicopter Flyovers
Attraction
Road Block
With Siren
PA Attraction
Natural Track Trap
along stream banks
Camp/Trail Block
Bonfire Attraction
Camp/Trail Block
Ranger at Trail
Entrance
4-18
Table 4-4-2: Ground SAR Team Strategies, Tactics, and Considerations
Active (Direct) Approach
Strategy Tactics Considerations
Checking the immediate area, trails, roads, buildings, campsites, and specific areas of high probability. Rapid
searches are normally conducted by the initially responding officer and conducted in the immediate area of where the
missing subject went missing.
Determine most likely route subject would have gone and quickly cover this route.
• Often used for lost hikers, walkers;
Rapid (Hasty) Search
4-19
Table 4-4-2 (continued)
Strategy Tactics Considerations
Requires easily identifiable boundaries for search teams. Often, these boundaries are also likely routes the
missing subject may have traveled, Topographical features natural (ridges, streams, drainages, field edges) or
manmade (roads, trails, fences, power or utility transmission line clearings).
• Tactics depend on type of resources available and terrain.
Systematic search in which team members follow tracks parallel to a side boundary &
maintain a predetermined separation.
• Search area may be covered in one or more passes;
• All searchers should attempt to walk in nearly straight lines parallel to the edge of the
area, providing uniform, predictable coverage of the entire area;
• The base line is usually formed along a search area boundary with searchers properly
Route (Area) Search spaced apart;
(Figure 4-4-2 and o Spacing will determine if the Tactic is less thorough or thorough
Figure 4-4-3) o Spacing will be determined by the density of vegetation in the area
Segment (Area) Search
4-20
Table 4-4-2 (continued)
Strategy Tactics Considerations
A method to search a relatively large area quickly. It requires that the missing person
be responsive.
Segment (Area) Search
Sound Sweep • Must be carefully coordinated, audible, and requires all to pause and listen for response;
• Sounds can often be heard even when the missing person cannot be seen; and
• Searchers will use whistles or call the missing subjects name at specific intervals.
Trackers search for clues and sign expanding outward in a spiral from a defined
starting point (e.g., LKP, PLS, previous clue).
• Tactic only effective for small areas;
Expanding Circle
Search (Figure 4-4-6) • Typically used at IPP or where a clue is found as a follow-up tactic;
• Best with experienced tracking team to avoid destroying clues/tracks; and
• May be used following the contour of a hilltop working downward.
4-21
Route (Area) Search
Back Stop:
The stream is the back
stop or catching feature
the team will use to move
the search line.
Flagging Tape:
This team member will
place flagging tape as a
boundary marker for the
guide person to follow on
return trip.
Guide Line:
Team will search
using the power
lines as a guide
Guide Person:
Team member that
will follow the power
lines as a guide.
4-22
Route Searches
(continued)
Parallel Route Search
Following adjacent to a trail or road.
Route Search
Following a trail, road,
stream, or linear feature with
searches on either side.
4-23
Area Search
(Following a Compass Bearing)
4-24
Area Search: Grid Sweep
Search Pattern
Left Flanker
c
d Searcher
Team Leader
e
f Searcher
g Right Flanker
g
Figure 4-4-5: Area Search: Grid Sweep Search Pattern
4-25
Expanding Circle Search
(This technique can be used on a Contour
Search or searching from a found article)
4-26
Canine SAR Teams
Coordinated Dog/ • Able to deploy man tracker and air-scent dog simultaneously into high probability area;
Tracker • Tracker able to pick up tracks at decision points and track traps; and
• Need to train on tactic prior to incident.
Thorough check around IPP/PLS/LKP to locate clues or the subject.
Expanding Circle • Common at the IPP and around clues; and
• Useful in searching for persons with dementia, despondent, abductions, and children.
Cover high probability areas, quickly using minimal resources.
Trail
• Same as ground team with extra capability of canine.
Thorough technique (wind permitting) to cover large area with minimal resources.
• Canine segments the same as ground team segments;
Segment
• Establish boundaries for segment; consult handlers for optimal size; and
• Handler will determine method to work segment depending upon wind conditions.
Quickly cover the highest probability area with minimal resources.
• Team will work trail/road and a specified distance from the feature;
Corridor
• Best for subjects often located short distances from linear features; and
• Need to specify distance from feature for desired coverage.
Validate LKP/PLS/IPP, determine direction of travel, find subject’s trail, locate subject.
• Important to know if others have been present at IPP and previous search efforts;
• If a trail is located, best to validate with multiple dogs;
IPP/PLS/LKP
• Allow dog to go where it wants to go. Handler should be coupled with a team member with
navigation skills; and
• Special needs in urban setting.
Verify clues and sightings, locate alternative LKPs, determine direction of travel, locate
subject:
Specific Location
• Start dog from the site of a clue or sighting; and
• If scent-discriminating adds validity to clue when dog follows trail.
Determine if the subject crossed a feature.
• Effective if performed with a trailing dog;
Containment • Not all trailing dogs are able to perform;
• Limited to a small area; and
• Trailing dogs are not able to maintain focus when not following a scent.
4-27
Mounted, All Terrain Vehicle (ATV), Snowmobile, and Bicycle SAR Teams
Tactics Considerations
Thorough technique to follow tracks.
• 2-3 team members;
Step by Step
• Most basic tactic is to follow tracks; generally slow, but confirms tracks are all tied together; and
• Initial tactic taught to most beginning trackers.
Binary sign cutting Determine if subject’s tracks are in a specific area.
Follow feature to determine if subject is on a specific trail, turned off the trail, or
Linear Features turned onto a different trail.
Trackline • Starting point typically road, trail, railroad track, creek, gully, or other linear feature; and
• Team follows linear feature, special emphasis on decision points and natural track-traps.
4-28
Aeronautical SAR Resources
Table 4-4-6: Aeronautical SAR Resource Strategies, Tactics, and Considerations
Strategy Tactic Considerations
Search along subject’s intended route(s).
• Follow intended route from point of departure to intended destination;
• May also follow alternative routes, roads, or trails;
Rapid (Hasty) Search (Aviation)
Route Search
• Multiple passes easily achieved; consider flying at different times of day in
different directions; and
• Route searches usually expanded to trackline pattern
Rapid search with multiple passes of intended route.
• Tactic starts with route search and then two patterns possible;
Trackline Search
(Figure 4-4-7) • Single non-return; searches either side of the track line; and
• Single unit-return, searches trackline in both directions combined with
searching both sides of the trackline.
Rapid search with electronic direction finding equipment able to detect
distress beacons.
Electronic • Route search with DF equipment;
• Range of detection varies with search unit altitude and/or terrain; and
• Specific coordinate search for activated distress beacon.
Systematic search of a rectangular area with multiple passes.
Parallel Search • Straight search legs are usually aligned to cardinal headings parallel to long
Pattern axis of search area; and
(Figure 4-4-8)
• Pattern typically used for large, level search area when uniform coverage
desired.
Systematic search of a rectangular area that allows search at one end or
Area Search (Aviation)
4-29
Table 4-4-6 (continued)
Thorough check around center point with rectangular legs.
• Starting point typically similar to expanding circle;
Expanding Square
(Figure 4-4-11)
• Pattern uses straight legs with turns only at corners of each square;
• May require continuous reprogramming of navigation units; and
• Leg spacing 0.25-0.5 NM in missing person searches.
Systematic search of mountainous terrain.
• Used in mountains and hilly terrain;
• Only one aircraft should be assigned to area;
• Aircraft starts on the up-wind at the top and works downhill, then returns to
Contour the top and works down-wind side;
(Figure 4-4-12) • Each contour circuit typically a drop of 500 ft in altitude;
• Crew must be experienced in mountain terrain and should have detailed,
large scale maps of area;
• Weather conditions must be favorable; and
• Aircraft needs high climb rate.
Direction Finding
(See Section 5-4: Airborne location of electronic distress signals
Distress Beacon • Used when the equipment on-board has the ability to receive the distress
Search Concepts beacon signal; and
and Figure 5-4-3)
4-30
Figure 4-4-8: Aviation Parallel Search Pattern
4-31
Figure 4-4-10: Aviation Sector Pattern Search
4-32
Figure 4-4-12: Aviation Contour Search Pattern
Boat Search Teams contours, and underwater hazards require the use
of special patterns. While several options exist,
Motorboat search tactics are similar to aircraft the simpler the pattern that meets the objective,
search tactics. While the patterns are the same,
the better. Selection of search pattern will
the spacing for searching from a small
depend upon bottom type, depth, visibility,
motorboat is considerably less, especially if
number of divers, and experience of divers,
looking for a person in the water. See the Coast search object, and diving environment.
Guard Addendum for additional information.
Table 4-4-7 on the next page provides an
Dive Search Teams overview of dive search team tactics and
Dive search tactics are rooted in land and air considerations.
patterns, but limited visibility, chaotic bottom
4-33
Table 4-4-7 Dive Search Team Tactics and Considerations
Tactic Considerations
Systematic search around a fixed point.
• Involves one to several divers;
• Anchor (ascend/descend line) used to mark start must remain fixed;
Circular • Line attached to anchor to guide team in circle;
• Mark starting point of search so aware when 360° completed; and
• When a 360° sweep is done, diver farthest from anchor stays and the rest of the team shifts further
out.
4-34
Table 4-4-7 (continued)
Search large area for a large search object.
• Planning board or sea sled deployed behind a boat;
Planning Board • Divers must prevent rapid ascents;
• Diver needs a marking device if locate possible search targets; and
• Boat operator must stay away from marker float.
4-35
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4-36
Section 45: Rescue
Rescue Operations
Rescue by Aircraft
Specialized Environments
Care of Rescued Personnel
Requires direct contact with the missing subject. It could be as easy as walking to
Access the person or may involve specialized equipment or resources.
Caring for injuries as well as providing for physical comfort and safety of the subject
Stabilize and any others involved in the incident.
Transport the subject to a place of safety or appropriate medical facility. Determine if
Transport specialized resources will be required or if transport can be conducted by personnel
on scene. Decide on the easiest route.
4-37
Table 4-5-2: Specialized Environments Encountered in Rescue Operations
Environment Description
Long steep slopes, vertical snow and ice, vertical rock faces, avalanches, glaciers and
Mountain crevasses.
Water Lakes, frozen surfaces (thin ice), whitewater streams and rivers, flashfloods, slowly rising floods.
Restricted
Caves, mines air shafts, abandoned wells.
Access
Urban/Disaster Building collapse and other special urban/disaster rescue conditions
Weather High winds, snow, blizzards, excessive heat.
Hazardous
Chemicals and other dangerous materials that may impact rescuers and victims.
Materials
Natural
Challenges concerning tall trees, other heavy vegetation, rocky terrain, etc.
Obstructions
• Direct ground SAR resources to the • Helicopters are susceptible to icing and
persons in distress; and have limited fuel reserves (it may be
necessary to dispatch fixed wing aircraft
• Mark the position of the person(s) in to check weather enroute to ensure the
distress by serving as a radio and radar helicopter can safely transit to the
beacon, showing lights, dropping flares, subject);
and providing radio signals for direction
finding and homing by ground resources. • Rescues by helicopter landing creates
additional concerns such as:
More often, helicopters are a more suitable
air resource to use in rescue operations. The o Turbulence;
helicopter’s unique flying capabilities allow o Unlevel terrain;
them to be used in smaller, hard to reach
o Clearing of loose debris;
areas. However there are some special
concerns to be aware of when using a
helicopter:
4-38
o Altitude limitations (high altitudes SAR personnel should never leave the
reduce helicopter performance rescued persons alone, particularly if they
greatly); and are injured or showing signs of shock,
hypothermia, physical, or mental
o Identifying safe landing and takeoff
exhaustion.
paths.
When selecting the method of transportation
• For the evacuation of persons, helicopter
to medical facilities, consider the following:
may be equipped with the rescue sling,
basket, net, litter, or seat. • Condition of the person(s) rescued;
Care of Rescued Personnel • Capability of the rescue resource to
The SMC/IC must ensure that the subject is reach the distressed persons in the
transported to a place of safety. The SMC/IC shortest possible time;
should anticipate that the subject may • Medical training, qualifications, and
require medical treatment and should operational capabilities of the SAR
consider having an ambulance and hospital personnel; and
facilities alerted and/or nearby for
immediate transport. • Difficulties that may be encountered by
SAR personnel.
4-39
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4-40
Section 46: NonRescue Operations
Saving Property
Human Remains Recovery
Contact with Human Remains
4-41
In flood water, bacteria and viruses from o Footwear should similarly protect
human remains are a minor part of the against sharp debris.
overall contamination that can include
• Clothing:
uncontrolled sewage, a variety of soil and
water organisms, and household and o Disposable clothing should be made
industrial chemicals. There are no additional available and is recommended for
practices or precautions for flood water human remains recovery (however,
related to human remains, beyond what is in some cases, traditional fabrics
normally required for safe food and drinking may be preferable owing to their
water, standard hygiene, and first aid. strength - especially when lifting
bodies);
However, for people who must directly
handle remains such as responders in the o Gowns or aprons should be worn
course of conducting SAR operations and during procedures that are likely to
recovery personnel, there can be a risk of generate splashes of blood or other
exposure to such viruses or bacteria. body fluids;
SAR responders who must handle human o Closed, boot-style shoes are
remains should consider the following recommended (Wear rubber boots or
precautions: appropriate shoe covers where there
is potential for footwear to become
• Protect the face from splashes of body grossly contaminated); and
fluids and fecal material;
o Rain gear may also be useful in case
o Use a plastic face-shield or a of storms.
combination of eye protection
(indirectly vented safety goggles are • Maintain hand hygiene to prevent
a good choice if available; safety transmission of diarrheal and other
glasses will only provide limited diseases from fecal materials on the
protection) and a surgical mask; and hands.
o In extreme situations, a cloth tied • Wash hands with soap and water or with
over the nose and mouth can be used an alcohol-based hand cleaner
to block splashes; immediately after removing the gloves.
• Protect the hands from direct contact • Give prompt care – including immediate
with body fluids, and also from cuts, cleansing with soap and clean water and
puncture wounds, or other injuries that a tetanus booster if indicated, to any
break the skin that might be caused by wounds sustained during work with
sharp environmental debris or bone human remains.
fragments;
• In addition to guarding physical safety,
o A combination of cut proof inner participate in any available programs to
layer glove and a latex or similar provide psychological and emotional
outer layer is preferable; and support.
4-42
Section 47: Georeferencing
Introduction
What is Georeferencing?
Georeferencing Methods
U.S. National Grid (USNG)
LatitudeLongitude
Global Area Reference System (GARS)
Georeferencing Matrix
4-43
Geo-Referencing Methods wide as a universal grid reference system,
and can be easily plotted on USGS
Three geo-referencing methods are to be
topographic maps by using a simple "read
used for SAR operations anywhere in the
right, then up" method.
United States, as indicated in the National
SAR Committee geo-referencing matrix Note: USNG and the Military Grid
located in Table 5-7-1. Two point reference Reference System (MGRS) are functionally
systems (USNG, Latitude/ Longitude) and equivalent when referenced to NAD 83 or
one area reference system (GARS). WGS 84 datums.
U.S. National Grid (USNG) The coordinates are easily translated to
distance, as they are actually in meters. Thus
USNG is intended to create a more
the distance between two coordinates can
interoperable environment for developing
quickly be determined in the field.
location-based services within the United
States and to increase the interoperability of Figure 4-7-1 is an example of the USNG.
location services appliances with printed Figure 4-7-2 is an explanation for using the
map products by establishing a preferred USNG.
nationally-consistent grid reference system.
The USNG can be extended for use world-
4-44
USNG 100,000 Meter Grid with GZP Zone Designator
4-45
Figure 4-7-2: How to Use the USNG
3.
22 80 58 FD R Me mori al : Read up to
23 10 54 Ge org e Ma son Memo ria l: grid li ne 06.
2 33 8 0 710 Zero M ile ston e:
2 27 5 0 628 DC Wa r Me mori al : 3220 00mE
22 20 65 L in col n Me mo rial : USNG: 18S UJ 23 Datum: NAD 83 24
UTM numerical format. 0 1,0 00 -m
Ign o re the s mal l UTM su pe rscript nu mb ers tha t a re pro vi de d fo r refer en ce pu rp ose s. UTM n ume rica l va lu es a re be st su ite d for
d e te rmin in g d irec ti on an d di stan ce a s i n su rvey ing . US NG al ph a-n um eri c v al ue s a re b est su ited fo r p os itio n refe ren cin g be ca use
th ey ca n be gi ven a s on ly gri d co ord in ate s i n a l oca l are a a nd w ith o nl y th e re qui red pre cisi on fo r a pa rticu la r ta sk.
A modest size home can Complete USNG value: 18S UJ 2337 0651 - Globally unique.
be found or identified in a local Without Grid Zone Designation (GZD): UJ 2337 0651 - Regional areas.
area with only an 8-digit grid. Without GZ D and 100,000-m Square ID : 2337 0651 - Local areas.
Th is il lus tra tes h ow n atio n al ly con sis te nt US NG coo rdi na tes are op ti mize d fo r l oca l a pp lica tio ns. Th ey se rve a s a un ive rsa l map
in d ex va lu e in a p ho ne or in cid en t d ire ctory for fie ld o pe ra ti on l oc atio ns. Un like cla ssic a tl as g rid s (i.e. B3 ), the se ca n be use d w ith
a ny p ap er ma p or a tl as d ep ictin g the n atio n al g rid
a nd i n we b ma p p ortal s such as the Point of Interest Street Address USN G Grid: T elephone:
Wa shi ng ton , D C GIS (h ttp ://dc gi s.d c.go v). 18S UJ (202)
Sub wa y San dw ich & Sal ad s 20 30 M St., NW 22 56 08 26 2 23 -25 87
Th ey ca n al so be use d in con sume r GPS
Su bw ay Sa nd w ich & Sa la ds 43 0 8 th St., SE 26 98 05 67 54 7-8 20 0
re cei ve rs to d ire ctly g uid e yo u to the l oca tio n.
Su bw ay Sa nd w ich & Sa la ds 3 50 4 12 th St., N E 27 40 11 20 5 26 -59 99
Th is is es pe cia lly b en efi cia l at ni gh t, in h ea vy traffi c,
o r ma jo r disas te rs wh en stre e t si gn s a re mi ssin g . S ub wa y San dw ich & Sal ad s 15 00 Ben ni ng R d , NE 28 15 07 57 3 88 -04 21
Ed: 2 0080420-US NGInstruct _No2, pag e 2 of 2
4-46
US National Grid (USNG) Coordinates: World wide context.
Information Sheet 2/1 in this series. F GDC-STD-011-2001 From www.fgdc.gov/usng
The example below loc ates the Jefferson Pier at USNG: 18S UJ 23371 06519.
U.S. Nati on al Gr id A USNG value has three components .
1 00, 000 -m Squa re ID
Some maps may give
Grid Zone Designation (GZD):
UJ this leading
43 00 information in a grid 6° x 8° longitude zone / latitude band. 18S UJ 2337 0651
UH reference box. 100,000-m Square Identification:
Grid Coordinates:
Gr id Z on e Des igna tion
18S
“Read right, then up.” Read right , then up.
USNG values have three components as seen above. The Grid Z one Designation gives a USNG value world-wide
context with 60 longitudinal zones each 6° wide. Z ones 10 - 19 cover the conterminous U.S. as seen below left. UTM
zones are divided into 8° latitudinal bands. Together these 6° zones and 8° bands compose Grid Zone Designations.
Example: 18S J e ffe rs o n Pi e r:
U.S.Na ti on al Gri d 78° W 18S U J 2337 0652
40 °N
3
NC PC QC TH UH VH
00
S 42 00
40 0
4 20 0
KB LB
32°N MB NB PB QB TG UG VG
18S 41
00 410 0
R KA LA MA NA PA TF UF VF
QA
24°N 400 0 400 0
30 0 4 5
0 0 00 60 0 40 0
10 19
70 0 30 0
11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
Gri d Zo n e Des i gn a tio n
Gri d Zo n e De si gn a tio n 18S
0 8 /27 /98 17 S
M G RSG ri dZone D es gi nati ons 78° W
4-47
Latitude-Longitude Latitude and longitude can be read and
written in three different formats:
4-48
O) so that 90 00’S to 89 30’S is band west to east, starting with the
AA; 89 30’S to 89 00’S is band AB; and northernmost band.
so on.
• The graphical representation of a 15-
• Each 30-minute cell is divided into four minute quadrant with numbered 5-
15-minute by 15-minute quadrants. The minute by 5-minute
nute areas resembles a
quadrants are numbered sequentially, telephone keypad.
from west to east, starting with the Each 5-minute by 5-minute area or keypad
northernmost band. Specifically, the “key” is identified by a seven-character
northwest quadrant is “1”; the northeast designation. The first six characters
quadrant is “2”; the southwest quadrant comprise the 15-minute quadrant
is “3”; the southeast quadrant is “4”. designation. The seventh character is the
• Each quadrant is identified by a six- keypad “key” number. (ex.006AG39).
character designation. (ex. 006AG3) The Figure 4-7-3 below graphically depicts
first five characters comprise the 30- GARS, and Figure 4-7-4 is an example
minute cell designation. The sixth GARS overlay.
character is the quadrant number.
• Each 15-minute quadrant is divided into
nine 5-minute by 5-minute areas. The
areas are numbered sequentially, from
Cell to Quadrant to Keypad yields 5 min x 5 min cell; Each Cell Is 30 min x 30 min
takes advantage of existing 1:100K and 1:50K charts 1:100,000 charts = 30 min x 30 min
AH Each Cell Is
Sub-Divided Into Four
006 15 min X 15 min Quadrants
AG
AG 1:50,000 charts = 15 min x 15 min
AF
1 2
AE
3 4
AD 006AG3
Each Quadrant Can Be 1 2 3
AC Further Sub-divided 4 5 6
Into Nine 5 min X 5 min
AB 7 8 9
Keypads
006AG39
AA
Current 1:50,000 chart has
001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 symbology “+” to denote
Origin Point 5 x 5 keypads
180 E/W & 90S
4-49
Map Datum
North American Datum 1983 (NAD 83) and World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS 84) are equivalent at scales smaller
than 1:5000.
4-50
Table 4-7-1: National SAR Committee’s Geo-referencing Matrix
United States
Georeference National Grid Latitude/Longitude
GARS 2
System User DD-MM.mm 1
(USNG)
Land SAR Responder 3 Primary Secondary N/A
Aeronautical SAR As
Secondary Primary
Responders 4 Needed10
Air Space Deconfliction 5 N/A Primary N/A
Land SAR Responder/
Aeronautical SAR Primary Secondary N/A
Responder Interface. 6
Incident Command:
Air SAR Coordination Secondary Primary N/A
Land SAR Coordination Primary Secondary N/A
Area organization and
Secondary Tertiary Primary
accountability 7
1
During SAR operations (and to avoid confusion) Latitude and Longitude should be in one standard format: DD-
MM.mm. If required, use up to 2 digits to the right of the decimal. If required, allow 3 digits in the degrees field for
longitude (i.e., DDD-MM.mm). Do not use leading zeros to the left of the decimal for degrees or minutes that
require fewer than the maximum number of possible digits to express their value. The minimum number of digits is
always one, even if it is a zero. (Example: Recommended: 9-0.3N 4-2.45W; Not Recommended: 09-00.300N 004-
02.45W).
2
GARS: Global Area Reference System.
3
Land SAR responders use U.S. National Grid; however, a good familiarity with latitude and longitude is necessary
to ensure effective interface between Land and Aeronautical SAR responders (Note: Land SAR includes SAR on
flooded terrain).
4
Aeronautical SAR responders will use latitude and longitude for SAR response. However, aeronautical SAR
responders that work directly with Land SAR responders should understand the U.S. National Grid system for
effective Land SAR/Aeronautical SAR interface.
5
Air space deconfliction will only be implemented and managed using latitude and longitude.
6
Aeronautical SAR responders working with Land SAR responders have the primary responsibility of coordinating
SAR using USNG. However both groups must become familiar with both georeference systems.
7
Describes the requirement for providing situational awareness of SAR operations geographically to Federal,
military, state, local and tribal leadership. Provides for quick reference to send SAR resources closest to incident.
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4-52
Section 48: SAR Case Documentation
ICS Forms
SAR Action Plans
Reports
Records Management
4-53
Reports • Aircraft Use Documents - If the SAR
An important component of a SAR incident involved use of Government-
operation is complete documentation with owned or chartered aircraft, complete
accurate data. It is a sound practice to use documents and submit through
prepare proper reports when an incident is normal channels with copies filed with
completed. The SAR Coordinator/ the Case Incident Report.
Responsible Authority can use reports to • Training and Re-certification Reports -
evaluate performance, design preventive Either through the SAR Coordinator/
SAR plans, develop statistical models, assist Responsible Authority or other
with investigations, seek emergency designated means, each program is
funding, assist in tort claims, and document responsible for ensuring that SAR
agency activity. training provided by the organization or
Reports should be treated with otherwise obtained by employees is
confidentiality if containing critical or documented. These documents are the
sensitive information. administrative record for each SAR
provider’s re-certification, program
The following types of reports are audits, statistical information, and other
recommended: related purposes.
• Search and Rescue Report (commonly Records Management
referred to as the “Mission Report”) -
Complete this report to the extent Managers should maintain records in cases
possible and file with the Case Incident where emergency service is provided by
Report. General (non-Privacy Act) SAR personnel to protect the subject and
information, such as subject behavior or can be invaluable should legal questions
statistical data may later be gleaned from arise. Each agency has its own criteria and
this report. regulatory guidance for records management
and disposition. Personal information about
• Case Incident Report - Complete this the subject should be protected according to
report with incident details and actions applicable law, including, in the case of
taken by responders. Attach relevant Federal Agencies, the Privacy Act.
documents, such as Supplementary Case
Incident Reports, diagrams, maps,
photographs or ICS forms.
4-54
Section 49: Briefing and Debriefing SAR Teams
Briefing
Debriefing
4-55
search for that period. This is especially • Focus on individual beliefs;
important in verifying that the IAP/SAR
• Thorough and exact; and
plan was accomplished as directed and
expected. Any changes that deviated from • Detailed.
the expected plan should be debriefed and
The debriefing should be in writing, or
may affect any future plans.
recorded. When written, it reduces
An effective SAR team debriefing should misinformation, misinterpretation, and
be: confusion. Also, when written it becomes
part of the incident record.
• Timely;
Table 4-9-1 is a sample Debriefing
• Written;
Checklist.
• Include recommendations;
4-56
Table 4-9-1: Debriefing Checklist
Time task completed: Name of debriefer:
Date/Time prepared: Total time actually searching:
Time search started: Time search stopped:
How many searchers on team: How far apart was spacing (feet):
Size of search area searched: _____________ (acres) _____________ (square km)
Team Performance
Visibility/weather conditions:
Terrain conditions: Hazards noted:
Was task completed as assigned? YES NO (circle one) If NO, explain:
Average maximum detection range (AMDR) (feet): Total track line length (TLL) (feet):
Qualitative description for search: POOR AVERAGE GREAT (circle one). Narrative:
Estimate of forward speed of search: FAST, NORMAL, SLOW (circle one):
Were there any gaps in the search area? YES NO (circle one). If YES, explain:
Was the team adequately equipped? YES NO (circle one). If NO, explain:
Rate the team’s composition: POOR AVERAGE GREAT (circle one). Narrative:
Rate the team’s performance: POOR AVERAGE GREAT (circle one). Narrative:
Rate the team’s morale: POOR AVERAGE GREAT (circle one). Narrative:
Dog Tasks
Wind direction, speed and variability: Direction/strength of alerts:
Was the scent article adequate? YES NO (circle one). If NO, explain:
Team Leader
Comments/recommendations:
Searchers observations:
Recommendation for re-search of area:
Additional comments
(as required, continue on the back of this form)
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4-58
Part 5: Search Planning
Section 51: Search Planning Basics 53
Section 52: Search Planning Methods and Tools 59
Section 53: Developing the Search Area 519
Section 54: Distress Beacon Search Concepts 527
Section 55: Extended Search Planning Concepts (General) 537
Section 56: Extended Missing Aircraft Search Concepts 541
Section 57: Extended Ground Search Concepts 543
Section 58: Probability of Detection (POD) Experiments 549
Section 59: Subsequent Searches 551
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5-2
Section 51: Search Planning Basics
Search Planning
Search Theory
Search Objectives
Search Tactics: General Considerations
Core Search Planning Considerations
Other Questions That Should Be Asked
Preplanning
Needs Assessment
Risk Assessment
5-3
The goal of search planning is to deploy
7 Steps of Search Planning
available SAR resources in a manner that
1) Evaluate situation and all available information. maximizes the chances of finding the subject
2) Estimate the distress incident location. in the least amount of time. Finding subjects
3) Estimate the distress person’s movements. quickly saves more lives, reduces search
costs, and minimizes risk to searchers. For
4) Using the estimated results from 2) and 3),
determine the most probable location of
these reasons, it is prudent to use the
distress person/aircraft. planning methods, tactics, and strategies that
both science and experience have to offer.
5) Determine the best way to use the available
search resources so the chances of finding the Search Objectives
distress person(s)/aircraft are maximized.
Search objectives lead to strategies, and
6) Define search sub-areas and search patterns
for assignment to specific search resources.
strategies to tactics.
7) Provide a search action plan that includes a Objectives should be specific, measurable,
current description of the situation, search achievable, realistic, and time-referenced.
object description(s), assigns specific search For example, “confinement” is a strategy
responsibilities to search resources, on-scene search planners can use to keep the subject
coordination instructions, and search facility
reporting requirements.
from leaving the search area. Once search
planners determine their search strategy, a
IAMSAR Manual, Volume II (Chapter 4) search tactic can be selected. For example,
track traps and perimeter searches are
When one or more searches have been possible tactics for a “confinement” strategy.
conducted, information gained from these Figure 5-1-1 below provides a summary of
searches must be applied to planning any search objectives, strategies, and tactics.
additional searches.
Why are you
The chances of survival for lost or missing Search searching? What
persons tends to decline rapidly as time Objective are you trying to
passes, especially if they are injured or ill- achieve?
prepared for hazardous weather or other
conditions encountered. There are often high Plan the search
levels of emotional stress associated with Search to achieve
search planning and conducting search Strategy objectives.
operations.
Search Theory
Search Conduct the
Search theory is the study of mathematical Tactics search.
methods and algorithms for developing
optimal search plans. It is a branch of the Figure 5-1-1: Overview - Search Objectives,
broader applied science known as operations Strategies, and Tactics.
research.
The search tactics chosen must support the
Search theory focuses on: objectives. The search tactics must be
• where to search; and matched with the skills and characteristics of
the search resources.
• how to search.
Developing objectives is vital in defining the
search strategy and in turn selecting the right
5-4
resources and utilizing them in the most Table 5 -1-1 below to build confidence in
effective manner. the search results, or to allow a quick
transition into the next operational period.
Search Tactics: General
Considerations (Note: Refer to Section 5-4 (Resource
Regardless of how the search resources are Strategies and Tactics) for information on
utilized, search tactics should abide by the specific search tactics and patterns for
basic guidelines for search patterns found in various search resources.)
• Easy to reassign resources based any updates to the search object’s position or other
clues;
Ease of change • Easy to re-search, especially in a way that lets searchers see clues from a different
perspective (a different spacing, different direction, etc.); and
• Easy to expand the search area as required.
• Resources cover search area in a method that allows for the determination of how well
Ease of evaluation it was searched and to facilitate follow-on decisions.
5-5
Table 5-1-2: Core Search Planning Considerations
Who or what is being searched for will impact the decision on how to search. Consider the
differences among:
Who, or what, is being • Mobile vs. immobile person;
searched for? • Responsive vs. unresponsive person;
• Lost child vs. lost adult; and
• Missing aircraft vs. distress beacons.
What SAR resources you plan to search with will impact the decision on how to search.
Consider the differences among:
What SAR resources • Trained SAR responders vs. untrained volunteers;
are available to • Helicopters vs. light fixed wing aircraft;
conduct the search?
• Aircraft equipped with a single observer vs. aircraft with multiple scanners; and
• Day vs. night search capabilities.
Where the search is conducted will impact the decision on how to search. Consider the
differences among:
Where is the search • Meadows vs. forests;
being conducted? • Flat areas vs. hills or mountains; and
• Campgrounds and parks vs. wilderness areas.
When the search is conducted will impact the decision on how to search. Consider the
following:
• Time of day affects sun angle which affects visibility of clues;
When is the search
• Time of day affects searcher freshness and thoroughness;
being conducted?
• Time of year affects sun angle, temperature, and length of day; and
• Time since distress or LKP/PLS affects the freshness, visibility, and even the
existence of clues.
5-6
Decisions specific to a particular search, Needs Assessment
including tactical operations, should be in Each agency that is party to a SAR preplan
the search or incident action plan. The should perform a needs assessment. The
processes to be followed for building the needs assessment is used to identify current
action plan should be in the preplan. and projected SAR mission requirements to
The SAR preplan must be kept simple and comply with preplans, rather than to justify
up-to-date and should be reviewed and current operating conditions. The process is
updated periodically (e.g., before and after a tool used to assess the current condition of
exercises and after an actual SAR incident). the SAR program and then determine
The planning process needs periodic check- whether the provided services are consistent
ups and reviews for efficacy and accuracy of with contemporary standards. A needs
information after every use. assessment identifies and evaluates:
Six major elements to be considered when • Available internal and external
drafting any SAR preplan include: resources;
• Environment – maps, risks, hazards, • The agency’s SAR workload;
attractions, past incidents, etc.; • Requirements for training and
• Resources – who/what is available, certification;
capabilities, limitations, contacts, etc.; • Rescue capabilities and response times;
• Initial Notification – guidelines, • Location and capability of local area
questions for initial call, checklists, who resources;
is in charge, etc.;
• Fiscal resources;
• Action Plan Development – guides and
procedures, SAR organization, planning • SAR communications; and
search strategy and possible tactics, • Special considerations (e.g., mutual aid,
managing search assets, etc.; out of area response, geographic
• Support Requirements – logistics, location, etc.).
communications, medical, etc.; and Risk Assessment
• Post-Mission Actions – demobilization, A risk assessment is performed to avoid
lessons learned, reporting requirements, jeopardizing the success of the mission by
etc. unnecessarily endangering the lives of both
(Note: For a more complete example of SAR responder(s) and the subject/survivor.
Pre-plan elements, see Appendix C.) (Note: See the CISAR Addendum for
additional information concerning risk
assessments.)
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5-8
Section 52: Search Planning Methods and Tools
Elements of Planning
Key Concepts
Search Area
Regions
Segments
Probability of Detection (POD)
Sweep Width (W)
Effort (z)
Parallel Sweep (or Route) Search
Coverage (C)
Probability of Detection (POD) – Continued
Cumulative POD (PODcum)
Probability of Success (POS)
Overall Probability of Success (OPOS)
Cumulative Overall Probability of Success (OPOScum)
Probable Success Rate (PSR)
5-9
Key Concepts • Location where the object was last seen,
Search planners should be familiar with the reported, or otherwise known to be; and
definitions introduced in the following • Location where the objective was last
subsections: seen.
• Search area; Search planning largely depends on
investigation. Investigative efforts should
• Regions;
continue unabated throughout the search
• Probability of Containment (POC); until the object is located. Investigation
• Segments; provides a means to gather and clarify
information, as well as deal with clues or
• Probability of Detection (POD); information which was not previously
• Sweep Width (W); included in determining the search area.
Regions
• Effort (z);
A region is a defined subset of the search
• Parallel Sweep (or Route) Search; and
area within which there is a nearly uniform
• Coverage (C); distribution of the likelihood of containing
the search object. In other words, the search
Key Concept: object is equally likely to be at any point in a
given region. Regions and region boundaries
In land SAR planning, the tracking of the values for
Probability of Containment (POC), Probability of are based only on the factors that affect the
Detection (POD), and Probability of Success (POS) as search object, and the change in likelihood
presented in this Addendum are related to Area/Grid of the search object’s location on one side of
searching. the region boundary versus the other side. A
region boundary means the search planner
Search Area believes there is a reason why the search
object is more likely to be on one side of the
The “search area” is the physical area the
boundary than the other.
search planner believes is likely to contain
the search object. Search planning is a Probability of Containment (POC)
process of elimination. The search planner
must attempt to eliminate as much area as Probability of Area (POA) and
possible without discarding locations where Probability of Containment (POC)
the search object may be. In developing the
search area, search planners should consider POA is a term used mainly by land SAR practitioners
today. The terms POA and POC are synonymous,
the search object’s: with POC being the preferred term with international
• Departure point; recognition.
POC will be used in this Addendum for SAR planning.
• Intended destination;
• Possible or likely routes;
Regions of probability and their Probability
• Historical data concerning the area; of Containment (POC) values are
determined by carefully considering all
• Personal habits and inclinations of the
available information, adding reasonable
missing person;
assumptions to fill the information gaps and
• Lost person behavior; create plausible scenarios. Each scenario is
5-10
then carefully examined in turn to see where being searched. POD is determined at the
it leads in terms of more probable and less segment level and depends on two factors:
probable search object locations. 1. How easy or difficult it will be for the
Searching a large area can be labor intensive object to be detected by searchers in the
with limited search resources available. segment; and
Rarely will the general search area be small 2. How much search effort is expended in
enough for the available resources to search the segment being searched in relation to
the entire area rapidly and with a high the segment’s size.
probability of finding the search object in a
short time. Sweep Width (W)
Probability of Containment (POC) for any The ease or difficulty of detecting the search
portion of the search area is defined as the object is measured by a quantity called
probability of the search object being in that Effective Sweep Width (ESW).
portion of the search area. POC is only one This quantity may also be referred to as
of the factors to consider when deciding Sweep Width (W), and is most easily
where resources should be deployed. understood by considering ESW or W as an
Segments “index of detectability.” A measurement of
how easy or hard it will be to detect a given
In contrast to regions of probability, search object in a specific environment with
segments are sub-divisions of the search a particular sensor. Sweep width is affected
area based on the logistical and operational by the following factors:
issues associated with conducting the search
itself. In other words, segments are based on • Nature of the search object;
the searchers and their capabilities, not the • Terrain, vegetation, visibility, and
search object. Segments have associated weather conditions of the search area;
POC values by virtue of being a portion of
the general search area, but their boundaries • Altitude of the search aircraft above
and sizes are not based on concerns about ground level;
where the search object may be located. For • Search speed (v);
example, a segment should be small enough
that it can be searched by the intended type • Searcher fatigue;
of SAR resource with a reasonable coverage • Searcher capabilities; and
in a specified amount of time.
• Sensors being used in the search (e.g.,
For aircraft, segments are generally much
unaided eye, night vision goggles,
larger than those assigned to ground teams
infrared, air scent dogs, etc.).
and are usually limited by the aircraft’s on
scene endurance. Conceptually, sweep width is the distance
(equally distributed to the left and right of
Probability of Detection (POD)
the sensor) at which the likelihood the
A successful search is based on searching in sensor will detect an object beyond that
the right location and detecting the search distance is equal to the likelihood the sensor
object. Probability of Detection (POD) is will fail to detect an object within that
defined as the probability of finding the distance. See Figure 5-2-1 below.
search object, assuming it is in the segment
5-11
Figure 5-2-1: Sweep Width.
Sweep width recognizes the likelihood of the distance from the searcher to the object
not detecting objects near the observer, at the closest point of approach.
along with the likelihood of detecting Sweep width is very specific and dependent
objects at a longer range from the observer. upon the conditions experienced during the
Sweep width does not indicate the maximum search. For instance, visibility, type of
distance at which an object might be sighted, object, vegetation, and terrain may inhibit
nor that an object would be sighted within a detecting the object. When a sensor is tested
specific range. in a variety of environments, tables and
Sweep width can only be determined corrections can be constructed in order to
through extensive field experimentation make sweep width more widely applicable.
during which the numbers of detections and While the search planner may be able to
misses are counted for a large number of make some choices regarding which
sensors (searchers) at a wide variety of searchers and sensors are assigned to a
distances from objects. A lateral range curve search segment, the planner cannot control
is generated from the detection data and is
the nature of the search object, the search
used to find the sweep width for the tested
conditions in the area, or how detectable the
sensors as used under the conditions in the search object will be at the time and place of
experiment. The lateral range curve graphs the search. In short, the search planner
the probability of detecting an object against
5-12
cannot control or adjust the effective sweep Where t is time spent searching, n is number
width. of searchers, and v is speed while searching.
Note: Further information on conducting For example, the “Effort” for 20 searchers
ground sweep width studies can be found on searching a segment for 5 hours at an
the National SAR Committee website average speed of .5 mph is computed as:
(www.uscg.mil/nsarc).
TTL (Effort): 5 hours X 20 searchers X
The search planner does decide how much .5 mph = 50 miles
of the available effort should be allocated to
Coverage (C)
each of the various segments of the search
area. This is the essence of the search Since both W and TTL (or z) have units of
planner’s job. length, their product has units of area. We
may compute a value called the area
Effort (z) effectively swept (Z):
Effort (z) is the total distance searchers
travel while searching in their assigned
segment. It is often useful to compute or
estimate effort as the total number of The ratio of “area effectively swept” to the
searcher-hours spent searching (X) the physical area that was searched is called
average search speed. The relationship coverage or coverage factor (C).
among speed, distance, and time may also Coverage may be thought of as a measure of
allow searcher-hours to be used as a “thoroughness” or “effort density,” how
measure of effort. much searching effort is expended per unit
Effort is also denoted by the abbreviation of area in a given locale. The key concept
“TTL”, which stands for total [searcher or being: the higher the coverage, the more
aircraft] trackline length. thorough the search. Coverage is a ratio of
like quantities and has no units.
Effort is computed as number of searcher-
hours spent searching times the average Coverage factor is the result of comparing
search speed: how a sensor should perform generically
with how it is used on a specific search.
The formula for Coverage is as follows:
(Note: Time (t) is total searcher hours for the ground environment or hours spent searching for
the air environment.)
Parallel Sweep (or Route) Search Parallel Sweep Search Coverage can be
computed using the following formula:
Parallel Sweep Searches (also known as
Route Searches in the ground environment)
is defined as a systematic search in which
search team members follow tracks parallel
to a side boundary and maintain a
predetermined separation (see Section 4-4).
5-13
This simplified formula works best in an air • Sweep width (W);
search environment, when conducting a
• Level of effort (z); and
parallel sweep search, or a strict grid search
in the ground environment. • Size of the area searched.
POD allows the search planner to have an
Key Concepts: Summary estimate of how likely an SRU in a given
The important points in this discussion are the segment is to detect the search object if it is
following: in the search segment. It has a predictive
power for search planning, and after a search
• Higher coverage produces higher POD, lower
period and debrief, planners can re-compute
coverage produces lower POD;
POD for conditions searchers report in the
• There is a direct relationship between effort and search segment.
coverage: Doubling the coverage of a segment
requires doubling the effort assigned to that POD is a “conditional probability.” The
segment; “condition” is an assumption that the search
object is definitely in the area searched.
• Any increase in POD requires an increase in
coverage with a corresponding increase in POD answers the following question:
effort; and If the search object was in the searched
• For a given level of effort, larger areas or more area at the time of the search, what was
segments can be searched at lower coverage, the probability of detecting it?
smaller areas or fewer segments can be
searched at higher coverage. A “mixed bag” The relationship between Coverage (C) and
approach can also be used where some
segments receive a high coverage, some
POD is given by the following equation and
moderate coverage, some low coverage, and its graph in Figure 5-2-2:
some segments may not be searched at all
(coverage = 0). POD = 1 – e-c
5-14
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
POD
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Coverage (C)
Figure 5-2-2: Chart - POD vs. Coverage (C)
The graph above depicts diminishing segment only address that segment, and do
returns. As effort is added and coverage not account for whether the search object is
increases, the POD also increases, but more in the segment searched. Planners need
and more slowly as the amount of effort and more information to predict/determine the
the corresponding coverage reach higher and likely success of a search.
higher levels.
Probability of Success (POS)
Cumulative POD (PODc). When planning a SAR mission, the planner
If the coverage factor for each search period should always be concerned with obtaining
in a segment is known, the graph and the optimal SAR plan. In a SAR context, a
equation may be used to compute plan is considered optimal if it maximizes
cumulative POD (PODc) for two or more the Probability of Success (POS), or the
searches of the same segment. probability of finding the search object.
For example, if an initial search is POS is determined by two quantities:
completed with coverage of 0.5 and the
• POD – the probability of detecting the
same segment is searched a second time
search object in a search area; and
with coverage of 1.0, then the “cumulative
coverage” for both searches is 1.5 and the • POC – the probability that the search
cumulative POD is about 78%. A third object is within the area being searched.
search with coverage of 0.8 would bring the This can be written mathematically:
“cumulative coverage” to 2.3 and the
cumulative POD to about 90%.
Search planners need to realize cumulative POS is a statistically generated measure of
coverage and POD for a particular search search effectiveness and is the probability
5-15
that a given search will succeed in locating manual search planning method for many
the search object. POS is expressed as a years, POS provides a much greater measure
decimal and has no units. For a particular of search quality. This is because POD only
search, POS answers the following question measures detection effectiveness. That is, it
is used to estimate how well a search area
If the POC, and POD values in a given
was searched, but it does not incorporate the
scenario are an accurate reflection of
likelihood that the search object will actually
the available information and data, what
be in the particular area searched.
is/was the probability of finding the
search object in a given search period?
Cumulative POS (POSc) is a measure of POS, POD, and POC
search effectiveness to date and answers the (POS = POC X POD)
following question: The following points need to be understood
concerning the relationships between POS, POD
If the POC and POD values in a given and POC:
scenario are an accurate reflection of • Searching an area that has no chance of
the available information and data, what containing the search object (POC = 0) will not
is the probability that the search object be successful no matter how high the POD.
would have been found by now? Even if POD was 100% the POS is still zero (0
x 1 = 0);
Achieving a high POSc value without
• If there is a 50% chance of the search object
locating the search object is an indication
being in an area, then searching that area with
that either the search object cannot be a coverage factor of 1.0 (POD of 63%)
detected (e.g., on the bottom in deep water, produces a POS of 32% (0.5 x 0.63 = 0.32).
hidden by an obstruction, etc.) or that the Even if POD was 100%, the POS for this
POC values, and/or POD values in a given search rises to only 50% (0.5 x 1 = 0.5) and no
further because there is still a 50% chance that
scenario are suspect. A thorough review of
the search object was not in the search area.
all the available information is required to
determine whether POSc has been POS balances options of looking very carefully in a
small area for the object, against looking less
interpreted, computed, and used correctly. thoroughly over a larger area for the same object.
The following compares POS, POD and
POC:
• POS measures search effectiveness; Overall Probability of Success
(OPOS)
• POD measures search sensor detection
performance; and The POS for any given segment being
searched is given by the following equation:
• POC measures the likelihood the search
object(s) are contained in a particular
area.
However, the search planner’s attention
POS is the most effective way of measuring
cannot be limited to a single segment. For
search effectiveness. It is the measure used
each operational period, the search planner’s
in the IAMSAR Manual, the National SAR
job is to deploy available resources so the
Supplement (NSS), and in the NSS’s U.S.
overall POS (OPOS) is maximized. The
Coast Guard Addendum.
OPOS is simply the sum of all the individual
Although POD has been in the search segment POS values:
planning vocabulary and used with the
5-16
all searching done to date. When OPOScum
reaches a high value but the search object
remains unlocated, search planners need to
There is an important difference between the
re-evaluate the case information to ensure
OPOS based on all searched segments and
that:
individual segment POD and POS values.
For any single segment, the only way to • No possible scenarios were overlooked;
increase POS is to increase POD, and the
• All of available information was
only way to increase POD is to increase the
correctly interpreted;
level of effort expended in the segment.
For a limited amount of total available • The SAR case assumptions were
effort, which is the usual situation, the level reasonable; and
of effort in one segment cannot be increased • All estimates of POS, POD, and POC
without taking effort from some other are as accurate as possible.
segment(s). Putting all the available effort
After re-evaluation, the planner must decide
into just one segment would maximize its
whether to proceed on the basis of new
POS, but it is virtually certain that a higher
assumptions and scenarios, or to suspend
OPOS could be obtained from allocating the
active searching pending further
available effort so that multiple (but not
developments.
necessarily all) segments each receive some
searching. Probable Success Rate (PSR)
The manner in which the available effort is Probable Success Rate (PSR) is the
apportioned among the search segments instantaneous rate of change in POS for
makes a difference in the value of the OPOS adding one more increment of effort (one
for that operational period. The best chance more searcher) to a search segment. It
for finding the search object with the contains most of the elements of both POC
available resources depends upon how those and POD. The PSR for any given segment
resources are distributed among the search can be determined by the following
segments. equation:
For a given amount of available effort, there
is an optimal effort allocation among the
search segments that will produce the
maximum OPOS. Search theory provides a
means for: In this equation, W is the effective sweep
width or “detectability index,” v is the
• Computing the optimal effort allocation; average search speed (velocity) of the
and searcher, POC is the probability of
• How much of the total available effort containment and A is the segment’s physical
should be placed in each segment in area.
order to achieve the maximum possible A segment’s PSR value, standing alone, is
OPOS value. not useful nor intuitive. However, when the
Cumulative Overall Probability of PSR values for all segments are computed
Success (OPOScum) and compared, the one with the highest PSR
value is the one where the greatest return on
The cumulative overall POS (OPOScum) is investment from the first additional
the accumulated sum of all POS values for
5-17
increment of search effort can be produced results. PSR helps search planners allocate
in the shortest time. search resources to maximize the likelihood
of success during a search period and over
If the segments are sorted in descending
several operational periods.
order of PSR values, the segments are listed
in order of most productive to least Section 5-7 explains the use of PSR in the
productive in terms of expected search ground searching environment.
5-18
Section 53: Developing the Search Area
Search Area Concepts
Last Known Position (LKP)/Point Last Seen (PLS)
Theoretical Search Area (TSA)
Determining TSA Size
TSA: Overdue Aircraft
TSA: Missing Person
Statistical Search Area (SSA)
SubjectiveDeductive Search Area (SDSA)
General Scenarios
Likely Route and Location Scenarios
5-19
incident. These concepts are used in a Remember that even if the search planner is
“process of elimination” or “process of reasonably certain of the search object’s
successive refinement” to eliminate as much LKP/PLS, an investigation into the events
of the Earth’s surface as possible from surrounding the disappearance of the search
consideration for the search. To begin, the object should continue in full force until the
search planners will require a location and search object is found or until active
time describing where and when the search searching is suspended pending further
object was last known to be safe. developments. Sometimes clues found on
scene will help establish a new LKP/PLS.
Last Known Position (LKP)/Point Last
However, updated information that may
Seen (PLS)
revise the LKP/PLS may also come from
The Last Known Position (LKP) is the last off-scene sources through investigation.
position based on clues or evidence
belonging to the missing search object. LKP Theoretical Search Area (TSA)
is similar to Point Last Seen (PLS), which is The theoretical search area (TSA) is the
the location where the search object was last maximum possible area within which the
physically sighted. LKP/PLS is the starting search object might be found. TSA is
point for determining where to search and generally reported as a radius from the
the size of the intended search area. An LKP/PLS (Figure 4-3-1). The radius
accurate LKP/PLS is important to the search represents the maximum possible distance
planner because: the search object could have traveled under
the expected conditions in any direction in
• Having an accurate LKP/PLS will help
the time since missing.
to determine locations that may not
require searching; TSA can be used to determine the outer
boundary of the search area, based on the
• In general, the sooner the LKP/PLS is
available information. However, if
known, the search area location
considerable time has elapsed, the TSA can
determined, and the search commenced,
be very large. Given that searches frequently
the closer the search object will be to the
have limited search resources, the TSA is
LKP/PLS;
likely to be too large to search in the time
• If the LKP/PLS is closer to where the available. Determining the TSA does help
search object is believed to be located, the search planner by finding a maximum
then the search area can be smaller and distance the search object could have
more precise, leading to a more focused traveled in the available time. That
search (increasing the effectiveness and maximum distance and area can be used in
efficiency of the search, and reduces the the investigation relating to the search. For
amount of time it will take to locate the the search planner, TSA:
search object);
• Provides an area to target when using the
• The LKP/PLS may change as media to solicit clues;
information is received during the
• Helps evaluate clues (inside or outside
search; and
the TSA);
• Statistical analysis of the search object’s
• Determines an “area of interest” for
distance traveled is based on the initial
investigation; and
LKP/PLS and where the search object is
located.
5-20
• Encourages search planners to begin to Statistical Search Area (SSA)
consider areas within the TSA where it The statistical search area (SSA) is based on
is more reasonable for the search object statistical analysis of data on where similar
to be located and areas that are search objects in similar conditions have
unreasonable. been found in the past.
Determining TSA Size Historical data on where search objects have
The following formulas can be used to help been found may come in different forms.
determine the size of the TSA for an For example, there is data on how far search
overdue aircraft and a missing person. objects have been found from the initial
LKP/PLS. Depending on the source, the
TSA: Overdue Aircraft
historical data may be quite general, taking
To determine TSA radius for an overdue in all types of terrain and search
aircraft, several factors are required: object/activity types, or the data may be
• Amount of fuel on board; broken down by terrain, search object, and
activity types.
• Fuel burn rate (or rate of consumption);
Historical data may also exist for specific
• Aircraft speed; and areas, such as parks or specific regions
within parks. Such data may be even more
• Time to fuel exhaustion.
specific to particular trails, peaks, and/or
The formula for the TSA radius of an other features.
overdue aircraft is:
The SSA provides a good starting point for
determining an initial search area.
Statistical information on lost person
behavior and find locations has been
published by several organizations and
TSA: Missing Person individuals, and is readily available.
The TSA radius for missing persons is based Information on aircraft crash locations
on search object speed of movement and relative to intended routes have been
time elapsed since determining the published in studies by Canada, CAP, and
LKP/PLS. most recently a study performed on behalf
of NASA.
Distance = Speed X Time Use of statistical analysis is based on an
assumption the search object(s) will act in a
Table 5-3-1 includes estimated missing manner similar to those in the same types of
person speeds. Some questions for the situations. However, it is important to
search planner to consider include: remember that determining the search area
based on statistical analysis, although a
• How many hours would the missing sound initial practice, will not yield a search
person walk in a day? area that accounts for all the information and
• Would the missing persons’ motivation assumptions pertinent to a specific search.
or physical condition change their However, determining an SSA is a good
speed? starting point, allowing the SAR planner to:
5-21
• Allocate limited resources to the most Subjective-Deductive Search Area
likely spots first; (SDSA)
• Target SAR resources to areas for initial A subjective-deductive search area (SDSA)
confinement efforts; and is based on an intuitive approach to
determine the search area balanced by logic.
• Define an area the search planner would The SDSA is the search area where SAR
like to search given enough SAR planners think, feel, and believe the object
resources. they are searching for is most likely located,
As the search effort and investigation given all available information for the
progress, the initial search area should be specific incident, search object, and
modified to more accurately fit the environment. Assessing all available
circumstances of the current situation. Since information to determine an SDSA is
the existing historic data on searches and necessary because:
finds is not likely to be specific to the
• The TSA is usually too large to be
environment or object of a specific search,
effectively searched;
SAR agencies should consider collecting
data on where search objects have been • The SSA is based on other cases that
located in their areas of responsibility. may or may not accurately portray the
Organizations can then use the data during current search object and conditions;
future searches to assist in determining a • Modifying these search areas, based on
more accurate search area. data about the specific incident should
There is one important difference between help define a smaller search area that has
the TSA and the SSA that bears mentioning. an increased likelihood of containing the
The TSA continues to grow with the passage search object; and the
of time. The SSA is based on historical data
• SDSA size is based on likely scenarios
about where search objects were found,
and useful for setting search priorities.
usually without regard to when they were
found. In other words, the way historical The SDSA is used to modify the TSA and
data is typically used for determining an SSA to help determine the territory to search
SSA does not depend on how much time has and how much effort should be allocated to
elapsed between the initial LKP/PLS and the each portion of that territory. It also helps:
time when the search object was found. For • Define specific locations and routes to
this reason, it is possible, although unusual, search;
for the TSA to be smaller than the SSA. In
order for this to occur, the elapsed time • Select specific confinement locations
between the initial LKP/PLS and the and tactics; and
commence search time would have to be • Suggest alternative scenarios to be
relatively short. developed, investigated, and perhaps
searched.
Table 5-3-1 and Figure 5-3-1 provide a
comparison of TSA, SSA and SDSA.
5-22
Table 5-3-1: Comparison of Theoretical, Statistical, and Subjective-Deductive
Search Areas
Search Area Definition Amplifying Information
Estimated Theoretical speeds:
Distance in all directions that the search • Hiker No pack: 2.0-2.5 mph;
Theoretical
object could have traveled based upon the • Hiker W/ pack: 1.5-2.0 mph;
Search Area amount of time since the subject was last • Hiker uphill: + 1 hr/1000 ft Mountain; and
(TSA) seen.
• Child 3-4 (2.0 mph), 5-6 (2.4 mph), 7-8 (2.7
mph), 9-10 (2.9 mph), 11-12 (3.0 mph).
Statistical maximum zone (based upon 95%)
It is also useful to plot the SSA’s median or 50% ring
derived from previous incidents of same type
Statistical on the map. However, the 50% distance must not be
of search object. Refer to lost person
used for the search area boundary. It is possible for
Search Area behavior statistics available either locally or
the theoretical to be smaller than the statistical
(SSA) commercially for distances from initial
distance. If sufficient containment exists then the
LKP/PLS. Elevation and dispersion angle
search area can be kept smaller.
data, if available, can also limit the SSA.
Further limit the size of the search area
based upon geographic and manmade Cliffs, rivers, major bodies of water, roads, and trails
Subjective/ features. may be used to further limit the search area.
Process of looking at all facts, scenarios, However, keep in mind some search objects may
Deductive
individual knowledge of the search object, cross roads (e.g., night, confused, dementia, etc.).
Search Area unique factors of incident, previous history of The deductive part does not physically limit the
(SDSA) the area, lost person behavior, clues, and search area but it does shift probability to more likely
investigative information to determine most areas and helps to identify where to search.
likely areas.
5-23
Theoretical Search Area
Statistical
Search Area
Initial
LKP/PLS
Subjective-Deductive Search Area
5-24
• Integrate likely alternatives into a single • Better identify the types of clues that
search plan; might be found, leading to better
resource assignments.
• Force search planners to consciously
think about alternatives they had not Likely Route and Location Scenarios
considered on their own; Likely route and location scenarios are
• Reduce common difficulties in routes along which the search object likely
developing POC consensus; traveled and the specific locations where the
search object is likely to be found. These
• Keeps each search planner from scenarios can form the basis for rapid search
assigning POCs based on their tasking and further search area discussions.
individual and often contradictory or
inconsistent scenario assumptions; Choosing likely routes the search object may
have traveled from the initial LKP/PLS to
• Reduces difficulties with over and under the current position will help find clues. As
estimating conditional probabilities; the search object traveled, it was likely
• Helps set better priorities within the influenced by the surroundings. There may
search area; have been visible, audible, desired, or
imagined things which attracted the search
• Helps to identify better ways to confirm object or dissuaded it from continuing.
or refute various scenarios, leading to a Perhaps there is a hazard that affected the
better estimate of where the search search object’s behavior. Identifying this
object could be located; route allows the search planner to predict
• Helps to more precisely identify likely where the search object may go and to assist
routes and locations of the missing in search planning.
persons, leading to quicker finds; and
5-25
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5-26
Section 54: Distress Beacon Search Concepts
Distress Beacon Response Policy
406 MHz Distress Beacon CospasSarsat Alerts
Registered But Unlocated 406 MHz Alerts.
Unregistered/Registered and Located GPS Protocol Distress Beacons
50/50 Split Solution
Alert Query Reports – USMCC Database
121.5/243.0 MHz Distress Beacon Alerts
121.5/243.0 MHz Distress Beacon Audible Alerts
CospasSarsat System Limitations
Areas Based on Audible Reports
Direction Finding (DF)
Triangulation (Build – Fade Search)
Other DF Techniques
Continued Monitoring
State Policy
When a Distress Beacon is Located
Report location of Distress Beacon
Further Monitoring
PLBs and Other Devices
5-27
Table 5-4-1: Distress Beacon Alert and Corresponding Emergency Phase
Distress Beacon Alert Emergency Phase
406 MHz registered and located alert (E solution* or
Doppler**) with location correlating to an area of known
or possible distress. Initially evaluate as
406 MHz unregistered and located alert (E solution* or DISTRESS
Doppler**) with location correlating to an area of known
or possible distress
121.5/243.0 MHz multiple reports of audible alert
406 MHz registered but un-located alert
406 MHz unregistered and un-located alert Initially evaluate as ALERT.
Investigate, reevaluate, and
406 MHz registered and located alert (E solution* or respond as facts and
Doppler**) circumstances warrant.
406 MHz Distress Beacon Cospas- response to a MAYDAY call. The 406 MHz
Sarsat Alerts Cospas-Sarsat system and equipment yield
high confidence alerts and positions.
Since 1990, distress beacon technology has
However, factors such as satellite pass
been moving to a solely dedicated frequency
geometry, atmospheric anomalies, and
for satellite distress beacons, 406 MHz. Use
beacon oscillator stability may degrade the
of this frequency will minimize interference
beacon signal and position data. Any alert
problems. In addition, satellite software
degradation is usually reflected in the split
recognizes and relays only coded 406 MHz
between A and B solution probabilities on
distress beacon signals, minimizing false
first alert messages.
alerts. Accordingly, response to 406 MHz
distress beacon alerts is immediate, keeping Registered But Unlocated 406 MHz
in mind the precepts of risk management. Alerts
First alerts and composite solutions for 406 Normally, registered but unlocated 406 MHz
MHz distress beacons indicate a beacon has alerts are treated as a distress. RCCs should
been activated. SAR response to a 406 MHz use all reasonable means to determine the
distress beacon alert should approximate the position of the person in distress.
5-28
As registered but unlocated 406 MHz alerts 50/50 Split Solutions
contain no position information, RCCs must 50/50 splits are no different than other A/B
exploit all reasonable means to ascertain at solutions and merely indicate that
least a general distress position. Armed with mathematically the distress beacon could be
a general position or usual operating area in either location. Plotting the position and
and suitable homing capable response assets, carefully analyzing the distress beacon data
RCCs can render timely, effective and registration information will usually
assistance. allow you to determine the actual location.
Distress beacon registration points of Also note that 50/50 solutions tend to be less
contact are usually the most promising leads accurate than other solutions.
for information, particularly for position,
Alert Query Reports – USMCC
situation, and further points of contact.
Database
When only general position information is
available, suitable aircraft should be In pursuing amplifying distress information,
launched to direction find (DF) on the RCCs may query the USMCC database to
distress beacon's signal. see whether or not a particular 406 MHz
distress beacon has been activated, or to
Unregistered/Registered and located
check for all distress beacon activations
GPS Protocol Distress Beacons
over a specific time period or in a specific
Location Protocol Beacons (or GPS Protocol area. RCCs may do so by requesting an
Beacons) contain a GPS chip that can Alert Query Report from the USMCC. The
accurately calculate the position of the USMCC user's manual has more
distress beacon and transmit that position as information on this process and guidelines
received by the satellite. Since the Cospas- for interpreting these reports.
Sarsat system requires multiple passes from
low earth orbiting satellites to calculate the Cospas-Sarsat System Limitations
distress beacon’s position by Doppler shift, As with any tool, search planners must be
this technology provides a more timely aware of the Cospas-Sarsat system’s
method of notifying SAR responders of a limitations. False alerts (e.g., inadvertent
distress beacon’s position. activations or hoaxes), non-distress beacon
For alerts that contain an encoded GPS alerts, and unresolved distress beacon alerts
position (described in alert messages as an reduce the efficiency of the Cospas-Sarsat
“E” solution), responders shall evaluate it as system. Operator misuse, equipment
a distress incident regardless of whether the malfunctions, improper testing, and hoaxes
distress beacon is registered or if a location may downgrade distress beacon
has been determined by the Cospas-Sarsat effectiveness.
system. However, the “A” solution on a 406 MHz
When a composite position is obtained by first alert will be the correct position 95% of
Cospas-Sarsat satellite passes, search the time. SAR resources can reasonably be
planners should compare the encoded GPS dispatched immediately upon receipt of a
position to the composite solution to verify 406 MHz first alert. A composite solution
the location of response. will be received, provided the beacon
continues to transmit, usually within 60
minutes (average time is approximately 45
to 90 minutes).
5-29
121.5/243.0 MHz Distress Beacon airfield control towers, fixed base operators,
Alerts and state SAR Coordinators/Responsible
Authorities, as applicable, to further identify
The operation of EPIRBs on 121.5 MHz
a defined search area to determine if the
frequency became prohibited in the U.S. on
signal is distress related. While it is common
January 1, 2007. This prohibition does not
to determine that a signal source is
apply to Emergency Locator Transmitters
emanating from an area where distress is
(ELTs) normally carried on aircraft or on
unlikely (e.g., marina, anchorage, airfield,
man overboard devices.
etc.), it should still be investigated so that
The International Cospas-Sarsat System the signal can be silenced.
terminated satellite processing of
When receiving audible reports of a
121.5/243.0 MHz distress signals on
121.5/243.0 MHz distress beacon alert,
February 1, 2009. Although RCCs no longer
RCCs should seek specific information from
receive 121.5/243.0 MHz Cospas-Sarsat
the reporting source, including:
Alerts, they will still receive and should
respond to audible 121.5/243.0 MHz alerts • Reporting source location;
as indicated in Table 5-4-1 and outlined
• Reporting source course, speed, and
below.
altitude; and
Authorized 406 MHz distress beacons do
• Strength of the signal heard.
contain a 121.5 MHz homing signal, which
will continue to be used for DF. Search Areas Based on Audible
Reports
121.5/243.0 MHz Distress Beacon
Audible Alerts Audible distress beacon alerts may not
always indicate a distress, but they do
The first report of an audible 121.5/243.0
indicate that a distress beacon has been
MHz distress beacon alert corresponds, at a
activated. Historically, many of these alerts
minimum, to the Uncertainty Emergency
have been false alerts resulting from hard
Phase. RCCs should aggressively attempt to
aircraft landings or caused by human error
corroborate 121.5/243.0 MHz audible alerts
during aircraft or vessel maintenance.
with any other potential distress information
such as FAA issued INREQ, ALNOT, 121.5/243.0 MHz distress beacon audible
reports of overdue aircraft, or other distress alerts are normally reported by airborne
reports. aircraft and FAA facilities, and will usually
help in determining the distress beacon’s
A second audible report of a 121.5/243.0 location.
MHz distress beacon alert corresponds to the
Alert Emergency Phase. Although response Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 or
to 121.5/243.0 MHz audible reports may 243.0 MHz during flight and report hearing
represent a significant resource commitment audible ELT signals to the appropriate FAA
with a limited likelihood of actual distress, facility. The report should include the time,
once additional audible reports have been position and altitude at which the signal was
received, RCCs should make every effort to heard (i.e. 1530z; Norfolk (ORF) 270/30;
locate and determine the source of the ALT: 11000).
signal. The RCC should evaluate the reports It is important to gather reports from
by plotting and monitoring individual different locations and the lowest possible
reports, identifying search areas, and altitudes in order to narrow down the search
notifying corresponding FAA facilities,
5-30
area. Follow up with appropriate FAA In the example below (Figure 5-4-1), the
facilities, airports, and other necessary ELT is most likely within the relatively
outside agencies for additional leads. small area where all three circles overlap. If
an aircrew does not hear the signal, the ELT
Radio signals have a “horizon” beyond
would then likely be in the area not
which they cannot reliably be heard. This
overlapped by that circle; however, there are
distance varies with the altitude of the
multiple reasons why a signal might not be
receiver. See Table 5-4-3.
heard. Gathering additional reports will
Knowing the position and altitude at which allow the search planner to refine the search
various aircrews hear an ELT signal, the area and possibly determine the signal’s
search planner can draw line-of-sight (LOS) location. In every case, the signal should be
circles to help narrow down the likely investigated as long as the distress beacon’s
location of the ELT. It also gives searchers a signal continues. If SAR resources are
position to allocate aeronautical assets when unable to locate the signal, the last resort
initiating a search. should be contacting the FCC for assistance.
5-31
• Finding distress beacons in non-aircraft very quickly. This technique also works for
locations (e.g., hangar floors, cars, etc.); ground-based receivers.
and It is important for search leaders to be able
• Finding downed aircraft in unpopulated to direct searchers in this procedure and to
or sparsely populated regions. plot and make good use of the information
generated. Table 5-4-2 below provides
Triangulation (Build-and-Fade suggested steps for determining the location
Search) of an ELT signal. Figures 5-4-2 and 5-4-3
By gathering the correct information from below graphically demonstrate the
pilots, searchers can narrow the search area procedures outlined in Table 5-4-2.
Crew adjusts squelch or volume so that the ELT signal is barely audible, notes their location as “first heard,” and
Step 2 continues to fly in a straight line
Step 3 The signal should become stronger & louder. If not, the crew reverses course to reacquire the signal
Step 4 If possible to detect, the crew notes the aircraft location where the signal is the strongest/loudest
Step 5 The crew notes the location where the ELT is no longer audible (last heard)
Halfway between the first and last heard points should be their point of closest approach. The ELT should be directly
Step 6 off the wing; however, the crew cannot yet determine which wing, left or right
Repeating these steps along a different course or with a different aircraft can allow searchers to determine the
Step 7 approximate location of the ELT signal. Additional passes should help narrow the solution
5-32
Figure 5-4-2: Example #1- Aircraft ELT Signal DF
5-33
Table 5-4-3 below provides line of sight
distance for aircraft when detecting an ELT Table 5-4-4: Procedures for
signal, based on the aircraft’s altitude. Locating Strong ELT Signals
Table 5-4-3: Line of Sight 1. Remove or collapse the
Values for Aircraft De-sensitize receiver antenna.
(Altitude vs. Line-of-Sight) the receiver 2. De-tune the receiver slightly
off of 121.5MHz.
Altitude Line-of-Sight 1. Hold the receiver close to
the chest and turn around
1,000 FT 36 miles slowly, using the body to
partially block the signal.
2,000 FT 51 miles 2. The signal should be coming
Body
3,000 FT 63 miles from the direction of
Shadowing best/loudest reception;
4,000 FT 72 miles alternatively, it is coming
from behind when the signal
5,000 FT 81 miles is weakest (effectively
blocked by the body).
10,000 FT 114 miles
15,000 FT 140 miles
Additionally, a distress beacon signal that
20,000 FT 162 miles has been activated may be located even
25,000 FT 181 miles without a special receiver. When using a
tunable FM radio, the following procedures
30,000 FT 198 miles
are suggested:
35,000 FT 214 miles 1. Tune a tunable FM radio to 100.1 MHz
Ref: AFRCC and Canadian SAR and use body shadowing; and
calculations. Values are theoretical and
can be affected by signal strength, 2. As the signal gets stronger, de-tune
weather, terrain, condition of the farther down the scale.
beacon, and other factors.
Note: This technique is based on the FM
radio’s image frequency principle, so older-
Other DF Techniques style manual tuning radios work best.
Table 5-4-4 provides procedures for two Newer, expensive radios filter their signals
ways to locate a strong ELT signal that is better and will likely not work.
overpowering the receiver, or a signal that Continued Monitoring
could be coming from one of several near-
by aircraft: The SMC/IC will obtain valid and useful
information when determining the source of
distress beacon signals based on airborne
and ground reports received. The SMC/IC
should thoroughly investigate and evaluate
the data to determine the signal’s location
and correlate the signals against any active
INREQ, ALNOT, or other indications of
potential or actual distress. Consider all
5-34
reports as originating from a distress will be required in order to enter private
situation until proven otherwise. property, including private vehicles.
Sometimes, getting local law enforcement
Additional airborne and/or ground reports of
involved can help to secure permission or to
121.5 MHz audible alerts or lack of
obtain authority to enter the property.
ambiguity with known reports may move a
case to the Alert or Distress Phases. The The first action should usually be to notify
distress Phase can be equated to opening a the owner to either shut off the distress
RCC mission. Each additional report will beacon or to seek permission to assist. Take
enable the search area to be refined to better care to not damage the radio, aircraft, or
identify boundaries and responsible other property.
agencies. The RCC will alert appropriate As a last resort, consider advising the owner
State Agencies per SAR agreements and/or that federal laws provide for monetary
SAR unit(s) for distress beacons that cannot penalties of up to $16,000 for each such
be positively identified as a false alert, or violation or each day of a continuing
readily located and silenced. violation and up to $112,500 for any single
The RCC retains the operational direction act or failure to act for non-distress
for cases involving high altitude reports that activation of a distress beacon or knowingly
span multiple jurisdictions, unless such transmitting a false alert or hoax distress
jurisdictions deem it necessary for RCC signal. Fully document and report to the
notification involving all alerts that fall RCC or FCC any such cases.
within their boundaries regardless of Anytime SAR responders work on or
altitude. disables a distress beacon, leave a warning
State Policy note in a prominent place for the owner and
contact the nearest FSS with time of
Effective response to the activation of a
deactivation, tail number, owner’s name,
distress beacon requires a good relationship
beacon make/model, and circumstances for
between the State where the distress beacon
deactivation.
is detected and the RCC.
States must develop internal procedures, Report Location of the Distress
reporting requirements, and the assignment Beacon
of responsibilities when a distress beacon Report all pertinent information to the
signal is detected. Once these practices are SMC/RCC so the case can be closed and the
established, it is imperative to update the reporting source notified. Information
memorandum of understanding between the should include: the location (name and
State and the RCC to ensure proper coordinates), time located, time silenced,
protocols are followed. beacon manufacturer model and serial
number, battery expiration date, owner
When a Distress Beacon Is Located
information, aircraft type, and tail number.
Distress beacon signals may mask additional
actual distress signals and so must be Further monitoring
located and turned off. The RCC should continue to monitor 406
CAUTION: SAR authorities have no special MHz signals through the Cospas-Sarsat
entry authority in non-distress situations and system, which predicts future satellite pass
the rules of trespass still apply, meaning the times and identifies when a distress beacon
permission of the property owner typically signal was expected, but not heard. The
5-35
RCC will generally monitor the case until SAR resources to DF on a distress beacon
the satellite no longer hears the distress once the satellite system provides position
beacon signal for at least two satellite passes information.
before closing the mission. Distress beacons will always be most
For signals only heard on frequencies 121.5 effective when combined with a visual
MHz or 243.0 MHz, the RCC will verify the and/or audible distress signal such as a
signal has been silenced by requesting the mirror, whistle, or a strobe light to help
FAA solicit further pilot reports to catch the attention of SAR resources.
determine the signal is no longer being Concerning PLBs:
heard before closing a mission.
• While there is no licensing requirement,
The additional monitoring should:
registration with NOAA is mandatory
• Detect whether the silenced distress under FCC rules once the PLB is
beacon was covering up another purchased;
potential distress signal; and
• Active PLBs are monitored at the RCC,
• Detect whether the initial distress beacon who passes the information to the
is reactivated (perhaps through handling appropriate State agency; and
after silencing).
• The distress beacon requires a two-step
All distress beacon signals must be treated manual process to be activated.
as an actual distress situation until
(NOTE: There are commercial enterprises
confirmed otherwise. False alerts can cover
that have begun offering PLB type
up an actual distress situation and must be
“services” associated with non-PLB
located and silenced quickly.
devices. These devices do not alert through
PLBs and other Devices the Cospas-Sarsat system and do not have to
Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs) are abide by Federal PLB procedures,
portable distress beacons that operate much guidelines, or standards. While these
the same as EPIRBs or ELTs. These distress devices offer similar services to PLBs, they
beacons are designed to be carried by an are not considered PLBs under FCC
individual instead of on a boat or aircraft. standards and are outside the national SAR
Unlike ELTs and most EPIRBs (which may infrastructure. Responsible SAR authorities
be activated both automatically and may receive distress notification from
manually), PLBs can only be activated commercial monitoring services for these
manually and operate exclusively on 406 types of devices. More information on these
MHz. All U.S. coded distress beacons also types of beacons is available from the
have a built-in, low-power homing beacon manufacturers.)
that transmits on 121.5 MHz. This allows
5-36
Section 55: Extended Search Planning Concepts
(General)
Searches
Consensus in Search Planning
Proportionality
5-37
Figure 5-5-1: Planning “P” Operations Planning Cycle
Consensus in Search Planning where the search planners believe the search
object is likely to be located.
Consensus is a general accord or agreement.
In search planning, this agreement relates to
5-38
The consensus process is used to obtain reduces “channelized vision.” Consensus
input from expert individuals and aggregate can be beneficially used when combined
opposing judgments in order to make more opinions and judgments may help:
fully informed and considered decisions.
• Develop and weigh scenarios;
At many junctures during a search mission,
• Develop regions;
it is desirable to collect the experience,
judgments, and expert opinions of the search • Establish/revise POC; and/or
leadership. Consensus among the experts
• Evaluate clues and how they affect the
can help:
search.
• Ensure that all important perspectives
Proportionality
(including opposing views) are
considered and that none are lost or Proportionality is a set of numbers reflecting
ignored; the overall leadership team’s combined view
of the relative likelihood of, or preference
• Ease the conflicts that can arise over for, the available search options. These
strongly held opinions; numbers are percentages; for instance, a
• Build trust and confidence in the search team might believe there is a 50%
plan and the leadership team; and probability the missing person followed the
creek, a 30% chance of following the trail,
• Design a plan that reflects the and a 20% chance of not following.
participants' combined intuition and
expert knowledge. No matter the method used (e.g., Modified
Mattson Consensus, Mattson Consensus,
The consensus process allows the search Proportional Consensus, etc.), the results
leadership team to apply their experience, must accurately reflect the proportion, ratio,
judgment, and knowledge of the situation to and relative amount of probability to be
assign priorities to various parts of the assigned to the various search options.
search area. By involving multiple experts,
consensus helps avoid individual bias and
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5-40
Section 56: Extended Missing Aircraft Search Concepts
Searching for Missing Aircraft
ComputerBased Search Planning Aids
5-41
When little information is available, use of for statistics in both the air and ground
statistics can help define the search area. environments based on new and in-depth
Search planners can use statistics from a research. Programs are constantly being
2009 NASA study to determine POC, POD, developed and modified to model aircraft
and POS for missing/overdue aircraft. These and lost person behavior. These programs
statistics help define the Air Search Area can be used to calculate sweep widths,
Definition (ASAD). Training and search endurances, search efforts, search
information on how to define search areas areas, coverage factors, etc., as well as
for aeronautical searches using statistics is compute probability of success estimates
available from the AFRCC (Basic Inland and optimal allocation of available search
SAR Course) and the National SAR School effort. Additionally, as programs advance,
(Inland SAR Planning Course). they may be able to display, compare, and
combine clues and probability maps
Computer-Based Search Planning
associated with different scenarios,
Aids
environmental/weather considerations,
Computer-based search planning aids can be search patterns, track spacing, turn points for
used to relieve the search planner of much of each leg, and time to complete searches at
the computational burden involved in various search speeds.
planning searches.
While in its infant stages, computer Remember:
programs are beginning to provide modeling Computers and computer-based search planning aids
do have limitations. They are tools to enhance and aid,
but do not replace search planner judgment, intuition,
and experience.
5-42
Section 57: Extended Ground Search Concepts
Effort Allocation
Probable Success Rate (PSR)
Optimal Allocation
PSR Limitations
Adjusting Search Calculations
5-43
Optimal Allocation the rear in “fourth place” are the two lowest
Scientists have found that the best PSR segments (shown in blue).
distribution of effort is the one that “levels” The principle works on the idea that as the
or “evens out” PSR as much as possible level of available effort is allocated into the
using the available effort. This is illustrated four search segments with the highest PSR
below in Figure 5-7-1 with a three- (green in this example), the highest OPOS
dimensional bar graph that displays PSR results from putting just the right amount of
values as the heights of columns, each that effort in each of the highest-PSR
column representing a search segment. In segments so that all four PSRafter values fall
the Figure, a total of 15 search segments are together in lock-step and remain equal. This
shown. The four segments shown in green remains true until the four segments that
are tied for “first place” in terms of highest initially had the highest PSR value have
PSR. Three segments are tied for “second their PSRafter values reduced to the PSR
place” in terms of PSR (shown in orange), level of the segments that initially had the
followed by the six segments tied for “third second highest PSR values (shown in
place” (shown in magenta), and bringing up orange).
1.75
1.5
1.25
0.75
0.5
0.25
5-44
2
1.75
1.5
1.25
0.75
0.5
0.25
1.75
1.5
1.25
0.75
0.5
0.25
5-45
So far we have described what needs to be adjustments and still provide an allocation
done, but not exactly how to do it. In basic that is as close to optimal as possible for the
terms, the equations given are worked operational constraints. This also provides a
“backwards” from a desired PSRafter value to method for evaluating the difference
determine the amount of effort needed to between the theoretical “optimum”
achieve the desired PSR. If total effort allocation and any other allocation. The
needed is more than the available effort, search planner can estimate just how much
then the computations are repeated until the POS is lost by different allocations of
available effort is adequate to achieve the resources.
desired PSRafter.
An alternative is to use a computer program No mathematical method can be allowed to take the
that completes the computations after the place of good judgment in the field. The
mathematics in this Addendum provides valuable
user enters the total available effort and
decision aids, but cannot make decisions;
other inputs required for the computation mathematics only processes the available data and
(e.g., the effective sweep width (W) for each may not account for important, operationally
segment, the average search speed (v) in significant realities.
each segment, the POC for each segment, On the other hand, while pure intuition is easier to
and the physical area (A) of each segment). use, it is harder to justify later if success does not
The program then shows how much of the come early and it is not as reliable in the long run.
available effort should be allocated to each Use the mathematics as a guide, but not as the
complete answer.
segment being searched.
The Inland SAR Planning Course at the
Adjusting Search Calculations
National SAR School currently uses such a
program, which is available through the Adjusting for actual conditions after the
School website: search is a vital step. The searchers must let
the search planners know the actual
http://www.uscg.mil/tcyorktown/ops/sar/inla
conditions encountered.
nd/default.asp.
If the searchers take less (or more) time to
As discussed above, the optimal allocation
search a segment, obviously the conditions
of effort can be approached by using PSR.
encountered were different than what was
PSR Limitations anticipated during search planning. The
The PSR method assumes SAR resources search planners must discover what changed
can be divided into infinitely small chunks, and adjust the results accordingly if:
which could result in: • Search speed was different;
• Assigning one single searcher to a • Searchers changed spacing but searched
particular segment (probably not the entire segment; or
operationally reasonable); or
• Searchers searched only part of the
• Part of a searcher into one segment, and segment (may also have changed
another part of the same searcher into spacing).
another segment.
Remember that the methods presented are
However, given a theoretically optimal for area/grid searches, not for rapid (hasty)
allocation as a starting point, the search searches.
planner can make the necessary operational
5-46
It is assumed that good search sense has led approximately equal. Once the PSRs are
the search leaders to apply suitable rapid equal, mathematically the optimal allocation
(hasty) search techniques to follow up on is to spread the searchers throughout all
likely routes of travel, attractions, hazards, search segments. The mathematics are
etc., along with confinement and other correct that the maximum POS can be
strategies as appropriate. However, the achieved in this manner, however that may
mathematical model supports rapid (hasty) not be operationally reasonable, safe, or
search techniques. smart.
Since most SAR incidents are resolved by Check the expected POS. By that point in
application of rapid (hasty) search tasks, the search, the expected gain in POS for any
likely routes of travel, attractions, hazards, search is likely to be very small. Allocating
etc., have high “historical” POC values. searchers as larger teams in fewer segments
They also have very small areas, are is likely to generate a similarly small
generally free of obstructions, and it is decrease in expected POS for the same or
possible to achieve very high POD values. greater amount of effort put forth.
Search speeds are high (often searchers Consider cycling through groups of
literally “run” trails, for example) and segments so that after a few search periods
effective searching can be done rapidly with the PSR are all back to equal.
few resources. It is after the rapid (hasty)
search tasking comes up empty-handed that At this point in a search, the search planner
the full power of the optimal effort could also begin to consider expanding the
allocation method is required. search area or suspending the search since
there seems to be so little POC remaining
The techniques presented here are for when that extreme effort is required to generate
the decision is made to expand into area/grid little increase in POS. A thorough re-
searching in which allocation decisions evaluation of known information, clues,
become very involved and are no longer assumptions and scenarios explored is
intuitive. required to determine if another scenario is
After several searches, the PSR of the possible.
segments should eventually all be
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5-48
Section 58: Probability of Detection (POD)
Experiments
Overview
References
Actual Experiments
The measure of detection for a given set of Conducting an Effective Sweep Width
experiment requires planning, a large
conditions (search object, sensor, and
environment) is the Effective Sweep Width.. enough area, some limited equipment,
The Effective Sweep Width, together with searchers, data loggers, and the Microsoft
5-49
(MS) Excel® based Integrated Detection experiment will benefit not only SAR
Experiment Assistant (IDEA) software. planners but also searchers and ultimately
the search object.
The experiment can generally be conducted
in one day. It will usually take from 1 to 4 Almost all of the success of an Effective
hours for each searcher/data logger team to Sweep Width experiment rests with the
move through the experiment course. planning and preparation. The IDEA
However, starting times may be more software exists to help an experiment
frequent so that several teams are on the designer through all of the planning and data
track simultaneously, but not within sight or analysis stages. Perhaps the most important
earshot of one another. planning consideration is to keep the
experiment as simple and short as possible.
The following steps are required:
It is far better to have a successful
1. Design the experiment; experiment that determined a good Effective
2. Find a search area; Sweep Width for one search object type than
a long course with four different search
3. Take environmental measurements; object types under different conditions, but
4. Lay out the search track; failing to provide any useful results.
5. Place search objects; Another important point to keep in mind is
that in some respects, it is far easier to
6. Conduct the experiment; conduct an experiment than to describe one.
7. Enter data; and Therefore, while these instructions may
seem detailed and long, the experiment itself
8. Analyze the results.
is actually rather straight forward. Table 5-
This guide along with the IDEA software 8-1 provides the steps necessary for POD
will greatly assist in conducting a well-run experiments.
and scientifically useful experiment. The
5-50
Section 59: Subsequent Searches
Cumulative Probability of Detection (PODcum)
Adjusting Probability of Containment (POC)
Calculating PODcum
Cumulative Probability of Success (POScum)
Suspend, Research, or Expand Search
Probable Success Rate (PSR)
Other Search Planning Considerations
Changing the Search Area
Moving Objects
Postconsensus Check
Research indicates the average missing (1 − POD ) . For any number of searches, the
person is found during the first operational PODcum can be calculated using the
period: about 8 - 12 hours (81% in 12 hours, following formula:
95% in 24 hours). However, when the
search subject is not found, extended search PODcum – [(1-POD1) X (1-POD2) X… (1-PODa)]
planning may be required.
If PODcum ever reaches 100%, the
Cumulative Probability of Detection calculations are wrong. POD is calculated
(PODcum) for individual segments and cannot be
A traditional method of tracking search combined with POD of different segments.
progress is through calculating the It is invalid to “average” the POD of several
accumulated effects on POD: cumulative segments to show the “average” POD of the
POD, or PODcum. area. PODcum is limited to showing how well
an individual segment has been searched
PODcum in a search segment over many over time: the cumulative likelihood the
searches is found through its opposite: the searchers would have found the search
cumulative probability the object would not object if it had been in the segment and able
have been found in any of the search periods to be found.
5-51
Figure 5-9-1 below is an example Adjusting Probability of Containment
calculation of PODcum: (POC)
When a segment is searched and nothing is
found, the search planner must revise the
estimate of that segment’s chances for
containing the search object downward by
an appropriate amount because some of the
POC has been “searched out” of the
segment.
After a segment has been searched, the
likelihood the search object is still in the
segment should be less than before it was
searched. Less by an amount equal to the
POS for the search in that segment. Figure
5-9-2 is the formula used to determine the
POC remaining when POC is reduced by the
POS of the search:
Figure 5-9-1: Example – PODcum
5-52
Cumulative Probability of Success
(POScum)
POScum provides a measure of overall search
effectiveness that considers the combination
of both POD and POC.
POS is also additive across segments and
across search periods, so it is much easier to
calculate and track than other options.
For a segment, POS = POC x POD.
As shown below, in its simplest form,
POScum is just the sum of the POS for the
segments and/or for the search periods being
considered.
POScum = POScum of previous searches + POSthis search
For a region of many segments (or the entire the sum of the individual segments POS and
search area) during a single period, POS is described in the following formula:
It follows that the cumulative POS over search periods. This relationship is
several search periods is simply the sum of demonstrated in the following formula for
the POS of the individual regions for the POScum:
5-53
POScum can never exceed 100% even with a • The search object is not in the search
100% POD search; since POC is adjusted by area; or
POS after each period and the next POS is
• The search object cannot be found in the
based on the POC remaining.
search area.
POScum will approach but never reach or
In either case, it reemphasizes the need for
exceed the original POC.
search planners and SMCs/ICs to
periodically reevaluate the identified search
What does the math really tell area, search resources, and methods being
the search planner? used within the search area.
• Doubling the effort by searching again does POScum and POCremaining may also be
not double the likelihood of actually finding the indicators of when to consider suspending a
search object;
search, when the effort required becomes
• As the search continues, the same level of unreasonably high and is no longer in line
search effort produces less and less likelihood with the expected benefits.
of finding the object in that period; and
• As the search continues, it takes increasingly
There is no rule for suspension, only
larger amounts of search effort to produce indicators available for consideration.
significant increases in the likelihood of finding
the search object.
Other Search Planning
Considerations
Table 5-9-1 lists items that should be
Suspend, Re-search or Expand
considered and may modify or change the
Search
search plan, regardless of the math:
POScum and POC remaining can be good
indicators that either:
• Are there other areas in which the search object may be located?
Urgency changes,
alternative • Are there areas that should be checked before survivability decreases too
far?
scenarios, and
issues of • If the search object were still moving, are there parts of the search area
boundary he/she could have escaped through or new territory they could
survivability have moved into?
5-54
1. Take the results of all previous no-find
Remember: Mathematical solutions are only guides and searches into account.
decision aids. The search planner should make
decisions based on ALL available information. With this option, consensus is revised with
consideration of all of the segments already
searched. The consensus participants use
Changing the Search Area that knowledge to establish where they
When searches become difficult or believe the missing person is currently
confusing, sometimes the best thing to do is located and the associated POC.
start search area planning and searching It seems reasonable to assume the
over. Often, clues or information from either participants will intuitively adjust their POC
on or off scene sources can change the entire assignments based on that previous
picture of the search, so much so that search searching. If a current scenario would lead
planners/IC may want to re-evaluate where to a region containing 50% POC, but has
they believe the search object is located. been extensively searched already, the
For example, in an aircraft search, search planners may assign significantly less
conversion from an ASAD-based statistical than 50% POC to that region.
search area into an information-based Since the POC has been adjusted intuitively,
subjective-deductive search area may be no further mathematical adjustments are
required. necessary. The consensus POC values
Sometimes, the team is just no longer represent the best judgment of the leadership
comfortable with the defined search area and team, taking into account all relevant
re-evaluates the clues available to decide if factors.
changes are required. 2. Do not take the results of any previous
Revising consensus on POC may be a searches into account.
reasonable method to update the search With this option, the consensus is revised
planning effort. As necessary: consciously ignoring the fact that some
• Discuss alternative scenarios, segments and regions have already been
particularly from the perspective of how searched. The effect of previous searches is
the new information challenges or taken into account afterwards.
changes the assumptions within each of Consensus participants make their
the scenarios; judgments based only on the information
• Carefully redraw the search area and and clues currently available. Once
regions; and consensus is reached, POC can be adjusted
using the equations already described in this
• Use a consensus process to establish a chapter.
current set of POC values and update the
probability map and search plan. For each segment:
5-55
If using the second procedure to accomplish In addition, PODcum, POScum, and POCadjusted
consensus, care must be taken to ensure are not valid in a moving object case.
consensus participants can actually distance
POD, POS, PSR, and POC only have
themselves from the knowledge of previous
meaning for individual search periods with
search efforts sufficiently to arrive at honest
moving objects.
POC judgments in this manner. If they
cannot, the second method would over- Post-Consensus Check
correct POC by double counting the effects In any case, it is wise to check the consensus
of previous searches: once intuitively, then results for reasonableness before continuing
again mathematically. with search planning. As with the original
Moving Objects consensus, ensure:
If the search object is moving, search • Each participant is comfortable with the
planners should start over each period and results;
re-establish where they think the object will • The results reflect a reasonable
be during the next period (POC). composite of the expert judgments
With a moving object, the effects of involved; and
previous searches have no impact on the
• The results pass the collective common-
current POC. The revised consensus must
sense test.
ignore the fact that some segments and
regions have already been searched. A faulty set of POC values will adversely
affect the entire search.
The resulting consensus POC is not
“corrected” for previous POD.
5-56
Appendices
Appendix A: Comparison International SAR System vs. A1
NIMS/ICS
Appendix B: CospasSarsat Doppler Location Technique B1
Appendix C: SAR PrePlan Elements C1
Appendix D: Search Urgency Determination Form D1
Appendix E: Lost Person Questionnaire E1
Appendix F: Initial Missing Person Checklist F1
Appendix G: Lost Person Behavior Category: Dementia G1
(Alzheimer’s)
Appendix H: Requests for Federal SAR Assistance H1
TOC-1
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TOC-2
Appendix A: Comparison International SAR System vs.
NIMS/ICS
Table A-1 below provides a comparison SAR system in use in the U.S. maritime and
between NIMS/ICS and the international aeronautical SRRs.
Geographic
8. Internationally-recognized SRRs Political jurisdictions
responsibilities
NRF Resource Center glossary and
Per the IAMSAR Manual and NSS glossaries and
9. Terminology acronyms; much of this terminology is
acronyms
associated with ICS
A-1
Table A-1: Comparison – International SAR System vs. NIMS/ICS (continued)
Characteristic International SAR SYSTEM NIMS/ICS
Size of
10. incidents All scales of SAR operations. All scales of SAR operations.
covered
Main
Incident, unified and area commands,
operational RCCs and RSCs, with an SMC assigned to the
11. usually near the incident scene, with an
response case and an OSC at the scene of distress
SMC/IC assigned
structures
In most cases involving State and local authorities,
Use of incident in all cases involving CISAR, and as required for
12. command larger cases (particularly for mass rescue Essentially all cases where suitable.
system (ICS) operations (MROs) involving multiple U.S.
agencies.
Response coordination is typically done at
Typically centered on Federal RCC coordination,
the local level if the capability exists there,
Organization but with delegation to lower agency levels, or to
13. with support from higher government levels,
structure States in accordance with Federal-State
with Incident, Unified or Area Commands
agreements. There is one RCC for each SRR.
set up in accordance with ICS.
Planning, training, exercise, personnel qualification Same as for the international SAR system,
14. Preparedness and certification, resource acquisition, agreements, except involves more equipment certification
and publication management and typing of SAR resources.
Personnel and equipment are provided mainly to
Resource meet requirements based on risk assessments, and Processes covered to describe, inventory,
15. are used, directed, tracked, and replenished over mobilize, track, and recover resources
management
the duration of a SAR case (mission or incident)
All States, the District of Columbia, Puerto
SAR authorities are supported by a wide array of Rico, Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands are
national agreements and contracts mostly at the voluntary signatories to EMAC to support
Federal level, including the NSP, but also at lower mutual assistance; except for a few
16. Agreements levels, and by numerous multi-lateral and bilateral international agreements, other services
international agreements, including conventions provided in relation to NIMS consist of an
(treaties) array of agreements and contracts at all
government levels.
Public taxes are the main funding source for civil
Most NIMS services are funded by public
SAR; however, substantial commercial fee-for-
Financing taxes; however, volunteer and corporate
17. services and corporate or volunteer services-in-kind
sources contributions have offset some costs,
resources are provided both nationally and
especially in large-scale incidents.
internationally
A-2
Table A-1: Comparison – International SAR System vs. NIMS/ICS (continued)
Characteristic International SAR SYSTEM NIMS/ICS
All States, the District of Columbia, Puerto
SAR authorities are supported by a wide array of Rico, Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands are
national agreements and contracts mostly at the voluntary signatories to EMAC to support
Federal level, including the NSP, but also at lower mutual assistance; except for a few
18. Agreements levels, and by numerous multi-lateral and bilateral international agreements, other services
international agreements, including conventions provided in relation to NIMS consist of an
(treaties) array of agreements and contracts at all
government levels.
Public taxes are the main funding source for civil
Most NIMS services are funded by public
SAR; however, substantial commercial fee-for-
Financing taxes; however, volunteer and corporate
19. services and corporate or volunteer services-in-kind
sources contributions have offset some costs,
resources are provided both nationally and
especially in large-scale incidents.
internationally
A blend of international and national publications, Mainly developed, named, promulgated and
20. Documentation plans, agreements, and forms sponsored by many managed at all government levels in
different nations and organizations. accordance with NIMS/ICS
Distress and SAR coordination communications,
including equipment performance standards, are Similar to the international SAR system,
mostly based on regulations and standards at both except that most regulatory provisions are
21. Communication international and national levels to address national, and need for interoperability and
standardized frequencies, equipment performance inter-linking are major considerations.
and registration, and message formats.
NIMS information management is usually
routine, but must be characterized by robust
capacities that function even when local
Except for MROs and CISAR, information technologies and links are knocked out by
Information management depends on typical office capabilities, an incident, that accommodate massive
22. the internet and specialized software. NIMS amounts of information from many sources,
management
requirements must be taken into account. and that can present the right information at
the right time to the right persons even with
information loads at or near saturation levels
for the systems used.
The person with overall responsibility for
The person with overall responsibility for
coordinating a SAR response is normally the SMC
coordinating an incident response under
who works in an RCC; however the SMC function
Operational NIMS is an IC, who is often a local authority
23. can be performed at a level lower than the RCC if
coordination operating in an incident, unified or area
the situation does not require RCC authorities and
command, depending on which is
capabilities, or to a higher level than the RCC if it is
established to deal with the incident.
necessary to raise the situation.
The international SAR System is designed to NIMS routinely depends on an ICS structure
accommodate all types of scenarios that might that is highly scalable. Scalability might
24. Scalability occur in a particular SRR, and an RCC can handle include establishing and disestablishing
most scenarios. unified and area commands.
A-3
Table A-1: Comparison – International SAR System vs. NIMS/ICS (continued)
Characteristic International SAR SYSTEM NIMS
At the Federal level, because of the use of fully
All land-based SAR operations within the
staffed 24-hour RCCs, the international SAR
continental U.S. and Alaska normally use
Compatibility of system normally does not use NIMS. However,
NIMS/ICS. For CISAR under the Stafford
the Federal SAR authorities will commonly use NIMS
Act/NRF, an SMC is normally assigned and
when working with non-SAR authorities or entities
25. international “plugs” into NIMS/ICS in the Operations
regardless of whether or not CISAR is involved,
SAR system Section. It is the SMC (normally the SMC is
and with local, State or Tribal authorities. The NPS
the State) or emergency manager that will
and NIMS/ICS uses NIMS for nearly all of its SAR operations. SAR
coordinate the SAR response under the
personnel are required to have a working
NIMS/ICS structure.
knowledge of NIMS.
A-4
Appendix B: CospasSarsat Doppler Location Technique
Doppler Location
Frequency Difference of Arrival (FDOA) and Time Difference of Arrival
B-1
Figure B-1: Distress Beacon Frequency Received by Satellite vs. Time for Two Satellite Passes
Figure B-2 shows the ground tracks of two satellite ground track. This effect is greatest
consecutive passes (1 and 2) of the same if the distress beacon is located at the
satellite, which occur about 100 minutes Earth’s Equator, and decreases to zero if the
apart. Since the orbit of the satellite is beacon is located at either Pole. The Ground
precisely known, the point of TCA along the Station Doppler processor accounts for this
ground track can be easily determined. Also, small Doppler shift and uses it to calculate
the slope of the Doppler curve at TCA the probability that the “A” solution is the
allows the distance and direction (either east True location (and conversely that the “B”
or west) that the distress beacon is from the solution is actually an image). The ability to
satellite ground track at TCA to be make this determination depends on the
determined. This provides two possible beacon signal being very stable (as is the
solutions for the distress beacon location, 1A case with Cospas – Sarsat 406 MHz distress
and 1B. A second satellite pass provides beacons), and on the distress beacon
another set of possible solutions, 2A and 2B, location being in low to medium latitudes.
which resolves the ambiguity of a single
Experience has shown that with 406 MHz
satellite pass, in this example, the location
distress beacons, the side “A” probabilities
indicated by 1B and 2A.
generally exceed 70%, and often are above
An additional component of Doppler shift is 90%, allowing search and rescue resources
the effect of the rotation of the earth, which to be committed even before the A--B
causes an increase in Doppler shift if the ambiguity is resolved by a second satellite
distress beacon is West of the satellite pass.
ground track, and a corresponding decrease
when the distress beacon is east of the
B-2
Figure B-2 Doppler Plot
Frequency Distance of Arrival (FDOA) FDOA differs from TDOA in that the
and Time Distance of Arrival (TDOA) FDOA observation points (orbiting satellite
receivers) must be in relative motion with
The future of the International Cospas-
respect to each other and the distress beacon.
Sarsat System is the ongoing development
This relative motion results in different
of the medium Earth orbit (MEO) SAR
Doppler shift observations of the distress
satellite system (in the U.S. this is known as
beacon signal. The distress beacon location
the Distress Alerting Satellite System –
can be estimated with knowledge of the
DASS), which uses Frequency Difference of
satellites’ exact locations and vector
Arrival (FDOA) and Time Difference of
velocities and the observed relative Doppler
Arrival (TDOA) techniques to locate an
shifts between pairs of locations.
active distress beacon.
A disadvantage of FDOA is that large
FDOA, also frequently called differential
amounts of data must be moved between the
Doppler (DD), is a technique analogous to
satellites and a single MEO Local User
TDOA discussed below for estimating the
Terminal (MEOLUT) to do the cross-
location of a radio emitter based on
correlation needed to estimate the Doppler
observations from other points. MEOSAR
shift.
uses TDOA and FDOA together to improve
location accuracy. By combining TDOA and The accuracy of the location estimate is
FDOA measurements, instantaneous geo- related to the:
location can be performed in two
• Bandwidth of the distress beacon signal;
dimensions.
B-3
• Signal-to-noise ratio at each satellite A third receiver (satellite) at a third location
receiver; and the would provide a second TDOA
measurement and locate the emitter on a
• Geometry and vector velocities of the
second hyperboloid. The intersection of
distress beacon and the satellites.
these two hyperboloids describes a curve on
Multilateration, also known as hyperbolic which the beacon is located.
positioning, is a process that MEOSAR will
With a fourth receiver, a third TDOA
use to locate a distress beacon by accurately
measurement is available and the
computing the TDOA of a signal emitted
intersection of the resulting third
from the distress beacon to three or more
hyperboloid with the curve found with the
satellite receivers.
other three receivers defines a unique point
A pulse emitted from a distress beacon will in space. The beacon’s location is therefore
arrive at slightly different times at two determined in 3D.
spatially separated satellite receivers, the
In practice, errors in the measurement of the
TDOA being due to the different distances
time of arrival of pulses mean that enhanced
of each receiver from the beacon. With two
accuracy can be obtained with more than
receivers at known locations, an emitter can
four receivers. And, the TDOA of multiple
be located onto a hyperboloid. The receivers
transmitted pulses from the emitter can be
do not need to know the absolute time at
averaged to improve accuracy.
which the pulse was transmitted - only the
time difference is needed. (A Hyperboloid is Encoded Locations
quadric surface generated by rotating a Some distress beacons can acquire and relay
hyperbola around its main axis, and a their own positions using the Global
hyperbola is an open curve formed by a Positioning System (GPS) or some other
plane that cuts the base of a right circular global navigation satellite system (GNSS).
cone.) The locations are encoded in the beacon
signal and forwarded with the distress alert.
B-4
Appendix C: SAR PrePlan Elements
I. Environment
II. Resources
III. First Notification Procedures
IV. Action Plan Development, Guides, and Procedures
V. Support Requirements Plans Development
VI. Post Mission
C-1
o Specialties (man tracking, water, • Guidelines for initial evaluation:
caves, technical climbing, air,
o Urgency;
electronic).
o Who is in charge?
• Equipment resource examples;
o Initial search area, method,
• Vehicles, water craft, aircraft (ex. hoist); resources; and
• SONAR, FLIR; o Investigation (outside of search
• Tractors, cranes, other heavy equipment; area).
• Informational resource examples (incl. IV. Action Plan Development, Guides
own agency); and Procedures
C-2
V. Support Requirements Plans • MOA/MOU with other agencies.
Development
VI. Post Mission
Who, what, where, when, how?
• Critiques and lessons learned;
• Logistics: Food, water, shelter, facilities,
• Documentation;
power, heat, sanitation;
• Review and update of plans, procedures,
• Communications: base-world, base-
and agreements; and
search teams, team-team;
• Preventive education.
• Medical: for victims and for searchers;
• External influences: media, family; and
C-3
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C-4
Appendix D: Search Urgency Determination Form
Table D-1 on the following page is the Consider any category scored a “1” as
Search Urgency Determination Form. This potential high urgency.
form provides an analysis to help search Use the below scale to score the search
planners decide the urgency of searching for urgency.
a particular person. The lower the rating
correspond to higher the urgency. The
numerical range of urgency is from 7 to 21.
D-1
Table D-1: Search Urgency Determination Form
Subject and Profile Rating Score
Age:
Very Young 1
Very Old 1
Other 2-3
Medical Condition:
Known or suspected injured or ill or mental problem 1-2
Healthy 3
Known fatality 3
Number of Subjects:
One 1
More than one (unless separation suspected) 2-3
Subject Experience Profile:
Not experienced, does not know area 1
Not experienced, knows area 1-2
Experienced, does not know area 2
Experienced, knows area 3
Weather Profile:
Past and/or present hazardous weather 1
Predicted hazardous weather (8 hrs. or less) 1-2
Predicted hazardous weather (more than 8 hrs.) 2
No hazardous weather predicted 3
Equipment Profile:
Inadequate for environment and weather 1
Questionable for environment and weather 1-2
Adequate for environment and weather 3
Terrain/Hazards Profile:
Known hazardous terrain or other hazards 1
Few or no hazards 2-3
Total Score
D-2
Appendix E: Lost Person Questionnaire
Table E-1 on the following pages is a Information used to complete the form may
sample Lost Person Questionnaire. This come from multiple sources and interviews.
questionnaire provides a format to collect Use a separate form for each interview and
information in an efficient and coherent collate the information in a master file. If
manner and is used to support a missing there is more than one missing person
person investigation. It may also be used as associated with this case, use a separate
a guide for conducting an interview. form for each person.
Address
Occupation Employer
Other persons interviewed: Name, contact information, date, time & relationship.
E-1
Missing Person
Full Name Nickname(s)
Home address
E-mail address
Description
Age Race Gender Ht Wt DOB
Build
If balding, describe
Describe glasses
Complexion
General appearance
E-2
Clothing Worn When Last Seen
Hat/Cap/Scarf
Shirt/Blouse
Pants
Dress
Sweater
Coat/Jacket/Raingear
Footwear
Hose/Socks
Underwear
Glasses
Other
Describe all accessories the subject may have been wearing, such as belt, rings, watch, pins, hair accessories, necktie, tie
clip, etc.
Describe all items the subject may have been carrying, such as pocketbook, wallet, backpack (describe contents of each),
cell phone, keys, pocket knife, pager, camera, weapon, etc.
E-3
Details of Loss
Location missing from
Possible routes
Address
Phones
E-4
Subject’s Experience
Resident of How long?
Birthplace
If so, describe date(s), circumstances of loss, how long missing, when found, where found, condition when found and
actions taken by subject while missing (if known)
Physical Health
General physical condition
Handicaps
Physician Phone
Address
E-5
Mental/Emotional Health
General mental health
Address
E-6
Identification
Drivers License: State No. Date Issued
Other Identification
Finances
Credit cards: List card names and account numbers
Does subject have credit cards or check book in possession? Y N Cash carried:
Describe:
E-7
Detailed Subject History
Single Married Divorced Widowed
Contact Information
Contact Information
Contact person
Education level
E-8
Detailed Subject History (continued)
Military service branch Currently active or reserve? Y N
Contact person
Active/outgoing or quiet/withdrawn?
Who does subject confide in and/or whom does he/she frequently talk to on the phone?
E-9
Detailed Subject History (continued)
Does subject keep a diary?
Does subject have access to a computer? Describe locations, user name(s), password(s)
E-10
Children, Elderly, Special Needs
Refer to mental/emotional health section Mental age, if known
Other: (describe)
How does subject normally travel? (Foot, bike, public transportation, family, friends, etc)
Does there appear to be any issues with family, school or care facility?
E-11
Additional Information and Comments
E-12
Appendix F: Initial Missing Person Checklist
(Reference: National Park Service Field Age, sex, physical and mental
Search and Rescue Manual) condition of missing person(s);
The Initial Missing Person Checklist is a LKP/PLS, time last seen,
general checklist for responding to a missing circumstances of loss, subject
person report, and may have already been activity; and
started or completed by the time SAR Adequate clothing, brief
resources arrive at an incident. This is a description.
general checklist and not all inclusive, some
items may not apply or additional steps may o Obtain weather information.
be required. The order of actions may need o Conduct or consider Risk
to be changed to meet the needs of a Assessment for conducting
particular incident. What is imperative is for operations.
search efforts to begin without delay.
o Obtain directions to the incident and
To clarify: dispatch search resources to any check against a detailed map if any
report of the subject’s LKP/PLS, or stated questions.
intentions indicate a woodland or wilderness
search area in which the subject, due to loss o Determine types of resources that
or mishap, may be unable to return to safety might be available to assist.
on their own. o Review initial information and
• Dispatch Actions: determine if requesting additional
SAR resources is required prior to
o Determine a call-back number and arrival on-scene.
name of the reporting party. Also
quickly identify address/location and o Request appropriate equipment be
relationship to missing subject. dispatched to the incident (e.g.,
medical equipment, rescue
o Use the Lost Person Initial equipment, search management
Questionnaire (Appendix E) as a equipment, logistical support).
guide to collect additional
information. o Requested resources are alerted, if
appropriate.
• Initial Report Collection:
o Inform the dispatching agency of
o Complete the Search Urgency Incident Commander estimated time
Determination Form, if desired of departure, when you actually
(Appendix D). leave, and estimated time of arrival
o Dispatch an appropriate resource. to incident site.
F-1
o Receive or request updated Work area sheltered from
information on availability of special weather, media, and family.
resources (e.g., rescue teams, dog Telephone or area with solid cell
teams, or aero medical helicopters). phone coverage.
o Obtain latest weather forecast if not Copier/Scanner.
already obtained.
Radio communications.
o Inform dispatching agency when
arriving on-scene. Running water if large or multi-
operational period search.
• Upon arrival. The order of actions to
take upon arrival will change depending Sanitation if large or multi-
upon the unique circumstances of the operational period search.
search. The Incident Commander must Staging area.
be highly flexible during the first hours
of an incident. The following list serves Parking area.
merely as a suggestion for initial tasks. Heli-spot, if required.
The order of these steps will vary from
o Request or alert resources including
incident to incident.
specialized resources.
o Meet or talk with reporting party.
o Appoint Operations Section Chief
o Review initial information, collect (OSC) and Investigators from the
pertinent portions of the Lost Person most qualified individuals present.
Questionnaire (see appendix F). Activate other ICS elements, as
o Consider the probability of the required.
subject being lost, abducted o Investigations:
(Amber/Silver Alert), runaway, elder
Obtain photograph of the search
abused, committed suicide, criminal
subject and prepare information
event, etc.
flyer. Once information flyer is
o Determine if a physical search is prepared, review with IC/PIO.
warranted;
Complete Lost Person
o Implement ICS. Questionnaire (Appendix F).
o As the situation warrants, consider Issue radio report to surrounding
transfer of command. jurisdictions, if appropriate.
o Revise urgency of search based upon Contact family and friends of
any new information. search subject.
o Determine initial resource Contact local hospitals.
requirements.
Contact local transportation hubs.
o Determine Incident Command Post
Contact Emergency Services
(ICP) location and staging areas.
Agencies.
Consider the following requirements
for selection: Contact local shelters and jails.
Electricity and lights (generator Contact morgues and medical
may be required). examiners’ office.
F-2
o Consult Lost Person Behavior o Ensure the health and safety of
Statistics/Information. resources already deployed. Monitor
fatigue levels.
o Develop initial search objectives and
strategies. o Ensure efficient flow of personnel
from staging to field.
o Ensure tentative medical/evacuation
plan developed prior to deploying o Identify and meet with
resources. liaisons/agency representatives to
keep informed and determine any
• Plan and Deploy Initial Actions.
special capabilities and requirements.
o Conduct an initial briefing.
o Keep agency administrator and
o Quickly review subject information, coordination center informed of
possible scenarios, and any relevant resource requests, current situation,
clues. and information updates.
o On a detailed map mark the Initial o Constantly be available to general
Planning Point (IPP). This may staff.
represent either the LKP or PLS.
o Work to create an environment for
o Quickly determine primary search staff to work in. Shield staff from
area based on theoretical, statistical, family, media, and political
subjective and deductive information pressures.
(See Chapter 5 - Search Planning for
o Drive mission, identify problem
more information).
areas, influence overall direction of
o Perform a quick consensus to mission, establish initial objectives,
determine priority areas. and enforce priorities.
o Mark LKP/PLS and/or IPP on the o Verify that everyone on general staff
planning map. Commence search. is being kept up-to-date.
o Mark confinement tasks on the o Verify that information is flowing
planning map. within command structure.
o Mark rapid (reflex/hasty) search o Ensure clues and investigative
tasks on the planning map. information is being documented and
o Mark high probability areas on the followed-up.
planning map. o Determine when to start next
o Deploy Resources. operational period and begin
extended operations.
• Continued Initial Search Efforts and
Management: Remember: the Initial Missing Person
Checklist is not all inclusive; each search is
o Coordinate staff activity. different and will have unique
o Approve the use of different training characteristics. Use of the checklist will
levels on the incident if required. assist personnel and agencies in getting a
search started, but responsible parties will
need to make additions or deletions to meet
the needs of a specific incident.
F-3
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F-4
Appendix G: Lost Person Behavior Category: Dementia
(Alzheimer’s)
Introduction
Dementia Hallmark Behaviors
Search Planning: Dementia (Alzheimer’s)
Tables G1 and G2: “Distance (horizontal) from the IPP (miles and
kilometers)”
Table G3: “Elevation (vertical) Change from the IPP (feet)”
Table G4: Mobility (hours)
Table G5: “Survivability”
Table G6: Find Location
Table G7: Scenario (%)
Table G8: Track Offset (meters)
Table G9: Dispersion Angle (degrees)
Dementia (Alzheimer’s) Initial Reflex Tasking Actions
Dementia (Alzheimer’s) Additional Investigative Questions
(Note: This information is provided courtesy dementias. Alzheimer’s disease is the most
of Robert Koester and dbS Productions common form of the irreversible dementias
LLC. Copyrighted information reproduced and the term is included since, in common
with permission of the author. Information language, it is often used to represent all
below can be found in “Lost Person dementias. Regardless of activity, search
Behavior – A Search and Rescue Guide on subjects with dementia were placed into this
Where to Look – for Land, Air, and Water”.) category.
Introduction Dementia results in a wide range of changes
in behavior and cognitive (thinking) skills. It
Dementia includes Alzheimer’s disease and
ranges from mild, where the person is still
several other related disorders (vascular
able to perform all activities of daily living,
dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia
to severe. The more severe the dementia, the
with Lewy bodies among others). From a
search and rescue perspective there is no more likely the subject is to wander and
experience symptoms such as hallucinations
appreciable difference between the different
and psychosis. Dementia is the loss of
G-1
memory, reason, judgment, and language to to show random (i.e., no discernable goal)
such an extent that it interferes with daily wandering, travel shorter distances, and may
living. Some of the earliest symptoms may have profound sensory disturbances. Exit-
be problems with short-term memory. One seeking behavior may be seen in both mild
or more cognitive areas are disturbed: (1) and severe dementia. One is more likely to
aphasia (problems with language, e.g., see this behavior when a person is in a new
finding the right word); (2) apraxia (cannot location or has been taken out of a familiar
move body correctly); (3) agnosia (cannot environment.
recognize common objects, especially
Dementia Hallmark Behaviors
faces); (4) decreased executive functions
(planning, organizing, abstracting). 1. They go until they get “stuck.”
Dementia often results in severe 2. Appear to lack the ability to turn around
disturbances in how a person perceives and and may Ping-Pong off some barriers.
interprets events, sights, and sounds around
him. 3. Direction of travel is a good predictor of
where they are found.
Furthermore, the visual field (peripheral
vision) is narrowed, creating “tunnel 4. Look for sign and attempt to determine
vision.” A reduction in peripheral vision exit door.
results in poor navigators using only what 5. Oriented to the past. The more severe the
they see in front of them versus excellent dementia, the further in the past they
navigators who combine active scanning for exist. Figure out where in the past the
landmarks they remember. This may subject is currently “living” in order to
account for dementia wanderers’ trademark determine possible destinations (e.g., a
behavior of essentially moving straight former residence, a work place).
ahead: “They go until they get stuck.” Investigative questions assist to better
Direction of travel predicts a dementia understand the subject’s past (which, for
subject’s final location better than it does in them, may be the present).
most other subject categories.
6. May attempt to travel to former
Every subject is different, and determining residence, favorite place or what appears
the severity of the individual’s dementia to be former place, or workplace.
provides additional important insight. Mild
to moderate severity is associated with more In an urban environment, the subject is
goal-directed wandering. Initially, the typically found in structures or walking
subject does in fact have a destination in along roads. In both urban and wilderness
mind. Distances traveled may be greater. environments, the subject is highly likely to
The subject is more likely to use public cross or depart from a road (66%). If the
transportation. In a short conversation with subject leaves the road or travel feature, he
the subject one may not detect anything does not travel far. He may often go
unusual. Dementia subjects are usually unnoticed unless his dress is highly unusual.
recognized by the public due to Track offset statistics for dementia are the
inappropriate dress, unsafe or inappropriate shortest of all subject categories. In the
behavior, asking for assistance, or an wilderness, the subject is typically walking
inappropriate response. If engaged in a or gets stuck in brush/briars or drainages.
conversation, then suspicion is usually Structures are common. Subjects are also
raised by repetitive questions, phrases or attracted to water features and will walk into
words. Subjects with severe dementia tend water (perhaps without even realizing it is
G-2
water). They are generally mobile for only a Tables G-1 and G-2: “Distance
short period of time. In temperate domains, (horizontal) from the IPP (miles and
half of the subjects are mobile for less than kilometers)”
an hour. In dry domains, subjects remain Both Tables describe the crow’s flight
mobile longer. They will not leave many distance from the initial planning point of
verifiable clues. They will not cry out for the search to the find location. Temperate
help or respond to shouts—only 1% are and Dry eco-region data represent
responsive. Some dementia subjects could wilderness and rural cases, while Urban
be viewed as “passive-evasive.” Since they cases ignore the eco-region. “n” is the
do not perceive themselves as lost, they number of cases used in the table. The table
would not attempt to signal or even respond reports the distances within which 25% of
to shouts. There is a 25% fatality rate if the cases were found, 50% of the cases were
the subject is not found within the first 24 found, 75% and 95%. The final reported
hours. Fatality rate is higher in hot climates distance zone of 95% is the largest practical
and cold rainy climates. Many states are distance given that cases beyond 95%
developing “Senior” or “Silver” alerts represent statistical outliers.
similar to AMBER alerts. Such programs
are highly effective in alerting the general Table G-1: Distance (horizontal)
public. from the IPP (miles)
When you find the subject, approach from Temperate Dry Urban
the front. Make eye-contact. Non-verbal
Mtn Flat Mtn Flat
body language is highly important with
dementia subjects. After assessing safety, n 95 175 14 15 336
slowly move to the subject’s side. Speak 25% 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.2
slowly and in simple, concrete terms. Break
down commands, questions or directions 50% 0.5 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.7
into simple, easy-to-follow components. 75% 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.0
Touching, when appropriate, is helpful. 95% 5.1 7.9 3.8 7.3 7.8
Arguing with a person with dementia is
pointless and may lead to a catastrophic
reaction. Instead, redirect the person with a Table G-2: Distance (horizontal)
new line of reasoning. Telling the person from the IPP (kilometers)
that a favorite person or thing is waiting for Temperate Dry Urban
him back at base may be acceptable. Keep in
mind that other impairments associated with Mtn Flat Mtn Flat
age, such as decreased vision, hearing, and n 95 175 14 15 336
walking ability, may also be present. 25% 0.3 0.3 1.0 0.5 0.3
Search Planning: Dementia 50% 0.8 1.0 1.9 1.6 1.1
(Alzheimer’s)
75% 1.9 2.4 3.1 3.6 3.2
Tables G-1 through G-9 are example data to
support search planners in the development 95% 8.3 12.8 6.1 11.8 12.6
of search plans for persons lost and suffering
from dementia.
G-3
Table G-3: “Elevation (vertical) Table G-4:
Change from the IPP (feet)” Mobility (hours)
Table G-3 breaks data out into” uphill”, Temperate Dry
“downhill” and “same elevation” in
“temperate” and “dry” eco-regions. Same n 42 6
G-4
Table G-6: Find Location
Table G-6 lists actual locations where Table G-7:
subjects were found. Number of cases for Scenario (%)
eco-regions and urban areas are listed at the n 1050
top, with percentage of finds associated with Avalanche
locations listed below. For example, the
Criminal
temperate eco-region includes 207 cases
with 18% of finds along a road. Despondent
Evading
Table G-6: Find Investigative 2%
Location
Lost 96%
Temp Dry Urban
Medical
n 207 7 223
Drowning
Structure 20% 29% 35%
Overdue 1%
Road 18% 14% 36%
Stranded
Linear 9% 9%
Trauma
Drainage 9% 14% 4%
Water 7% 14% 6%
Table G-8: Track Offset (meters)
Brush 6% 1%
The term “track offset” as used in Table G-8
Scrub
refers to the shortest perpendicular distance
Woods 17% 3% from the closest linear feature to where the
Field 14% 29% 6% subject was found. The track refers to any
Rock linear feature and not just the intended route
of the subject. In the table which represents
110 incidents, 25% of the subjects were
Table G-7: Scenario (%)
found within a zone 8 meters wide centered
The field lists what reportedly caused the on a linear feature (a track offset of 4 meters
subject to be missing. Number of incidents to both sides of a linear feature).
is listed at the top; percentages for each
scenario are listed in the field. For example, Table G-8:
1050 incidents were considered and in 96% Track Offset
of the cases the subject became lost. (meters)
n 110
25% 4
50% 15
75% 71
95% 307
G-5
Table G-9: Dispersion Angle Table G-9:
(degrees) Dispersion
Table G-9 requires an incident with an Angle (degrees)
Initial Planning Point and an intended Temperate
destination to determine the subject’s initial n 11
direction of travel or a substantial clue that
25% 11
provides direction of travel. Comparing the
direction from the Initial Planning Point to 50% 23
the find location with the original direction 75% 66
of travel yields a dispersion angle in 100% 70
degrees.
Table G-9 reports on 11 cases with data Dementia (Alzheimer’s) Initial Reflex
available (n), and shows the degrees of Tasking Actions
dispersion for 25%, 50%, 75%, and 95% Figure G-1 on the next page provides
quartiles. suggested Initial Reflex Tasking Actions for
For example, in 50% of the incidents, the lost persons suffering from dementia
subject was found within 23 degrees of the (Alzheimer’s).
subject’s initial direction of travel.
G-6
Figure G-1: Dementia (Alzheimer’s) Initial Reflex Tasking Actions
G-7
Dementia (Alzheimer’s) Additional • Has the subject experienced personality
Investigative Questions or emotional changes? Describe.
• What is the exact diagnosis of the type
• Does the subject have delusions?
of dementia?
Describe.
• Name and contact number of
• Does the subject have paranoia?
neurologist/gerontologist.
Describe.
• Last Mini-Mental Status Exam (MMSE),
• Does the subject have hallucinations?
if known.
Describe.
• Describe subject as mild, moderate, or
• Does the subject have depression?
severe dementia.
Describe.
• Determine which description is most
• Has the subject experienced an
appropriate:
emotional breakdown? Describe.
• Mild confusion and forgetfulness, short-
• Has the subject shown violence towards
term memory affected.
others? Describe.
• Difficulty distinguishing time, place and
• Is the subject registered in the
person. Some language difficulties.
Alzheimer’s Association’s MedicAlert®
• Nearly complete loss of judgment, + Safe Return® program or any other
reasoning, and loss of some physical similar registry? Describe any
control. identification or marking jewelry or
labels the subject might be wearing.
• Does the subject know his own name?
• List all of the subject’s addresses,
• Does the subject know where he is when
dwelling types, and how long he has
at home?
lived at each address going back to
• Does the subject recognize the local childhood. List locations even if they no
neighborhood? longer exist. What jobs and occupations
did the subject have at each location?
• Does the subject recognize familiar
faces? • Did the subject recently move or change
locations? If so, when? What was the
• Will the subject answer to his name
previous location? How has he adjusted
being called?
to being in a nursing home/new
• Is the subject able to conduct a location?
conversation?
• How have caregivers adjusted their
• How long can the subject do or discuss routines?
something before forgetting?
• List of all immediate relatives and
• How long does a conversation last until distant relatives the subject
an average person suspects something communicated with during their
lifetime?
• is wrong or not quite right?
• Is the subject familiar with the area
• Describe the subject’s ability to tell time.
where last seen?
G-8
• What is the subject’s favorite place? • Estimate the greatest distance you
believe the subject could walk.
• Has the subject been involved with
outdoor classes, scouting, military, • Describe the subject’s ability to walk
overnight experiences, or outdoor including any unique gait or shuffle. List
recreation? Describe. any limitations to walking.
• Is the subject afraid of noises, crowds, • Does the subject talk about a person or
dogs, traffic, water, horses, the dark, or place? Is it out of town? Describe.
other items? Describe how he reacts.
• Does the subject talk about a person who
• How does the subject respond to is no longer alive?
strangers? Does he approach strangers?
• Does the subject talk about visiting a
• Is the subject dangerous to himself? person or place that is out of town?
Dangerous to others? Describe.
• Has the subject ever wandered away • Has the subject attempted to visit a
before, and you (the interviewee) did not person or place without supervision?
know his location for 5 minutes or Describe.
more? If so, for each incident describe
• Can the subject drive a car safely? Can
the following: Where was the subject
the subject find keys and start a car?
last seen? What was the subject doing
Does he still have a driver’s license?
when last seen? Events that might have
When was the last time he drove or
caused the subject to have wandered?
expressed a desire to drive?
What actions were taken? Where was the
subject found? What was the distance • Does the subject travel independently
“as the crow flies” from the point the using public or private transportation?
subject was last seen and where found?
• Has the subject attempted to travel
How was the subject found? List any
independently on public or private
medical problems that resulted from
transportation in the last six months?
being lost.
• Does the subject walk or travel a
• What jobs and occupations has the
considerable distance from home and
subject held throughout his life?
return unaided? Describe.
• Subject’s hobbies and interests? Able to
• Does the subject get lost or confused
still engage in hobby?
easily in an unfamiliar setting?
• What are the subject’s daily habits? Did
• Does the subject get lost or confused
they occur on the day last seen?
easily at home or in living quarters?
• Distance subject typically walks each
• Does the subject wander? Wander at
day (e.g., during the past week).
night? Wander during the day?
• Number of walks during the past week.
• Does the wandering appear goal-
• Greatest distance subject has walked directed? Describe.
during the past three months? During the
• Does the wandering appear random?
past ten years?
• Does the subject seek out exits or try to
escape from present location?
G-9
• Does the wandering appear related to a • How old is the provided picture?
search for a person or place? Provide a Describe any changes since the
timeline of all events during the day. photograph was taken? How old does the
subject actually appear now? Are any
• What was his emotional state when he
recent videotape or DVD images
was last seen? How does that compare to
available?
his baseline?
• Determine the door the subject most
likely exited from and attempt to
determine a direction of travel.
G-10
Appendix H: Requests for Federal SAR Assistance
Search for Missing Persons
Posse Comitatus Act Support Limitations
Rescue
Patient Transfer
Mercy Missions
SAR Facility Transport
H-1
• Destination location (lat/long); • Nature of emergency (reason for
transport);
• Type of assistance requested (air and/or
ground resources); • Pickup location;
• Other SAR forces involved; • Destination;
• Current weather; and • Type of assistance requested (air or
ground); and
• Incident commander/On Scene
Coordinator contact information • Point of contact information for material
to be transported.
Patient Transfer
A patient transfer is the movement of SAR Facility Transport
patient(s) from one medical facility to • Mission objective
another.
• Objective’s description: name, age, sex,
• Mission objective; city, and state of residence
• Objective’s description: name, age, sex, • Nature of emergency
city, and state of residence;
• Point of origin
• Nature of emergency;
• Destination
• Point of origin;
• Type of assistance requested (air or
• Destination; and ground resource)
• Type of assistance requested (air or • Incident commander/On Scene
ground resource). Coordinator contact information
Mercy Missions RCCs cannot guarantee return transport, but
A mercy mission is the transport of life- will make every effort to provide transport if
saving materials (e.g., blood, organs, the the requesting agency cannot. Just as the
donor, etc.) to save life. requesting agency must exhaust all local and
state resources before asking any RCC for
• Objective description: object being assistance on scene, the requesting agency
transported and name, age, sex of the must make the same effort for the return
person for whom the object is being trip.
transported (e.g. the organ recipient);
H-2
Index
121.5/243.0 MHz Distress Beacon, 1-40, Awareness Stage, 1-37, 3-37, 4-19, 4-28,
2-15, 3-4~6, 4-12, 5-30, 5-35~36 4-43, 4-51
243.0 MHz Frequency, 3-4,
B
406 MHz Distress Beacon, 1-20, 1-40, 2-15,
2-17, 3-5~6, 4-10, 4-12, 5-3, 5-28~30, 5- Border Patrol Search, Trauma, and Rescue
35~36, B-2 (BORSTAR), 1-21
4125 kHz Frequency, 3-4 Briefings, 4-3, 4-55, F-3
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 1-22
A
C
Aeronautical RCC (ARCC), 1-25
Air Defense Sector (ADS), 1-27, 2-9 Canada, 1-31, 2-14~15, 5-21
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center Case Documentation, 1-38, 4-53, 4-54, 4-55
(AFRCC), 1-17, 1-25, 1-27~30, 1-34, Catastrophic Incident Search and Rescue
2-9, 2-11, 4-10, 4-12, 5-34, 5-42 (CISAR) Addendum, 1-14, 1-18,
Air National Guard (ANG), 1-29~30, 1-33 1-49~50, 2-20, 4-37, 5-7, A-1,
Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), Catastrophic Incident Search and Rescue
1-23, 2-12~13, 4-10, 4-12 (CISAR), 1-10, 1-14, 1-17~18, 1-33,
Air Search Area Definition (ASAD), 4-48, 1-45~46, 1-48~51, 2-20, 4-37~48, 5-7,
5-42, 5-55 A-1~4
Air Traffic Control (ATC), 2-12 Catastrophic Incident, 1-46, 1-49~50
Air Traffic Organization (ATO), 2-12~13 Civil Air Patrol (CAP), 2-11, 2-13, 2-21,
Air Traffic Service (ATS), 1-26 4-12, 5-21
Aircraft Coordinator (ACO), 1-8 Civil Search and Rescue, 1-3, 1-10, 1-19,
Aircraft Wreckage Locator Database 1-28
(AWLD), 1-27~28 Composite Solutions, 4-13, 5-28~29, 5-56
Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT), Confinement, 4-17~18
2-12, 4-10 Consensus, 5-38~39, 5-55~56
Alaska Rescue Coordination Center Cospas-Sarsat, 1-20, 1-22, 1-30~31,
(AKRCC), 1-4, 1-17, 1-25, 1-28~30, 2-15~16, 3-5~7, 4-10, 4-13, 5-28~30,
4-12 5-35~36, 4-10, 4-13, B-1~3
Alert Notice (ALNOT), 4-10~11, 4-13, Critical Incident Stress Management
5-30, 5-34 (CISM), 2-20
Alert Phase, 4-10~11 Cumulative Overall Probability of Success
Alert Query Report, 5-29 (OPOScum), 5-17
Alert, 1-38, 4-10~12, 5-28~30, 5-35, F-2 Cumulative Probability of Detection
All Terrain Vehicle (ATV), 2-7, 4-6, 4-28 (PODcum), 5-51~52, 5-56
Area (Grid) Search, 4-20 Cumulative Probability of Success
Attraction, 4-17~18 (POScum), 5-53~54, 5-56
Average Maximum Detection Range Customs and Border Protection (CBP), 1-21
(AMDR), 4-57
Index-1
D Emergency Support Function (ESF) #9,
1-14, 1-18~20, 1-22, 1-45, 1-48~50, 2-
Datum, 2-10
10
Debriefing, 4-55, 4-56~57
Exercises, 2-19
Defense Support to Civil Authorities
Expanding Circle Search, 4-21, 4-26~27
(DSCA), 1-17~18, 1-50
Extended Communications Search
Department of Commerce (DOC), 1-17,
(EXCOM), 1-38, 4-10~11
1-20
Department of Defense (DoD), 1-16~18, F
1-20, 1-28~31, 1-40, 1-50, 2-8, 4-12, False Alert, 5-29, 5-36
H-1 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 1-22~23, 1-26~27, 1-30, 2-12~13,
1-17~18, 1-21~22, 1-43, 1-50, 2-10, A-1 4-9~13, 5-30~31, 5-36, 5-41, C-2
Department of Interior (DOI), 1-17~20, Federal Communications Commission
1-22, 1-34, 1-50 (FCC), 1-17, 1-23, 2-17, 3-5, 5-31,
Department of State (DOS), 1-22~23 5-35~36
Department of Transportation (DOT), 1-17, Federal Emergency Management Agency
1-23, 2-12 (FEMA), 1-18~19, 1-27, 1-33, 1-43,
Direction Finding (DF), 3-5, 4-29, 5-29~31,
1-50, 2-5, 2-8, 2-10, 2-21~22
5-33~34, 5-36
Flight Service Station (FSS), 1-23, 2-12,
Distress Beacon, 1-40, 3-5, 4-12, 4-30,
4-10~11, 5-35
5-27~31, 5-35~36, B-2
Frequency Distance of Arrival (FDOA), B-3
Distress Phase, 4-11, 5-35
Distress, 1-27, 1-38, 1-40~41, 2-13, 2-15, G
3-4~5, 4-11~12, 4-30, 5-27~31, Geostationary Earth Orbiting Local User
5-35~36, A-3, B-2~3 Terminal (GEOLUT), 2-17
Divers, 4-34~35 Global Area Reference System (GARS),
Domestic Event Network (DAN), 1-16, 4-10 4-44, 4-48~51
E Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS),
B-4
Effective Sweep Width (ESW), 5-11, Global Positioning System (GPS), 2-15,
5-49~50 3-16, 4-43, 5-28~29, B-4
Emergency Incident Coordination Center Grid, 4-20, 4-25, 4-29, 4-31, 4-34, 4-44
(EICC), 1-31
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT), H
1-23, 1-29, 1-40, 2-12, 2-15, 3-5, 4-10, Homeland Security Presidential Security
4-12, 5-30~34, 5-36 Directive 5, 1-43, A-1
Emergency Management Assistance
Compact (EMAC), 1-34, 1-46, A-2~3 I
Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs), Immigration and Customs Enforcement
2-10 (ICE), 1-22, 4-12
Emergency Phases, 4-11 Incident Action Plan (IAP), 4-53, 4-56, 5-37
Emergency Position Indicating Radio Incident Command Post (ICP), 1-37, 1-
Beacon (EPIRB), 1-40, 2-15, 3-6, 4-12, 46~47, 4-4, F-2
5-30, 5-36, 4-12, 5-30, 5-36
Index-2
Incident Command System (ICS), 1-7~9, Mission Conclusion Stage, 1-38
1-33, 1-43~47, 4-3~5, 4-53~54, A-1~4, Mission Control Center (MCC), 1-20, 1-26,
F-2 1-31, 2-15~17
Incident Commander (IC), 1-6~8, 1-37~39, Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), 2-7,
1-41, 1-46~48, 3-7, 3-9, 4-3~4, 4-12, 2-14
4-15~16, 4-37, 4-39, 4-53, 4-55, A-2~3,
N
F-1~F-2
Incident Support Team (IST), 2-40 National Aeronautics and Space
Information Request (INREQ), 4-10~11, Administration (NASA), 1-17, 1-24,
5-30, 5-34 5-21, 5-41~42
Initial Action Stage, 1-37, 4-3 National Alert Warning System (NAWAS),
Initial Planning Point (IPP), 4-6, 4-21, 4-27, 1-27, 4-12
F-3, G-3~4, G-6 National Association for Search and Rescue
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), 2-12, 4-9 (NASAR), 2-13~14
International Aeronautical and Maritime National Cave Rescue Commission
Search and Rescue Manual (IAMSAR), (NCRC), 2-8, 2-14
1-3, 1-5~7, 1-10, 1-13~14, 1-16, 1-28, National Incident Management System
1-30, 1-35~36, 1-38~39, 5-16, A-1 (NIMS), 1-7~9, 1-33, 1-43~48, 1-50,
International Civil Aviation Organization 2-9, 4-53, A-1~4
(ICAO), 1-5, 1-14, 1-16, 1-22, 1-28, National Interoperability Field Operations
1-30, 1-35 Guide (NIFOG), 3-4
International Convention on Maritime National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Search and Rescue, 1-16, 1-36 Administration (NOAA), 1-20, 1-22,
International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2-16~17, 3-5
1-5, 1-14, 1-16, 1-22, 1-35~36 National Park Service (NPS), 1-4, 1-18~20,
International SAR agreements, 1-31 1-30~31, 1-50, 2-9, 4-13, A-4, F-1
International Search and Rescue Incident National Response Framework (NRF), 1-9,
Database (ISRID), 4-5~6 1-14, 1-17~20, 1-22, 1-33, 1-43, 1-
45~46, 1-48~51, 2-22, A-1, A-4
J
National SAR Plan (NSP), 1-4, 1-9~10,
Joint Rescue Coordination Center (JRCC), 1-13~14, 1-16~19, 1-23~24, 1-28, 1-30,
1-25, 1-31 1-33, 1-35, 1-40, 1-45~46, 1-48, 1-50,
2-14, A-1~3
L
National SAR School, 2-13, 5-42, 5-46
Last known position (LKP), 1-23, 1-27, 2-7, National SAR Supplement (NSS), 1-3, 1-10,
4-3~4, 4-17, 4-21, 4-27, 5-6, 5-20~23, 1-13~14, 1-16, 1-18, 1-28, 1-30, 1-33,
5-25, 5-41, F-1, F-3 1-50
Local User Terminal (LUT), 2-15, B-3 National SAR Supplement (NSS), 3-5, 5-16,
Lost Person Behavior, 4-5~6, F-3, G-1 A-1
Low Earth Orbit Local User Terminal National Search And Rescue Committee
(LEOLUT), 2-17 (NSARC), 1-3, 1-14, 1-17~18, 1-22,
1-43, 1-46, 1-50~51, 5-49, A-1
M
National Ski Patrol (NSP), 2-7, 2-15
Marine pollution, 1-49 National Special Security Event (NSSE),
Mass Rescue Operation (MRO), 1-10, 1-17, 1-16, 1-28
1-40, 1-46, 1-49~51, 4-7, A-2~3
Index-3
National Track Analysis Program (NTAP), Regional Air Navigation Plan (RANP), 1-16
2-13, 4-12 Rescue Action Plan, 1-37, 3-7, 4-43
National Transportation Safety Board Rescue Coordination Center (RCC), 1-4-7,
(NTSB), 1-24, 1-28, 2-9 1-9, 1-13, 1-16~17, 1-23, 1-25~31,
National Urban Search and Rescue System, 1-33~34, 1-36, 1-38, 1-45~47, 2-12~13,
2-10 2-15, 2-17, 3-5, 4-10~13, 5-30, 5-35~36,
National Voluntary Organizations Active in 5-41, A-2~3, C-2, H-2
Disaster (NVOAD), 2-15 Rescue Sub-Center (RSC), 1-5
National Wildfire Coordinating Group Responsible Authority, 1-4, 1-33, 4-54
(NWCG), 2-9 Route (Area) Search, 4-20, 4-22
O S
Office of Search and Rescue (G-534), 1-18 Satellite Emergency Notification Device
On Scene Coordinator (OSC), 1-6~8, 1-13, (SEND), 3-7
1-46, 3-7, 4-37, A-2, F-2, H-1~2 Search Action Plan (SAP), 1-37, 3-7, 4-43,
Operations Center (OPCEN), 1-25, 1-28~29 3-7, 5-37
Operations Stage, 1-37 Search and Rescue Agreements, 1-29, 1-33,
Overall Probability of Success (OPOS), 1-34~35
5-16~17, 5-44 Search and Rescue Coordinator (SC), 1-4~7,
1-10, 1-13, 1-15~18, 1-28~29, 1-33,
P
1-46, 4-54, 5-30
Personal Locator Beacon (PLB), 2-15, 4-10, Search and Rescue Facilities, 1-4, 1-6~7,
5-36 1-25~27, 1-28, 1-36~39, 1-46, 3-7, 4-8,
Planning Stage, 1-37 4-13, A-1, H-1
Point Last Seen (PLS), 2-7, 4-3~4, 4-21, Search and Rescue Incident, 1-19, 1-27,
4-27, 5-6, 5-20~23, 5-25, 5-41, E-4, F-1, 1-36, 1-38~39, 1-41, 4-3~4, 4-15, 4-
F-3 54~55, 5-7, 5-47
Preliminary Communications Search Search and Rescue Mission Coordinator
(PRECOM), 1-38, 4-10~11 (SMC), 1-5~8, 1-26, 1-28~30, 1-37~39,
Probability of Containment (POC), 5-10~11, 1-41, 1-46~47, 2-4, 3-7, 3-9, 4-8,
5-15~17, 5-25, 5-37, 5-39, 5-42~43, 4-10~13, 4-15~16, 4-37, 4-39, 4-53,
5-46~47, 5-52~56, C-2 4-55, 5-34~35, 5-37, A-2~4
Probability of Detection (POD), 4-20, 5- Search and Rescue Mission, 1-5, 1-7, 1-40,
10~11, 5-14~17, 5-37, 5-42~43, 5-47, 1-41, 1-46, 4-11
5-49~51, 5-53~54, 5-56, C-2 Search and Rescue Point of Contact
Probability of Success (POS), 5-15~17, 5- (SPOC), 2-15, 2-17, 3-5
42~43, 5-46~47, 5-49, 5-52~54, 5-56, Search and Rescue Region (SRR), 1-4~6,
C-2 1-15~17, 1-25~26, 1-28~30, 1-45~46,
Probable Success Rate (PSR), 5-17~18, A-2~3
5-43~47, 5-56 Search and Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking
Public Information Officer (PIO), 3-9, 4-4, (SARSAT), 1-20, 1-27, 2-15
4-55, F-2 Search and Rescue Unit (SRU), 1-46, 5-14
Search Area, 4-20, 5-10
R
Search Dogs, 2-5, 2-7
Radar Evaluation Squadron (RADES), 2-9 Search Effort (Z), 4-35, 5-10, 5-13, 5-43,
Rapid Search, 4-5, 4-16 F-3
Index-4
Search Endurance, 2-11, 5-11 Trackline, 4-19, 4-28~30
Search Object, 1-37, 4-55, 5-4 Training, 2-19, 4-54, 5-42
Search Speed (V), 5-11, 5-46~47
U
Search Techniques, 4-55
Search, Electronic, 2-5 Uncertainty Emergency Phase, 4-10~11,
Searches, Communications, 1-38 5-30
Searches, Grid, 5-46 Unified Command, 1-9, 1-46, 4-4
Sector Pattern, 4-32 United States Air Force, 1-4, 1-17, 1-25, 1-
Sector Search, 4-32 28~29,
Segment, 4-20~21, 4-27, 5-53 2-9, 2-12, 2-17
Sensors, 5-11 United States Coast Guard, 2-10~11
Sound Sweep, 4-21 United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, 2-
Square Pattern, 4-32 11~12, 2-21, 3-4
Statistical Search Area (SSA), 5-19, United States Forestry Service (USFS), 1-20
5-21~23, 5-41 United States Mission Control Center
Strategy, 4-17, 4-19~21, 4-29, 4-55 (USMCC), 1-20, 2-17, 4-10, 5-29
Subjective Deductive Search Area (SDSA), United States Navy, 1-31, 2-9
5-22~23, 5-41 United States National Grid (USNG),
Survivability, G-4 4-44~46, 4-51
Survivors, emergency care, 2-14 Urban Search and Rescue (US&R), 1-10,
Suspension, 1-41, 5-54 1-18~19, 2-5, 2-7~8, 2-10
Sweep Width, 5-11~12, 5-14
V
T
VHF-FM, 2-11
Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR), 1-49, Visual Flight Rules (VFR), 2-12, 4-9
4-12
W
Termination, 1-41
Terrain, 2-7, 4-28, 4-57, 5-11, D-2 Weather, 1-37, 3-7, 4-12, 4-30, 4-38, 5-41,
Theoretical Search Area (TSA), 5-19~23, C-1, D-2, E-4
5-41
Time of Closest Approach (TCA), B-1~2
Index-5
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Index-6