UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST – MANILA DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents review of related literature and studies that explain and
support the presents study.

Foreign Literature

The need to measure accurately distance on the surface of the earth

arises in many different areas of science and engineering. The applications of

geodesy range from simple surveys over distances of tens of meter to studies of

the motions of lithospheric plates using measurements of transcontinental

baselines. For distances longer than a few thousand meters the human surveyor

and the steel tape are being replaced by automated machines that measure

distance using electromagnetic radiation. The laser has proven very useful for

these measurements because of its high brightness and its excellent frequency

stability.

Present phase laser range finder system mostly adopts the phase

detection methods of fixed optical ruler and constant mixing frequency. However,

its phase detection accuracy is comparatively low when the measuring range

varies continuously and its operational speed is also slow. Being directed against

this situation, the thesis proposes a new phase detection system on the basis of

adaptive frequency conversion. (scientific journal, Gao, 2006).

Optical measuring systems came to offer new ways to determine

distances, deformations or vibrations through more accurate and greater range

methods. Technological progress has allowed a significant improvement of

several components, including the optical ones. Thus, the development of

essential measurement methods is crucial to keep up with technological

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advances. In this paper, the three basic methods of measurement are studied –

triangulation, telemetry and interferometry, covering their main applications,

advantages and disadvantages, and theoretically substantiating each of the

methods. The results of simulation routines for each method are shown along

this work. For the triangulation method we made two experiments which

demonstrate the functioning of the method in measuring distances and surfaces.

For the telemetry method, experimental setups were studied to apply the method

of pulse telemetry and phase comparison telemetry to measure distances, Thus,

it is intended to set up the basis for the future development of more complex

methods.

In 1960 physicist Theodore Maiman (Martin, 2007) built the first laser, and,

since then, applications started being developed to use the new discovery. One

of the most important applications, and of greater importance for this work, was

the use of lasers in measurement methods. In the military field, there are several

systems that may take advantage of more complex systems of measurement

methods. With technology development, the conventional human soldier is being

replaced by remotely controlled systems, such as robots, UAVs (Unmanned

Aerial Vehicles) and guided missiles. All these systems would improve their

performance and robustness with the incorporation of a laser measurement

system that would allow them to check how far they are from a particular object

or target. Also in the manufacture of military equipment such as tanks,

ammunition, weapons, among others, laser deformation measurement systems

can be used to verify if the material is able to be used. (Torres, João P. N., 2017)

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There are many off the shelf range finding components available including

ultrasonic, infrared, and even laser rangefinders. All of these devices work well

depending on where it will use.

Webcam Based DIY Laser Rangefinder

A laser-beam is projected onto an object in the field of view of a camera.

This laser beam is ideally parallel to the optical axis of the camera. The dot from

the laser is captured along with the rest of the scene by the camera. A simple

algorithm is run over the image looking for the brightest pixels. Assuming that the

laser is the brightest area of the scene the dots position in the image frame is

known, (Todd Danko) .Then we need to calculate the range to the object based

on where along the y axis of the image this laser dot falls. The closer to the

center of the image, the farther away the object is.

Fig. 2.1 Theory of Operation

Distance (D) may be calculated:

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To solve this equation, It is important to know the h, which is a constant fixed as

the distance between the laser pointer and camera, and theta. Theta is

calculated:

Materials:

 Webcam
 laser pointer

Lidar based Laser Distance Meter

A LIDAR uses light to measure the distance to an object. Certain

LIDARs can also measure distance at several angles by rotating parts of the

measurement device for example, thus achieving a plane of sensor information.

The measurement area can therefore be wide angled. On the market, LIDARs

are available from several companies such as SICK and Hokuyo, but at a price

which most hobbyists and schools cannot afford. The high cost of LIDARs today

limits the potential for technological development in the field of robotics and

autonomous vehicles. The main reason for using a laser is that a laser-beam

does not diverge significantly making it possible to use a narrow beam to make a

point measurement regardless of the distance to the object detected. A laser also

has the advantage of having a very narrow bandwidth with regards to its

wavelength, making it possible to have a narrow bandwidth receiver making it

less sensitive to ambient noise. Lasers are also generally able to operate on a

higher frequency than Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), which makes them more

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well suited for high-speed measurements. Some different approaches to

measure distance using a laser were investigated and evaluated after which one

method was chosen, (Peter Kaldén & Erik Sternå, 2015).

Time of Flight

This method is one of the most used and straight-forward solutions. The concept

is simple: A pulse of light is sent out and the time until the reflected pulse is

detected is measured. By using pulses the power of the emitted signal can be

greater than if it was continuous, making the return signal stronger. A conceptual

image can be found in figure 2.2

Laser

Detector

Fig. 2.2: Conceptual image of Time of Flight

Wikipedia (2019): Distance

Distance is a numerical measurement of how far apart objects are.

In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length or an

estimation based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties over"). In most cases,

"distance from A to B" is interchangeable with "distance from B to A".

In mathematics, a distance function or metric is a generalization of the concept

of physical distance. A metric is a function that behaves according to a specific

set of rules, and is a way of describing what it means for elements of some

space to be "close to" or "far away from" each other.

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Wikipedia (2018): Length Measurement

Length measurement is implemented in practice in many ways. The most

commonly used approaches are the transit-time methods and the interferometer

methods based upon the speed of light. For objects such as crystals

and diffraction gratings, diffraction is used with X-rays and electron beams.

Measurement techniques for three-dimensional structures very small in every

dimension use specialized instruments such as ion microscopy coupled with

intensive computer modeling.

Wikipedia (27, Jan. 2019): Accuracy

In the fields of science and engineering, the accuracy of a measurement system

is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity's

true value.[1] The precision of a measurement system, related

to reproducibility and repeatability, is the degree to which repeated

measurements under unchanged conditions show the same results.[1][2] Although

the two words precision and accuracy can be synonymous in colloquial use,

they are deliberately contrasted in the context of the scientific method.

According to Wikipedia (20, Nov. 2018), A unit of length refers to any discrete,

pre-established length or distance having a constant magnitude which is used as

a reference or convention to express linear dimension. The most common units

in modern use are U.S. customary units in the United States and metric

units elsewhere. British Imperial units are still used for some purposes in

the United Kingdom and some other countries.

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Table 2.1 SI Unit of Length

Unit of length

10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)

10 centimeters = 1 decimeter (dm)

10 centimeters = 100 millimeters

10 decimeters = 1 meter (m)

10 decimeters = 1000 millimeters

10 meters = 1 dekameter (dam)

10 dekameters = 1 hectometer (hm)

10 dekameters = 100 meters

10 hectometers = 1 kilometer (km)

10 hectometers = 1000 meters

List of Tools and Devices that Measure Distance:

 The ruler -- a flat length of wood or metal graduated in traditional English

units, metric units or both -- is the most basic tool for measuring length.

Typical rulers are either 1 foot or 1 yard in length. When it replace by rigid

wood or metal with either thin, flexible metal or fabric, (Chris Deziel).

 Calipers and Opisometers - Technicians working in laboratories need

more precision than tradespeople, and they use a vernier caliper to

measure lengths as well as the inside and outside diameters of round

openings. The caliper has a set of jaws that can fit over objects as well as

inside openings, and you read the space between the jaws on an

accurately graduated ruler. A micrometer is another type of caliper that

relies on screw threads for accuracy. For measuring curved lines,

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mapmakers use an opisometer, a wheel connected to a calibrated scale.

By running the wheel along the line, Users can read the distance the

wheel travels from the scale. The measuring wheel that landscapers use

to measure long distances operates by the same principle, (Chris Deziel).

 Tape Measure - This measuring device has a plastic body and metal rule

which becomes rigid on extension, making it possible to push along a

surface or walls to make measurements, (Laser Label Hub, 2018).

 Laser Distance Meter - Laser Distance Measuring Tools, one can

achieve more accurate measurement readings especially at extended

lengths and in a shorter period of time. The longer that a measuring tape

measure is extended, the harder it is to get an accurate measurement. .

Laser distance measuring tapes are one of the fastest and most accurate

ways to collect measurements.

 Measuring Rod Rulers - also known as "Measuring Poles" or "Height

Sticks", are very handy tools to have and come in a few styles. A measuring

rod is a tool used to physically measure lengths and survey areas of

various sizes. Most measuring rods are round or square sectioned,

however they can be flat boards. Some have markings at regular intervals.

It is likely that the measuring rod was used before the line, chain or steel

tapes used in modern measurement, (definition.net, 2019)

 Range Finder - An instrument used in gunnery to determine the

distance of a target. It also know as surveying instrument (such as a

transit) for determining quickly the distances, bearings, and elevations of

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distant objects .The rangefinder usually built-in adjustable optical device

for focusing a camera that automatically indicates the correct focus (as

when two parts of a split image are brought together), (Merriam

Webster, 2019).

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