Databases and Information Management

What are the problems of managing data resources in a traditional file environment and
how are they solved by a database management system?
 Hierarchy of Data:
Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in computer systems form a
hierarchy extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm.
Each higher rung of this hierarchy is organized from the components below it.
Data are logically organized into:
1. Bits (characters)
2. Fields
3. Records
4. Files
5. Databases
Bit (Character)
A bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be a 0 or 1). Eight bits make a
byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a character code.
Field 
A field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic
or quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).
Record
A record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity. A record consists
of fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity.
File
A group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which they are
primarily used (employee file). A primary key in a file is the field (or fields) whose value
identifies a record among others in a data file.
Database 
Database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database consolidates
records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data
for many applications. The data is managed by systems software called database management
systems (DBMS). The data stored in a database is independent of the application programs using
it and of the types of secondary storage devices on which it is stored.
Entities, Attributes, and Key fields:

Entities

An entity is any singular, identifiable and separate object. It refers to individuals, organizations,
and systems, bits of data or even distinct system components that are considered significant in
and of themselves.
Attributes
In a database management system (DBMS), an attribute refers to a database component, such as
a table. It also may refer to a database field. Attributes describe the instances in the row of a
database.
Key fields

 A field in a record that holds unique data which identifies that record from all the other records
in the file or database. Account number, product code and customer name are typical key fields.
As an identifier, each key value must be unique in each record.
The problems of the traditional file environment

 Data redundancy

 Program-data dependency

 Lack of flexibility

 Poor security

 Lack of data sharing

Data redundancy

Data redundancy is the presence of duplicate data in multiple data files so that the same data are
stored in more than one place or location. Data redundancy occurs when different groups in an
organization independently collect the same piece of data and store it independently of each
other. Data redundancy wastes storage resources and also leads to data inconsistency, where the
same attribute may have different values.

For instance, the sales, inventory, and manufacturing systems of a clothing retailer might use
different codes to represent clothing size. One system might represent clothing size as “extra-
large,” whereas another might use the code “XL” for the same purpose. The Resulting confusion
would make it difficult for companies to create customer relationship management, supply chain
management, or enterprise systems that integrate data from different sources.

Program-data dependency
Program-data dependency refers to the coupling of data stored in files and the pro specific
programs required to update and maintain those files such that changes in programs require
changes to the data. Every traditional computer program has to describe the location and nature
of the data with which it works. In a traditional file environment, any change in a software
program could require a change in the data accessed by that program. One program might be
modified from a five-digit to a nine-digit zip code. If the original data file were changed from
five-digit to nine-digit zip codes, then other programs that required the five-digit zip code would
no longer work properly. Such changes could cost millions of dollars to implement properly.

Lack of Flexibility

A traditional file system can deliver routine scheduled reports after extensive programming
efforts, but it cannot deliver ad hoc reports or respond to unanticipated information requirements
in a timely fashion. The information required by ad hoc requests is somewhere in the system but
may be too expensive to retrieve. Several programmers might have to work for weeks to put
together the required data items in a new file.

Poor security

Because there is little control or management of data, access to and dissemination of information
may be out of control. Management may have no way of knowing who is accessing or even
making changes to the organization’s data

Lack of Data Sharing

Because pieces of information in different files and different parts of the organization cannot be
related to one another, it is virtually impossible for information to be shared or accessed in a
timely manner. Information cannot flow freely across different functional areas or different parts
of the organization. If users find different values of the same piece of information in two
different systems, they may not want to use these systems because they cannot trust the accuracy
of their data.

Database

Database technology can cut through many of the problems a traditional file organization
creates. A more rigorous definition of a database is a collection of data organized to serve
many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and controlling redundant data. Rather
than storing data in separate files for each application, data are stored so as to appear to
users as being stored in only one location. A single database services multiple applications.
For example, instead of a corporation storing employee data in separate information
systems and separate files for personnel, payroll, and benefits, the corporation could create
a single common human resources database

Database management system

A database management system (DBMS) is simply the software that permits an
organization to centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide access to the stored
data by application programs. The DBMS acts as an interface between application programs
and the physical data files. When the application program calls for a data item, such as
gross pay, the DBMS finds this item in the database and presents it to the application
program. Using traditional data files, the programmer would have to specify the size and
format of each data element used in the program and then tell the computer where they
were located. A DBMS eliminates most of the data definition statements found in traditional
programs.
The DBMS relieves the programmer or end user from the task of understanding where and
how the data are actually stored by separating the logical and physical views of the data.
The logical view presents data as they would be perceived by end users or business
specialists,

Whereas the physical view shows how data are actually organized and structured on
physical storage media. The database management software makes the physical database
available for different logical views presented for various application programs. The logical
description of the entire database showing all the data elements and relationships among
them is called the conceptual schema, whereas the specifications of how data from the
conceptual schema are stored on physical media is termed the physical schema or internal
schema. The specific set of data from the database, or view, which is required by each user
or application program is termed the subschema

How a DBMS solves the problems of the traditional file environment

A DBMS can reduce data redundancy and inconsistency by minimizing isolated files in which
the same data are repeated. The DBMS may not enable the organization to eliminate data
redundancy entirely, but it can help control redundancy. Even if the organization maintains
some redundant data, using a DBMS eliminates data inconsistency because the DBMS can
help the organization ensure that every occurrence of redundant data has the same values.
The DBMS uncouples programs and data, enabling data to stand on their own. Access and
availability of information can be increased and program development and maintenance
costs can be reduced because users and programmers can perform ad hoc queries of data in
the database. The DBMS enables the organization to centrally manage data, their use, and
security. The Window on Organizations illustrates some of the benefits of a DBMS for
information management. Procter & Gamble had to manage massive amounts of product
data for its more than 300 brands. Because these data were stored in 30 separate
repositories, the company could not easily bring together information about the company’s
various products and their components, degrading operational efficiency. Management of
these data improved once P&G created a common set of technical standards for all its
products and organized its data in a single global database.

What are the major capabilities of DBMS and why is a relational DBMS so
powerful?
Capabilities of a DBMS

Data definition capability:

Specifies structure of database content, used to create tables and define characteristics of field

 Data dictionary:

Automated or manual file storing definitions of data elements and their characteristics.
Microsoft Access has a rudimentary data dictionary capability that displays information about
the name, description, size, type, format, and other properties of each field in a table

 Data manipulation language:

Data manipulation language that is used to add, change, delete, and retrieve the data in the
database. This language contains commands that permit end users and programming specialists
to extract data from the database to satisfy information requests and develop applications. The
most prominent data manipulation language today is Structured Query Language, or SQL 

Define a relational DBMS and explain how it organizes data

The relational database is the primary method for organizing and maintaining data today
in information systems because it is so flexible and accessible. It organizes data in two-
dimensional tables called relations with rows and columns. Each table contains data about an
entity and its attributes. Each row represents are cord and each column represents an attribute or
field. Each table also contains a key field to uniquely identify each record for retrieval or
manipulation. Relational database tables can be combined easily to deliver data required by
users, provided that any two tables share a common data element ne a relational DBMS and
explain how it organizes data.

It has been said there is no bad data, just bad management. Discuss the implications of this
statement.

Data is neither good nor bad. It depends on the relevancy of data which makes it good or bad.
Bad management of data led to faulty decision making, which can prove to be very costly for the
organization.

 It has been said there is no bad data, just bad management. This statement is rightly said that
Bad data does not exist since in this digital age there are so many sources from which we can
extract this type of bad data which are erroneous and misleading. But any data cannot be bad, it
is bad either due to human error, fault in the data collection process and data management. The
data management led to interpretation and clearly understanding the data. If the data is not
managed properly it will lead to incurring huge losses to the organization. The main problem in
this is that the marketer or the researcher does not fully understand the problem, for which the
data is being gathered. They are confused about which data to be used and from which sources
they can get such data. Then they have to test the normality of the data to minimize the errors.
For the proper management of the data, one has to ensure their primary objective and then frame
a plan accordingly to make the right use of the data. A plan will assist in how to make good use
of the data and how to interpret data correctly. In a plan the following points should be
considered-

1. The authenticity of the source from which the data is collected

2. Are the data rigorously tested?

3. Are they providing the same result again and again?

4. Scope of the data

5. Is it clearly defining the target population?

6. Data security

Thus, bad data does not exist but a data's faulty management makes the data bad.

What are the consequences of an organization not having an information policy?

The set of all policies, public laws, principles and regulations that support, discourage, deject or
control the formation, utilization, storage, dissemination, communication and access of
information is termed as information policy. It involves decision-making practices with the
efforts of society that supports the flow of information and the way it gets processed. Information
policy is considered to be very essential for an organization. If information policy would not be
implemented in an organization, than the access of important data and information of employees
would be in everybody exist. Information policy se the limits in organization and allows only
few selected people to have access on employees' data. This data includes salaries, incentives and
social number.

For an organization it is very important to access the accurate a s well as reliable information
when needed. Development of suitable information policies assures the prosperity, progression,
success, development, growth, security and competition of the organization. These information
policies can be implemented in organizations, public sector and business companies. The
information policies have made possible a tremendously rapid enhancement of the terms and
values of information. The companies who have a strong and strengthen position in the world
relevant to the implementation of innovative information policies are successful in maintaining
their positions in the competitive market place. These effective information policies assure the
companies a successful future. In this new era of technology which is based on the process and
storage of data and information that are communicated electronically has brought a revolution
but besides these advantages, many negative aspects and complexities have also appeared in the
form of dependence