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Dissertation Read Meta
Dissertation Read Meta
Jury
President: Professor José Manuel Bioucas Dias
Supervisor: Professor Carlos Manuel Dos Reis Paiva
October, 2010
Abstract
In this dissertation we study and analyze the electromagnetic phenomena of media with neg-
ative permeability and permittivity, called DNG metamaterials, and how this leads into some
physical phenomena such as the appearance of backward waves and the emergence and impli-
Two simple DNG waveguiding structures are also studied: the DPS-DNG interface and the
DNG slab. As a DNG medium is necessarily dispersive, the utilization of a known dispersive
model, the Lorentz Dispersive Model, is used in the analysis of the DPS-DNG interface in
order to obtain physical signicant results. The appearance of super-slow modes in the DNG
Finally we address the lens design using DNG metamaterials. The dependence on the refractive
index of this design process is evidenced. The particular structure of the DNG Veselago's at
lens is also analyzed in order to study a potentially practical application of DNG metamaterials
in optics and the implications of dealing with such materials as this lens structure overruns
Keywords
Double Negative Media, Metamaterials, Negative Refraction, Backward Waves, Planar Waveg-
uides, Lens Design, Superlens, Microwaves, Photonics
i
Sumário
meios com permeabilidade e permitividade negativas, designados por meios duplamente neg-
ativos (DNG), e como esta característica leva ao aparecimento de alguns fenómenos sicos,
São também estudadas duas estruturas simples de propagação guiada, mas utilizando meios
DNG: a interface DPS-DNG e a placa DNG. Como um meio DNG é necessáriamente dispersivo,
análise.
a estrutura particular de uma lente DNG chamada lente plana de Veselago com vista a analisar
uma potencial aplicação e implicações deste tipo de materiais, já que este tipo de lente supera
algumas limitações de lentes convencionais permitido que as ondas propagadas sejam focadas
num único ponto produzindo uma imagem com um detalhe ao nível de comprimentos inferiores
ao comprimento de onda.
Palavras-Chave
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to both Professor Carlos Paiva and Professor António
Topa for the continuous support on the development of this work. Without the help, the
suggestions, comments and the share of knowledge from these two professors the realization
I also want to thank my family and friends who have always supported me.
My last acknowledgment goes to my colleagues who are working at the 4th Floor's work-room
of the IST's North Tower for the helpful and cheerful moments that have provided me during
iii
Contents
Abstract i
Keywords i
Sumário ii
Palavras-Chave ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
Nomenclature xi
1 Introduction 1
iv
1.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
v
4 Lens Design Using DNG Materials 69
4.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5 Conclusions 81
5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References 86
vi
List of Figures
1.1 Photo of a nonlinear tunable metamaterial. The close-up photo square shows
2.3 Spatial Representation of the elds, the energy ux and the propagation con-
3.1 The planar interface between a DPS and a DNG medium, here represented by
a dashed line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Relative refraction index (nr = √ n ), using the lossless LDM, on the DPS-
ε0 µ0
DNG interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Dispersion relation, β(ω), using the lossless LDM, on the DPS-DNG interface . 47
3.5 Attenuation constants α1 and α2 for the TE modes, using the lossless LDM, on
vii
3.6 Attenuation constants α1 and α2 for the TM modes, using the lossless LDM,
3.8 Relative refraction index (nr = √ n ), using the lossy LDM, on the DPS-DNG
ε0 µ0
interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9 Dispersion relation, β(ω), using the lossy LDM, on the DPS-DNG interface. . 51
3.10 Attenuation constants α1 and α2 , for the TE modes, using the lossy LDM, on
3.11 Attenuation constants α1 , for the TM modes, using the lossy LDM, on the
DPS-DNG interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.14 The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection
3.15 The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection
3.16 The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection
3.18 Modal solutions (red dots) for a DNG slab with ε1 = µ 1 = 1 , ε2 = µ2 = −2,
with (i) V = µ1
|µ2 | and (ii) V = π
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
viii
4.1 Lens contour and optical path representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 The lenses contours for dierent refraction indexes, n = −2.5, −1.5, 100, 1.5, 2.5 71
4.3 Passage of light waves through a Veselago at lens, A: the image source, B:
focused image, i.f.: the internal focus point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Evanescent eld variation in the presence of the Veselago's at lens. . . . . . . . 78
ix
List of Tables
3.1 Simulation parameters for the Lorentz Dispersive Model, on the DPS-DNG
interface structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
x
Nomenclature
BW Backward Waves
TE Transverse Electric
TM Transverse Magnetic
xi
List of Symbols
β Propagation constant
c Velocity of light
χe Electric susceptibility
χm Magnetic susceptibility
xii
Ey Electric eld (y-axis)
ε Electric permittivity
η Wave impedance
k Wave vector
xiii
k Wavenumber
k0 Wavenumber (Vaccum)
ki Wavenumber (Medium i)
S Poyting Vector
µ Magnetic permeability
n Refractive index
xiv
n0 Refractive index (vaccum)
vp Phase Velocity
vg Group Velocity
ω Angular Frequency
χe Electric susceptibility
Mi Magnetization eld
Zi Impedance (Medium i)
t Transmission Coecient
r Reection Coecient
xv
Rs Overall Reection Coecient
xvi
Chapter 1
Introduction
The study of the fundamental theories about the true nature of electricity have been chal-
lenging scientists for centuries. The rst empirical observations and written documents about
electric physical phenomena have their origins in ancient Egypt, from about 3000 B.C.E.,
which referred to the study of electric shocks produced by sh, who are described as the
Thunderers of Nile. These kind of phenomena have also fascinated and inuenced the stud-
?
ies made by the following civilizations (Greeks, Roman, Arabic, ...) [ ]. Ancient writers, such
as Pliny the Elder (23 C.E.) and Scribonius Larges (47 C.E.), wrote about the eect of electric
shocks delivered by shes and concluded about the guiding phenomenon of theses shocks
?
along conducting objects [ ]. Some ancient cultures also observe that some materials, as they
were rubbed against fur, could small attract objects. Based on this observation Thales of
Miletos (600 B.C.E.) wrote some results about the nature of static electricity, where some
amber objects, after being rubbed, rendered magnetic properties in contrast with other ma-
?
terials that needed no rubbing, such as magnetite [ ]. Even thought Thales was incorrect by
believing that the nature of the attraction phenomenon was magnetic, later on science could
1
prove that there was in fact a direct link between magnetism and electricity.
The recognition about a connection between both the electric and magnetic phenomena was
made by André-Marie Ampère and Hans Christian Ørsted in the beginning of the XIX century
?
[ ] This electromagnetic unication theory, rst observed by Michael Faraday but extended by
James Clerk Maxwell, and then partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hert,.
is one of the key accomplishments of XIX century mathematical physics. After Maxwell's pub-
lication of his Treatise of Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873 C.E.), electricity and
that: a) Electric charges attract or repel one another with a force inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them: unlike charges attract, like ones repel; b) Magnetic
poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a simi-
lar way and always come in pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole; c) An electric
current in a wire creates a circular magnetic eld around the wire, its direction depending
on that of the current; and d) current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved towards
or away from a magnetic eld, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it, the direction
of current depending on that of the movement. The equations obtained by Maxwell, along
with the Lorentz force law (that was also derived by Maxwell under the name of Equation
for Electromotive Force, fully describe classical electromagnetism. These equations have also
been the starting point for the development of relativity theory by Albert Einstein and are
still fundamental to physics and engineering. These equations show the existence of electro-
magnetic waves, propagating in vacuum and in matter, and seemingly dierent phenomena
like radio waves, visible light, and X-rays are then understood, by interpreting them all as
propagating electromagnetic waves with dierent frequency which is of major scientic and
searchers have explored the interaction between electromagnetic elds and specic media. Ar-
ticial electromagnetic materials, with negative permeability and permittivity, have pr oven to
2
have extraordinary electromagnetic properties. The study of these kind of articial materials
appears in the end of the XIX century, when Bose published his work on the rotation of the
?
plane of polarization by man-made twisted structures in 1898 [ ]. Lindman studied articial
?
chiral media formed by a collection of randomly oriented small wire helices in in 1914 [ ]. After
wards, there were several other investigators in the rst half of the XX century who studied
various man-made materials. In the 1950s and 1960s, articial dielectrics were explored by
?
Kock, and its application for lightweight microwave antenna lenses [ ]. The `bedofnails' wire
grid medium was used in the early 1960s to simulate wave propagation in plasmas [ ]. The?
research on these kind of articial materials increased as the development of various potential
?
Veselago published a paper in 1967 [ ], but it was only translated to English in 1968, where
and permeability assumed negative real values. He studied the uniform wave propagation
that, in such medium, the direction of the Poynting vector of the wave is the opposite of
its phase velocity, suggesting that this isotropic medium supports a so called backward-
wave propagation and that its refractive index can be negative. Since such materials were
not available until recently, the interesting concept of negative refraction, and its various
electromagnetic and optical consequences, suggested by Veselago had received little attention.
?
This was until Smith inspired by the work of Pendry [ ] constructed a composite medium
in the microwave regime by arranging periodic arrays of small metallic wires and split-ring
resonators and demonstrated the anomalous refraction at the boundary of this medium, which
?
is the result of negative refraction in this articial medium [ ].
3
Figure 1.1: Photo of a nonlinear tunable metamaterial. The close-up photo square shows a
split-ring resonator with variable-capacity diode. (Source: Ilya, Shadrivov, Australian Na-
tional University, Nonlinear Physics Centre, Australia, 2008)
The negative refractive index propriety of DNG metamaterials could be used to bring radiation
?
to a focus with a at metamaterial lens, as proposed by Veselago [ ] and then expanded by
?
Pendry [ ]. The advantage of a at lens in comparison to a conventional curved lens is that
the focal length could be varied simply by adjusting the distance between the lens and the
electromagnetic wave source. These lens could be constructed using the split-ring resonator
conguration in a periodic array of metallic rings and wires, based on work by researchers at
? ?].
the University of California at San Diego [ , A photograph of the at lens array of DNG
?
metamaterial cells, constructed by NASA [ ] is showed in Figure 1.2.
4
?
Figure 1.2: Metamaterial at lens consisting of an array of 3 by 20 by 20 unit cells. [ ]
For microwave radiation at wavelengths about 10 times a cell length, this conguration provides
negative value for the index of refraction. The NASA Glenn Research Center testing have
demonstrated that appears a reversed refraction eect with focusing of the microwave radiation
and nite element models are being developed and an optics ray tracing code in order to create
new lens designs and to develop new congurations that are more amenable for operation
at higher frequencies. These research intends to achieve the applications of a at lens for
?
biomedical imaging and detection and other applications [ ].
5
1.2 Motivation and Objectives
With the introduction of these new physical properties of DNG metamaterials, the study
and interpretation of the associated results is in fact very attractive and challenging. There
are many established physical concepts that must be re-interpreted in order to comply with
this new paradigm and there is also the probability of nding new eects associated with
this kind of materials, since there is a whole new set of resulting physical phenomena. In this
dissertation we have the possibility to associate and consolidate the more conventional and well
known electromagnetic concepts but now, with the introduction of the DNG metamaterials,
in a more generalized perspective, as we study the physical eects found even on simple
guiding structures. As up to today the demonstrations and experiments of the new physical
phenomena associated with DNG metamaterials have lead to the construction of new types
a lot of attention from the scientic community. These metamaterials could help improve the
performance of several communication devices, such as antennas, and a lot of eort is being
made on the the design of antennae using this kind of periodic structures.
This kind of material also have implications on lens design. As classical electrodynamics
impose a resolution limit when imaging using conventional lenses, since this fundamental
limit, called the diraction limit, in its ultimate form, is attributed to the nite wavelength
interest since no longer the resolution is restricted by the wavelength of the propagated light
waves. Conventional lenses focuses only the propagating waves, resulting in an imperfect
image of the object. The ner spatial details (which are smaller than a wavelength) of the
object, carried by the evanescent waves, are lost due to the strong attenuation these waves
?
experience when traveling from the object to the image. As predicted by Pendry [ ], with DNG
metamaterial lenses, the evanescent waves are amplied by just the right amount. These waves
can be brought to a focus at the same position as an object's radiative eld, thereby producing
6
an image that has sub-wavelength detail.
As this kind of materials promise, for optical and microwave, new applications such as, for
example, new types of beam stirrers, modulators, band-pass lters, high resolution lenses,
microwave couplers, and antenna radomes, the study and research on these results is in fact
very encouraging and motivating for anyone who looks into addressing this subject of DNG
metamaterials.
The main objective of this dissertation is the analysis and study of wave propagation in DNG
metamaterial guides, and also the application of this kind of materials in lens design, taking
advantage of its particular electromagnetic properties to achieve results that are not present
in conventional lenses.
We try to understand the new physical phenomena that are associated with double negative
media and the eects when applied to well known propagation guide structures. The study
of lens design using DNG materials is also addressed in order to verify the dierent results
between these kind of lens against the physical limitations of common DPS lenses.
1.3 Structure
The rst chapter of this dissertation has the single purpose of introducing and situating the
reader in the subject that is addressed in this work. In order to do so a brief historical
background analysis is included at rst, where key researchers, publications an results are
mentioned, chronologically, in order to understand the evolution of the research process that
eventually reached to the object of study in this work. In this introductory chapter we also
expose the main motivations and objectives of this dissertation, as well as this explanation of
In the second chapter we study the electromagnetic phenomena associated with DNG meta-
materials. After formulating the classication of a specic medium as DNG, the implications
7
of having a negative permittivity and permeability leads into studying the characterization
of the medium and the physical phenomena such as the appearance of backward waves and
the emergence and implications of negative refraction. A dispersive analysis is also introduced
in this chapter as we study the Lorentz Dispersive Model and nd a possible frequency in-
terval in which a material can act as DNG. The introduction of dispersion helps us infers
about the nature of behavior of both the phase and group velocities when dealing with DNG
metamaterials.
The third chapter deals with the guided wave propagation with DNG materials. We have
chosen to study two simple structures, the DPS-DNG interface and te DNG slab. A modal
analysis was made for both wave guiding structures and also numerical simulations, with the
known dispersive model, the Lorentz Dispersive Model, is used in the analysis of the DPS-
DNG interface, and the results with and without the introduction of losses are compared. The
appearance of super-slow modes in the DNG slab propagation is also a subject of analysis on
this subject, consequence of having a phase velocity that is smaller than the outer medium in
which a DNG slab is immersed. The existence of these super-slow modes enables the propa-
gation on the DNG slab even if we use a less dense medium for the slab and this phenomenon
is studied as also. Even though we are using simple wave guiding structures and a somehow
elementary study when addressing the DNG guided propagation it proves to be an ecient
The fourth chapter is dedicated to the study of lens design using DNG metamaterials. First
we address a way to achieve a desired contour for a lens using physical concepts as the optical
path. The dependence of the refractive index on this process evidences the implications that
having a NIR medium as the material for designing lenses. The particular structure of the
Veselago's at lens, that is basically a DNG slab, is also analyzed in this chapter in order to
study a potentially practical application of DNG metamaterials in optics and the implications
of dealing with such materials. The conventional limitations of lens design when dealing with
8
sub-wavelenght detail are overrun by this DNG at lens as with DNG metamaterial lenses,
the evanescent waves are amplied by just the right amount allowing the waves to be brought
to single point focus at the same position as an object's radiative eld on the other side of the
lens and producing an image that has sub-wavelength detail. These results are also studied in
this chapter.
Finally, in the fth chapter, main conclusions are exposed and some developing potential
applications and further investigation hypothesis of the subjects addressed in this dissertation
are introduced.
The main contribution of this dissertation is the analysis of known electromagnetic phenomena
but introducing the DNG metamaterials proprieties and concepts into the study of these phys-
ical subjects, hopefully helping further research on this kind of eld. The particular physical
phenomena that are generated by the usage of these materials when dealing with waveguides
or even with the design of lenses can provide a better comprehension of the potential of interest
when designing structures, being it communication devices or other physical components that
9
10
Chapter 2
(DNG) Media
Electromagnetic waves interact with the inclusions of particulate composite materials, inducing
magnetic and electric moments, which aects the macroscopic eective permittivity of the
inclusions in an arbitrary host surface or host medium which provides the designer a wide set
of degrees of freedom, such as the host's size and shape and the composition's density and
alignment of the inclusions, in order to create a specic electromagnetic response that is not
Let us consider a specic material that is characterized by the two electromagnetic macroscopic
opposed to the response in vacuum, the response of materials to external elds generally
depends on the frequency of the eld, which reects the fact that a material's polarization
11
does not respond instantaneously to an applied eld. For this reason both the permittivity and
the permeability are often treated as complex functions of the frequency of the applied eld,
?
since complex numbers allow the specication of magnitude and phase [ ]. These parameters
ε = ε0 + ε00 (2.1)
µ = µ0 + µ00 (2.2)
We can now proceed to the classication of the medium by analyzing the value of both ε0 and µ0
(the real parts of the permittivity and permeability). A medium with both the permittivity and
permeability greater than zero (<(ε) > 0 , <(µ) > 0 ) is called a Double Positive Medium
(DPS), designation in which most naturally occurring media fall into (i.e. dielectrics). A
medium with the permittivity less than zero and the permeability greater than zero (<(ε) <
0 , <(µ) > 0 ) is called an Epsilon Negative Medium (ENG), characteristic than can be
found, for certain frequency regimes, in many plasmas. A medium with permittivity greater
than zero and the permeability less than zero (<(ε) > 0 , <(µ) < 0 ) is designated by Mu
Negative Medium (MNG), characteristic which, for certain frequency regimes, is exhibited
by some gyrotropic materials. A medium with both permittivity and permeability less than
zero (<(ε) < 0 , <(µ) < 0 ) is designated as a Double Negative Medium (DNG), this
characteristic has only been demonstrated, up to this date, in articially constructed materials
?
[ ]. Figure 2.1 shows the location of each medium qualication in a diagram whose axis is
12
Figure 2.1: Material Classication
Let us now consider a generic media were both the constitutive parameters can be written as
D = ε0 ε(ω)E (2.3)
B = µ0 µ(ω)H (2.4)
Let us now consider that the electric eld is polarized along the x-axis and the electromagnetic
wave propagates in the z-axis direction. We can write the expressions for both the electric
13
Where the complex wave number k, is given by:
k = kb
z (2.7)
√ ω
k0 = ω ε0 µ0 = (2.8)
c
∂B
∇×E=− (2.9)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J+ (2.10)
∂t
∇·D=ρ (2.11)
∇·E=0 (2.12)
To allow us to transform both E and H from the time domain to the frequency domain we
ˆ +∞
Tω (r, ω) = tω (r, t) exp[iωt]dt (2.13)
−∞
14
ˆ +∞
1
tω (r, t) = Tω (r, ω) exp[−iωt]dt (2.14)
2π −∞
where k = xb
x + yb
y + zb
z.
∇ × E = iω B(ω) (2.15)
∇·D=ρ (2.17)
∇·E=0 (2.18)
In order to express the spatial dependence of the eld quantities in (2.9)-(2.12) in the algebraic
form, we introduce the three-dimensional Fourier transform pair, which allows us to obtain
ˆ +∞
Tk (r, k) = tk (r, t) exp[−ik.r]dr (2.19)
−∞
ˆ +∞
1 3
tk (r, ω) = ( ) Tk (r, t) exp[−ik.r]dk (2.20)
2π −∞
where k = xb
x + yb z , dk = dkx dky dkz
y + zb and k.r = kx xb + ky yb + kz zb.
Finally we can now work in the (k − ω) space by subjecting all eld quantities to a four-fold
15
ˆ +∞
Tk−ω (r, k) = tk (r, t) exp[iωt − ik.r]drdt (2.21)
−∞
ˆ +∞
1
tk−ω (r, ω) = ( )4 Tk−ω (r, ω) exp[ik.r − iωt]dkdω (2.22)
2π −∞
where k = xb
x + yb z , dk = dkx dky dkz
y + zb and k.r = kx xb + ky yb + kz zb.
ik × E = iω B (2.23)
ik × H = J − iω D (2.24)
−ik · D = ρ (2.25)
−ik · E = 0 (2.26)
J
Assuming the inexistence of the conduction current ( =0) we now have from (2.23) and (2.24):
k × E = ω B = ωµ0 µH (2.27)
k × H = −ω D = −ωε0 εE (2.28)
16
k × E = ybωµ0 µH0 exp[i(kz − ωt)] (2.29)
k × H = −b
xωε0 εE0 exp[i(kz − ωt)] (2.30)
As we assumed, the electric eld E is polarized along the x-axis and the magnetic eld is
polarized along the y-axis in a way that the electromagnetic waves propagate trough the
z-axis, in the direction of k. Assuming that the media is isotropic we can state that:
k·E = k · H = 0 (2.31)
|k| −ωµ0 µ E0 0
= (2.34)
−ωε0 ε |k| H0 0
As we are not trying to nd the solution were there are neither an electric nor a magnetic eld
17
From (2.7) and with (2.8) we can write:
ω2
|k|2 = µε = k02 µε (2.36)
c2
This will allow us to dene the wave impedance, the ratio between the transverse components
?
of the electric and magnetic elds , [ ]:
E0 ωµµ0 |k|
η= = = (2.37)
H0 |k| ωεε0
Now we can dene the frequency defendant refraction index n from (2.36) , (2.7) and (2.8) :
√
n= µε (2.38)
And we can also dene the normalized wave impedance, the relation between the intensities
of the electric and the magnetic eld:
r
η µ n µ
ζ= = = = (2.39)
η0 ε ε n
with η0 being the free space intrinsic wave impedance. As we have seen before, the polarization
does not respond instantaneously to an applied eld. This causes dielectric loss, which can
be expressed by a permittivity and permeability that is both complex and frequency depen-
dent. Real materials are not perfect insulators either, i.e. they have non-zero direct current
?
conductivity [ ]. Taking both aspects into consideration, we can dene a complex refraction
index:
n = n0 + in00 (2.40)
00
where n0 is the refractive index indicating the phase velocity coecient and n is called the
18
extinction coecient, which indicates the amount of absorption loss when the electromag-
netic wave propagates through the material. Both n0 and n00 are dependent on the frequency
?
[ ]. Let us now dene, based on (2.40) and (2.7), the phase velocity vp , of an electromagnetic
wave:
ω ω c
vp = = = 0 (2.41)
<(k) k0 <(n) n
We can now write the complex amplitude equations for both the electric and the magnetic
E0 E0
H = yb exp[ink0 z] = yb exp[−n00 k0 z] exp[in0 k0 z] (2.43)
ζη0 ζη0
The Time-Average Poynting Vector, which can be thought of as a representation of the energy
1
Sav = <(E × H∗ ) (2.44)
2
|E0 |2
1
Sav = zb < exp[−2n00 k0 z] (2.45)
η0 ζ
In this case the value of n00 needs to be always positive in order to verify energy extinction
along with the propagation of the wave on the z-axis, as expected since we are dealing with a
19
lim |E| ≤ E0 (2.46)
z→∞
Now to take conclusions about the direction of the power ux we need to analyze the sign
of S. As we can see from (2.45) it depends on the sign of the real part of the normalized
0 0
n + in00 n0 µ + n00 µ00
1 n
< =< =< 0 = (2.47)
ζ µ µ + iµ00 µ0 2 + µ00 2
As we have seen above, we are dealing with a passive media, so, as we concluded from (2.46),
we have:
00 00
n00 > 0 → k 00 > 0 → µ , ε > 0 (2.48)
0 0
From (2.48), and by knowing that we are dealing with DNG media (µ , ε < 0), we can easily
verify that in (2.47) the divisor is always positive but we really can't conclude, at this moment,
S
0
about the sign of because the sign of (2.47) may depend on the sign of n (present at its
dividend). In (2.38) we have established a relation between the refraction index and both the
0
permittivity and permeability, so we will use that in order to infer about the nature of n.
√ √
n = nµ nε = µ ε (2.49)
We will now study the permittivity ε in the complex plan using polar coordinates. (It is
important to notice that we have chosen to study ε but the analysis is exactly the same for
the permeability).
ε = ρε exp[iθε ] (2.50)
20
?
Graphically represented, as proposed in [ ], by Figure 2.2.
We can also dene the permittivity dependent part of the refraction index in polar coordinates:
√
0 00 √ θ
nε = ε = nε + inε = ρε exp i (2.51)
2
p
ρε = ε0 2 + ε00 2 (2.52)
0 0
ε ε
cos(θε ) = =√ 0 (2.53)
ρε ε + ε00 2
2
00 00
ε ε
sin(θε ) = =√ 0 (2.54)
ρε ε + ε00 2
2
21
0 00
As we are dealing with a passive DNG media (ε <0 and ε > 0) we have for θε :
hπ i
θε = ,π (2.55)
2
√
0 00 00 0 θε θε
nε = ε = nε + inε = i(nε − inε ) = iρε sin − i cos (2.56)
2 2
And from (2.55) we can obtain the argument of nε (by dividing it by 2):
θε h π π i
= , (2.57)
2 4 2
r
θε 1 + cos(θε )
cos = (2.58)
2 2
r
θε 1 − cos(θε )
sin = (2.59)
2 2
From (2.52)-(2.54) we can now write the argument of nε depending only on the permittivity:
s
12 ε0
θε
cos = 1+ √ (2.60)
2 2 ε0 2 + ε00 2
s
12 ε0
θε
sin = 1− √ (2.61)
2 2 ε0 2 + ε00 2
θε θε
From (2.57) we now that for this specic interval both cos 2 and sin 2 must be greater
than 0 so we must choose the positive root. Knowing this and with (2.51), (2.52)-(2.54) and
22
(2.60)-(2.61) we can now write:
r s 2 v
0
ε00 u 1 + sgn(ε0 )
0 |ε | 4
nε = 1+ (2.62)
u
ε0
ur
2 t 00 2
1 + εε0
r s 2 v
|ε0 | ε00 u 1 − sgn(ε0 )
00 4
nε = 1+ (2.63)
u
ε0
ur
2 t 00 2
1 + εε0
0
We know that we are dealing with DNG media so sgn(ε ) = −1. We can now easily see by
θε 00 0
the result in (2.62) and (2.63) , and for the interval that we have dened for
2 , that nε > nε
Let us now consider the limit case where there are no losses:
00
ε =0 (2.64)
0
nε = 0 (2.65)
q
00
nε = |ε0 | (2.66)
q
nε = i |ε0 | (2.67)
As we have mentioned before a similar result can be obtained for the magnetic permeability
23
q
nµ = i |µ0 | (2.68)
With these two last results and using the denition in (2.49) we can now easily obtain the
q q q
n = nµ nε = i |µ |i |ε | = − |µ0 ε0 |
0 0
(2.69)
This proves that for a lossless DNG material the refraction index is negative. Let us now
0 00 0 00 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 00 00 0
n = nµ nε = n + in = (nε + inε )(nµ + inµ ) = −(nε nµ − nε nµ ) + i(nε nµ + nε nµ ) (2.70)
00 0
As we have seen from (2.62) and (2.63), nε > n ε and the same happens for the permeability
00 0
as the demonstration process is analogous so nµ > nµ so with the result in (2.70):
0 00 00 0 0
n = −(nε nµ − nε nµ ) < 0 (2.71)
00 0 00 00 0
n = (nε nµ + nε nµ ) > 0 (2.72)
The results in (2.71) and (2.72) are indeed very important because they not only corroborate
the result in (2.48) that states that there is an extinction of the eld along the propagation
00
axis (as n > 0) but it also gives us the nal conclusion about the direction of the power ux
0
since n <0 so from (2.45) and (2.47) we can say that:
S · zb > 0 (2.73)
24
negative
0
As n < 0 we can also state from (2.41) that we are dealing with medium with
phase velocity as its direction is the opposite from the energy ow and attenuation, from
(2.73) and from the fact that we are dealing with a passive media. Let us now analyze the
refraction index for the general case (with losses). In polar coordinates we have:
√ √ √ θε + θµ
n= ρn exp(iθn ) = ρε ρµ exp i (2.74)
2
h i
pi pi
We saw that the condition was valid for nε and nµ the argument was in the interval
4, 2
so it is easy to see from (2.74) that arg(n) is also between those values. The refraction index
on a DNG medium is in fact negative and we can now relate it with the propagation constant:
k = k · zb = nk0 · zb = zb(n k0 + in k0 )
0 00
(2.75)
0
As n k0 < 0 we can see that the direction of propagation is the opposite compared with the
energy ux:
0
k · zb < 0 (2.76)
From (2.73) and (2.76) we can create a graphical representation of both the electric and
magnetic elds with the energy ux vector and the propagation constant for a DPS medium
and for a DNG medium and compare the results, represented in Figure 2.3.
25
Figure 2.3: Spatial Representation of the elds, the energy ux and the propagation constant
for a DPS and a DNG medium
Here we can see that, from these two types of medium, both the Poynting vector and the
propagation constant shares the same axis but not the same direction because in the DPS
0
media there is a right-handed trihedral formed by [E0 , H0 , k ] . From these results appears the
designated Backward Waves [?] (BW), electromagnetic waves that present a propagation
As we have seen on the previous section, the phase velocity for wave propagation in a DNG
Let us consider the scattering of a wave that incises on a DPS-DNG interface as shown in
Figure 2.4.
26
Figure 2.4: Scattering of a wave that incises on a DPS-DNG interface
Now we assume that we have a DNG medium, with a negative refraction index (n2 < 0), in
the area with blue background (x < 0 and z > 0) and a DPS media, with a positive refraction
index (n2 > 0, in x > 0 and z > 0. We also assume that the losses on both the DPS and the
The Snell's law of reection assures us that the angle of reection is equal to the angle of
incidence:
θr = θ i (2.77)
If we consider an uniform plane wave incising obliquely on a plane boundary (z=0) between
materials with dierent constitutive parameters (and refraction indexes n1 , n2 ), and enforcing
the boundary conditions at the interface, we can also obtain, from the Snell's law of reection,
the relation between the angle of the transmitted wave and the angle of the incident wave [ ], ?
which is given by:
27
sin(θt ) n1
= (2.78)
sin(θi ) n2
If we now consider the situation represented by the previous , where there is a DNG mate-
rial with a negative refraction index n2 we see that, for obtaining the correct angle of the
n1
θt = sgn(n2 ) arcsin sin(θi ) (2.79)
|n2 |
We must note that if the refraction index of a medium is negative, according the Snell's Law,
the refracted angle should also become negative and then, as we have seen in the previous
section, the direction of the energy ux, given by S, is the opposite of the wave propagation,
k.
00
given by It's also important to notice that we are considering the solution where n > 0,
as we have mentioned in the previous section, because we are dealing with a passive media.
00
But if we have chosen to use n < 0, according to Snell's Law we would not have a negative
refracted angle but a positive one instead, which is the same result as if the transmitted wave
was propagating in a DPS material, with one very important dierence, as we have mentioned
before, that the energy ux was then propagating in the direction of the interface (and the
source) which is the opposite of a causal direction and makes no sense for a passive media.
The temporal response of a chosen polarization eld component i to the same component of
the electric eld, assuming that the electric charges can move in the same direction as the
electric eld, can be described by a material model called the Lorentz Model [?]. This
model is derived from the description of the electron's motion in terms of a damped harmonic
oscillator:
28
d2 d
Pi + ΓL Pi + ω02 Pi = ε0 χL Ei (2.80)
dt2 dt
Where the rst term describes the acceleration of the electric charges, the second one describes
the reduction of the oscillation's amplitude in terms of the damping coecient ΓL and the
third term describes the restoring forces of the system. On the right hand side of the equation
The response in the frequency domain, using the operators used on the previous section, is
given by:
We know that the electric susceptibility χe , a measure of how easily it polarizes in response
P
χe = (2.82)
ε0 E
With both (2.81) and (2.82) we can obtain the Lorentz frequency dependent electric suscep-
tibility:
Pi (ω) χL
χe,Lorentz (ω) = = 2 (2.83)
ε0 Ei (ω) ω0 − iωΓL − ω 2
ε = ε0 (1 + χe ) (2.84)
So with (2.83) and (2.84) we can obtain now the Lorentz electric permittivity:
29
χL
εLorentz (ω) = ε0 1 + (2.85)
ω02 − iωΓL − ω 2
There are also other models which are particular cases of the Lorentz Model when we are
If the term that is related to the charge acceleration is very small when compared with both
the damping and the restoring forces term then we can neglect it, obtaining from (2.81) the
Debye Model:
χd
χe,Debye (ω) = (2.87)
ω02 − iωΓL
When we have the case where the restoring forces are neglectful then we obtain from (2.81)
χD
χe,Drude (ω) = (2.89)
−iωΓD − ω 2
The couple coecient χL (χd or χD depending on the model that is used) is normally repre-
We have made our analysis of the Lorentz Model in terms of the electric polarization eld, but
the same kind of process can be made in terms of the magnetization eld Mi (instead of the
polarization) and the magnetic susceptibility χm . The magnetic permeability, using similar
30
Mi (ω) χL
µLorentz (ω) = µ0 1+ = µ0 1 + (2.90)
Hi (ω) ω02 − iωΓL − ω 2
Let us consider the following expressions for the real parts of both the (relative) permittivity
2 (ω 2 − ω 2 ) + ω 2 Γ2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2
ωpe 0e Le 0e
<(εr,L (ω)) = 2 − ω 2 )2 + ω 2 Γ2 (2.91)
(ω0e Le
2 (ω 2 − ω 2 ) + ω 2 Γ2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2
ωpm 0m Lm 0m
<(µr,L (ω)) = 2 − ω 2 )2 + ω 2 Γ2 (2.92)
(ω0m Lm
We now want to obtain a frequency interval, which we will represent as [ω − , ω + ] where both
parameters have negative real parts, by denition of a DNG media. This can be formulated
First we will try to nd this interval for the frequencies where the permittivity is negative and
Initially we must nd the limit in which the permittivity becomes negative by nding where
2
< (µr,L (ω)) = 0 ⇒ ωpe (ω02 − ω 2 ) + ω 2 Γ2Le + (ω0e
2
− ω 2 )2 = 0 (2.95)
31
ω 4 − ω 2 (2ω0e
2 2
+ ωpe − Γ2Le ) + (ωpe
2 2 4
ω0e + ω0e )=0 (2.96)
We can nd the zeros by applying the Quadratic Formula to (2.96) from which we obtain the
following result:
q
2ω 2 = 2ω0e
2 4
+ ωpe − Γ2Le ± 4 − 4ω 2 Γ2 − 2ω 2 Γ2
Γ4Le + ωpe 0e Le pe Le (2.97)
Admitting that there are no losses, by considering that the oscillation amplitude does not
2ω 2 = 2ω0e
2 2
+ ωpe 2
± ωpe (2.98)
ω − = ω0e
(2.99)
q
ω+ = ω2 + ω2
0e pe
From this result, and by doing the same kind of computation for the permeability, we can
conclude that there are in fact two frequency intervals, one for the permittivity [ωε− , ωε+ ] and
one for the permeability [ωµ− , ωµ+ ], where they assume negative values:
ω − = ω0e ω − = ω0m
ε µ
, (2.100)
q
q
ω+ = ω2 + ω2
ω+ = ω2 + ω2
ε 0e pe µ 0m pm
So we are in the presence of a DNG medium when the frequencies are in the following interval:
32
[ω − , ω + ] = [ωe− , ωe+ ] ∩ [ωµ− , ωµ+ ] (2.101)
Admitting that (2.101) it is not an empty set, we can nally write the interval in which, using
the Lorentz Dispersive model for both the permittivity and the permeability, the material acts
as a DNG medium:
Let us now consider the Drude Model, a particularization of the Lorentz Model that also allows
negative permeabilities and permittivities but neglects the restoring forces (of the harmonic
model), and apply a similar process as we have done in the previous section. First we separate
the real and imaginary parts of the model's expression. As we have done in the previous
section, we will do the analysis for the permittivity as for the permeability the process is
analogous. The real and imaginary parts of the Drude Model permittivity is given by:
Γ2De ω 2 + ω 4 − χDe ω 2
<(εr,D (ω)] = (2.103)
Γ2De ω 2 + ω 4
−iχDe ΓDe ω
=(εr,D (ω)] = (2.104)
Γ2De ω 2 + ω 4
As we have done for the Lorentz Model, the wanted spectral interval can be found when
33
Using again the quadratic formula for nding the zeroes on (2.105) we obtain the following
expression:
2ω 2 = ωpe
2
− Γ2De ± Γ2De − ωpe
2
(2.106)
And now we have both the positive and negative solutions for this model:
ω− = 0
(2.107)
q
ω + = ω 2 − Γ2
pe De
From this result, and by doing the same kind of computation for the permeability, we can
again obtain, as we have done in the previous section, the two frequency intervals, one for
the permittivity [ωε− , ωε+ ] and one for the permeability [ωµ− , ωµ+ ], where they assume negative
values:
ω− = 0 ω− = 0
ε µ
, (2.108)
q
q
ω + = ω 2 − Γ2
ω + = ω 2 − Γ2
ε pe De µ pm Dm
So the frequency interval in which the media is DNG, when using the Drude Model, is given
by:
34
1 ∂(ωε) 2 ∂(ωµ)
U= ε0 |E| + µ0 |H| 2
(2.110)
4 ∂ω ∂ω
∂(ωε)
>0 (2.111)
∂ω
∂(ωµ)
>0 (2.112)
∂ω
If we multiply (2.111) by µ and (2.112) by and then add them together we obtain the
following expression, that we will call A, which will be useful further in this section:
∂(ωε) ∂(ωµ) ∂(ωε) ∂(ωµ)
A = µε + ωµ + µε + ωε = 2µε + ω µ +ε (2.113)
∂ω ∂ω ∂ω ∂ω
Since we are dealing with a DNG medium, where ε, µ < 0, we can conclude from (2.113) that
A < 0.
We know from (2.35) and (2.39) that for an isotropic medium we have:
k2 = ω 2 µ0 µ0 (2.114)
∂(k2 ) ∂ ω 2 µε
∂(ωε) ∂(ωµ)
= µ 0 ε0 = µ0 ε0 ω 2εµ + ωµ + ωε = µ0 ε0 ωA (2.115)
∂ω ∂ω ∂ω ∂ω
ω
k = nk0 = n (2.116)
c
35
So we can also write (2.115) as:
The Phase Velocity, vp , and the Group Velocity, vG are given by:
ω ω c
vp = = = 0 (2.118)
<(k) k0 <(n) n
∂ω
vG = (2.119)
∂k
∂(k2 ) 1 1
= 2ω (2.120)
∂ω vp vG
∂(k2 )
Since A<0 this implies that
∂ω <0 and from (2.210), for a lossy DNG medium, we can
conclude that, on a dispersive DNG medium, the group velocity and the phase velocity have
dierent signs.
For dispersive media is also easy to prove that the group velocity and phase velocity have
∂(k) ∂(ω n) 1 ∂n
1
= = n+ω (2.121)
∂ω ∂ω c c ∂ω
1 1 1 ∂n
= + ω (2.122)
vG vp c ∂ω
36
That shows us that vp = vG is only possible when there is no frequency dependence of the
refraction index.
Some general relations were developed to relate the real part of an analytic function to a
ˆ +∞
1 Ω=[ε(ω)]
<[ε(ω)] = 1 + dΩ (2.123)
2π 0 Ω2 − ω 2
ˆ +∞
−2ω <[ε(ω)] − 1
=[ε(ω)] = dΩ (2.124)
π 0 Ω2 − ω 2
Named after Ralph Kronig and Hendrik Kramer, they are known as the Kramers-Kronig
Relations.
The real part of ε(ω), (2.123), is related with the refraction index and the imaginary part,
(2.124), is related with the eld's extinction (as we have seen in the previous section). In the
Equation (2.123) allows us to obtain the refraction index prole and chromatic dispersion, phe-
nomenon where the phase velocity and the group velocity depend on frequency, of a medium
by knowing only it's frequency dependent losses, which can be measured over a large spectral
range. This is a very important result because it demonstrates that there is an interdepen-
dency between losses and dispersion.
Equation (2.124) gives a not so useful result. We can use it to obtain the eld extinction by
knowing the refraction index but it is very dicult to measure this index over a wide frequency
range.
37
38
Chapter 3
Media
In this section we will study the propagation of electromagnetic waves on a planar interface
Figure 3.1: The planar interface between a DPS and a DNG medium, here represented by a
dashed line.
39
3.1.1 Modal Equations
Let us consider that the propagation direction is given by the z-axis, the transverse direction
by the x-axis and the y-axis as the transverse innite direction, where there is no variation
of both the electric and magnetic elds. Since the surface is homogeneous along the z-axis,
We can now plug the general eld solutions (3.3) and (3.4) into the Homogeneous Wave
Equation, for the Transverse Electric (TE) mode, given by:
∇2 E + ω 2 εµE = 0 (3.5)
∂2 ∂2
2
E + 2 E + (k02 n2i )E = 0 (3.6)
∂x ∂z
∂2
E + k02 n2i + β 2 E = 0
(3.7)
∂x2
40
√
Where ni is the refraction index of the medium i (given by ni = εi µi ) and β the propagation
constant.
Since the term between parenthesis in equation (3.7) is constant in x we are dealing with a
constant coecient dierential equation that could have the following solution:
Where we can also dene hi as the transverse wave number of the medium i (given by h2i =
k02 n2i − β 2 ).
In order to maintain wave guiding on the interface, the elds must be evanescent and decay
with distance away from the separation surface. This requirement causes the propagation
constant to be in the range of k 0 ni < β , therefore the propagation constant in both the
hi = ±iαi (3.9)
The sign of hi is chosen in such way that the eld decays with distance away from the interface
so the resulting elds on both the DPS and DNG regions (that we will call 1 and 2 respectively).
Admitting that the interface is on x = 0, the eld's expressions are given by:
E0 exp[−α1 x] , x>0
Ey (x) = (3.11)
E0 exp[α2 x] x<0
,
41
With α1 , α2 > 0.
We can now use Faraday's Law, from the Maxwell Equations, to compute the magnetic eld:
∇ × E = iωµH (3.12)
1
H= ∇×E (3.13)
iωµ
And for this case of TE propagation mode, expression (3.13) can be written as:
1 ∂Ey
H= zb (3.14)
iωµ ∂x
From Eq. (3.13) we can now obtain the expressions for the magnetic eld on both regions:
iE0 α1
ωµ1 exp[−α1 x] , x>0
Hz (x) = (3.15)
−iE0 α2
exp[α2 x] x<0
,
ωµ2
Applying the boundary conditions at the interface (x = 0), and assuring the continuity of the
iE0 α1 −iE0 α2
exp[−α1 0] = exp[α2 0] (3.16)
ωµ1 ωµ2
α1 α2
=− (3.17)
µ1 µ2
Now we have obtained the modal equation for the Transverse Magnetic () propagation
42
α2 µ1 + α1 µ2 = 0 (3.18)
By applying a similar computation process to both the wave equation and eld expressions
for the TM modes, and using the following equation from the Maxwell Equations:
∇ × H = −iωεE (3.19)
α2 ε1 + α1 ε2 = 0 (3.20)
With these results (3.18) and (3.20) we are now able to infer if there is propagation along the
interface. Since we now that both α1 , α2 > 0 and µ1 , ε1 > 0, from (3.18) :
µ1
α1 = − α2 > 0 =⇒ µ2 < 0 (3.21)
µ2
ε1
α1 = − α2 > 0 =⇒ ε2 < 0 (3.22)
ε2
So, from the implications on (3.21) and (3.22), we can conclude that it is in fact possible to
have propagation on an interface between a DPS medium and a DNG medium (ε2 , µ2 < 0).
We will now use the Lorentz Dispersive Model (LDM), which was introduced on the previous
chapter, to study the solutions of the modal equations. The model frequency dependent
43
2
ωpe
εr,L (ω) = 1 + 2 (3.23)
ω0e − iωΓL − ω 2
2
ωpm
µr,L (ω) = 1 + 2 (3.24)
ω0m − iωΓL − ω 2
These models will be used to describe the frequency dependence of the parameters on the
DNG medium (region 2), and have chosen the following values for the plasma's frequencies
ωpm , ωpe , central frequencies ω0e , ω0m , damping coecient ΓL , as well as the parameters of the
DPS medium ε1,r , µ1,r . The simulation parameters are represented at Table 2.1.
Parameter Value
ωpe 2π × 7 × 109 rad.s−1
ωpm 2π × 6 × 109 rad.s−1
ω0e 2π × 2.5 × 109 rad.s−1
ω0m 2π × 2.3 × 109 rad.s−1
ΓL 0.05 × ωpe
ε1,r 1
µ1,r 1
Table 3.1: Simulation parameters for the Lorentz Dispersive Model, on the DPS-DNG interface
structure
First lets analyze the variation of the parameters εr,L (ω) and µr,L (ω). The representation is
44
Figure 3.2: Lorentz lossless dispersive model for εr,L and µr,L
With relation (3.27), and using the Lorentz dispersive model, we can now analyze the variation
We can nd in Figure 3.3 that we have the three regions, as mentioned before. As expected, on
the DNG region, we have a negative refraction index and on the DPS region we have a positive
refraction index. On the ENG region, as the permittivity is negative and the permeability is
positive, we have a purely imaginary refraction index. The eect that n varies with frequency
(except in vacuum, where all frequencies travel at the same speed, c) is known as dispersion.
In regions of the spectrum where the material does not absorb, the real part of the refractive
index tends to increase with frequency, as seen in Figure 3.3. Near absorption peaks, the
curve of the refractive index is a complex form given by the KramersKronig relations,
and can decrease with frequency. The real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index
are related through use of the KramersKronig relations (one can determine a material's full
45
Figure 3.3: Relative refraction index (nr = √ n ), using the lossless LDM, on the DPS-DNG
ε0 µ0
interface
material).
Using equations (3.18), (3.20) and (3.11) we can now establish a relation that expresses the
variation of the propagation constant β with frequency, called the dispersion relation. The
dispersion relation describe the interrelations of wave properties such as wavelength, frequency,
velocities, refraction index, attenuation coecient. For the TE mode, the relation is given by:
v
2
u µ2 (ω)ε2 (ω) − µ1 ε1 µ2 (ω)
u
µ2
β(ω) = t 1 k0
u
(3.25)
µ2 (ω)2
1− µ2 1
v
2
u µ2 (ω)ε2 (ω) − µ1 ε1 ε2 (ω)
u
ε2
β(ω) = t 1 k0
u
(3.26)
2
1 − ε2 (ω)
ε2 1
46
Using the Lorentz Dispersive Model, and the expressions in (3.26) and (3.25), we can now
obtain the dispersion relation graphical representation for both the TE and the TM modes,
Figure 3.4: Dispersion relation, β(ω), using the lossless LDM, on the DPS-DNG interface
µ2 (ω)2 ε2 (ω)2
From both Figures 2.4 and 2.5 we can see that when µ2 = 1 (or ε2 = 1 ) the value
1 1
The graphical representation of the attenuation constants, for both the TE and TM modes, is
47
Figure 3.5: Attenuation constants α1 and α2 for the TE modes, using the lossless LDM, on
the DPS-DNG interface
Figure 3.6: Attenuation constants α1 and α2 for the TM modes, using the lossless LDM, on
the DPS-DNG interface
48
The attenuation constants have, for this frequency interval, a positive real part, as a condition
to have propagation along the interface and exponential attenuation as we move away from
it, as stated in (3.21) and (3.22). Since we are not dealing with losses, the imaginary parts of
both α1 and α2 are both zero, in the intervals where we have propagation.
Le us now consider a lossy structure using the Lorentz Dispersive mode. The constitutive
From Figure 3.7 we can identify that the three regions are approximately the same from the
previous structure when we were neglecting losses, and this happens since we are dealing with
a small value for ΓL . The positive imaginary parts are the result of a negative damping
49
n
nr = √ (3.27)
ε0 µ 0
For the lossy situation, a representation of the refraction index can be obtained and is shown
in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Relative refraction index (nr = √ n ), using the lossy LDM, on the DPS-DNG
ε0 µ0
interface.
In Figure 3.8 we also have the representation of the same three regions, as mentioned before.
As we expected on the DNG region we have a negative refraction index and on the DPS
region we have a positive refraction index. From the variation n on the ENG region, where
we also have a negative real component of the refraction index, we can take an important
conclusion. The existence of a negative real refraction index on this ENG region proves that a
DNG medium has always the designation of (Negative Refraction Index) but a NRI medium
does not have to be DNG, as we can see when considering losses and dispersion.
The representation of the dispersion relation, β(ω), using the Lorentz Dispersive Model, and
50
considering losses, is showed in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: Dispersion relation, β(ω), using the lossy LDM, on the DPS-DNG interface.
From the graphical representation of the dispersion relation in Figure 3.9 we can see that
the value of β(ω) no longer goes to innity (as it does when neglecting losses, Figure 3.4).
Both the real and the imaginary parts of β(ω) experience a signicant increase in the range
µ2 (ω)2 ε2 (ω)2
of frequencies where there were asymptotes (
µ 2 = 1 (or
ε2 = 1) but they can now
1 1
The representation of the attenuation constants for both the TE and TM modes are depicted
51
Figure 3.10: Attenuation constants α1 and α2 , for the TE modes, using the lossy LDM, on
the DPS-DNG interface
Figure 3.11: Attenuation constants α1 , for the TM modes, using the lossy LDM, on the
DPS-DNG interface
52
The attenuation constants have also, for this frequency interval, a positive real part, as a
condition to have propagation along the interface and exponential attenuation as we move
away from it, as stated in (3.21) and (3.22) but now the imaginary parts of both α1 and α2
are always negative, condition that is needed in order to have propagation along the z-axis.
From the expressions in (3.11) we can also have a graphical representation of the electric eld's
variation along the x-axis dimension. This is shown in Figure 3.12. The variation of the eld
this is a representation of the eld in the interface (which is at x = 0) and the attenuation as
we get further from it. From modal equations (3.18) and (3.20) we can also verify that the
slope of the eld branches is also inuenced by the values of both the permittivities and the
Figure 3.12: Variation of the electric eld, Ey (t = 0, x, z), on the DPS-DNG Interface
53
3.2 Propagation on a DNG Slab Waveguide
In this section we will study the propagation of electromagnetic waves on a DNG slab waveg-
For the TE modes, and as we have done in the previous chapter, we have the following wave
equation:
∂2
E + k02 n2i + β 2 E = 0
(3.28)
∂x2
The solutions form this equation, considering that −d < x < d, can take the form of:
with h1 = ω 2 µ1 ε1 + β 2 .
For this structure we have presented for the slab, we want that the electric eld decays with
distance as we get away from the slab, so the evanescence of the electric eld can be represented
by:
54
C exp(ih2 x) , x≥d
Ey (x) = (3.30)
D exp(ih2 x) x ≤ −d
,
h2 = ±jα2 (3.31)
Placing this attenuation constant in (3.30) we can now establish for the evanescent elds the
following expressions:
C exp(−α2 x) , x≥d
Ey (x) = (3.33)
D exp(α2 x) x ≤ −d
,
From the result on (3.30) we can see that there are two kinds of solutions:
We will show the manipulation only for the odd mode since the procedure is the same for the
even mode.
We can now represent the electric eld, inside and outside the slab, by the following relations:
55
B sin(h1 x) exp(iβz) , |x| ≤ d
Ey (x) = C exp(−α2 x) exp(iβz) , x≥d (3.34)
D exp(α2 x) exp(iβz) , x ≤ −d
Obtaining the magnetic eld expression can be done by using Faraday's Law, from the
Maxwell's Equations:
∇ × E = iωµH (3.35)
1 ∂Ey ∂Ey
H= − x
b+ zb (3.36)
iωµ ∂z ∂x
Applying this equation on the resultant eld expression on (3.34) we obtain the magnetic eld
Bβ ih1B
− ωµ sin(h1 x)b
x+ cos(h1 x)b
z exp(iβz) , |x| ≤ d
1 ωµ1
Hy (x) =
Cβ iCα2 (3.37)
− ωµ2
exp(−α2 x)b
x+ ωµ2 exp(−α2 x)b
z exp(iβz) , x≥d
Dβ iCα2
− ωµ x−
exp(α2 x)b exp(α2 x)b
z exp(iβz) , x≤d
2 ωµ2
Applying the boundary conditions at the interface (x = d), assuring the continuity of the
56
µ2
−h1 cot(h1 d) = α2 (3.39)
µ1
We call to this result in (3.39) the asymmetric or odd TE modal equation, as we have used
Repeating the same kind of algebraic manipulation procedure to the even solution of the wave
µ2
h1 tan(h1 d) = α2 (3.40)
µ1
Achieving the results for the both the odd and even TE modal equations for the slab structure:
−h1 d µµ12 cot(h1 d) = α2 d (Odd Modes)
(3.41)
h1 d µµ12 tan(h1 d) = α2 d
(Even Modes)
−h1 d εε12 cot(h1 d) = α2 d (Odd Modes)
(3.42)
h1 d εε21 tan(h1 d) = α2 d
(Even Modes)
We can now simplify the modal equations by making the following substitutions:
a = α2 d (3.43)
b = h1 d (3.44)
57
Obtaining for the TE modes he following relations:
a = − µµ21 b cot(b) (assymetric mode)
(3.45)
µ2
a= µ1 b tan(b)
(symmetric mode)
a2 + b2 = V 2 (3.46)
√
V = k0 d ε2 µ2 − ε1 µ1 (3.47)
The intersection of the curve(3.46) with the modal equations will represent the modal solutions
We will now study the surface modes on the DNG slab. From (3.29) we can easily nd that the
√
transverse propagation constant h1 can take real values if β < ω ε1 µ 1 and imaginary values if
√
β > ω ε1 µ 1 and, for the analysis of the slab, we know that assuming either imaginary or real
values for h1 we will maintain the surface mode conditions where we have the wave diminish
with distance from the slab. Let us now assume that B = −ib, if we consider the following
relations:
tan(ix) = i tanh(x)
(3.48)
cot(ix) = −i coth(x)
58
We can now rewrite equations (3.45) and (3.46):
µ2
a=− B coth(B) (3.49)
µ1
µ2
a=− B tanh(B) (3.50)
µ1
a2 = B 2 + V 2 (3.51)
We can now nd the numerical solutions for the modes graphically. These solutions can be
found as the result of the intersection of the curves obtained from the modal equations (3.50)
and (3.51) and the curve from (3.46) or (3.51), as we have said before.
At rst we will consider the DPS situation where ε1 = µ 1 = 1 and ε2 = µ2 = 2, the graphical
solution is shown on Figure 3.14, where the horizontal positive semi-axis represents the trans-
verse propagation constant b and the negative semi-axis represent its imaginary value, that
On Figure 3.15 we have the modal solution's representation, but now considering a DNG slab
As we can see from the Figures 3.14 and Figure 3.15, for the DNG slab there are also solutions
with imaginary values of b, that we dened as B . These modes are called super-slow modes,
ω
since the phase velocity, given by vp = β , assumes such values that:
c
vp < √ (3.52)
ε2 µ 2
Form Figure 3.16 we can also see positive modal solutions, with b being real, as we have
59
Figure 3.14: The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection of
the curves for a DPS slab with ε1 = µ 1 = 1 and ε2 = µ2 = 2.
seen on the DPS slab, represented on Figure 3.14. These positive-b surface modes are called
slow-modes since the value of the phase velocity assumes values on the interval:
c c
√ < vp < √ (3.53)
ε2 µ 2 ε1 µ 1
Since we are now dealing with a DNG medium for the slab, ε2 , µ2 < 0, this inverses the
signal of the modal equations in such way that the slopes of the tangents and cotangents are
changed, and we also have some slow-modes that, for a given range of frequencies, can have
more than one solution for the same h1 d value, as we can see on Figure 3.16. The slow/super-
slow transitions for multiple solutions of the same mode can be described by the next relations.
2
µ1
cos2 (b) +
2
sin (b) + b tan(b) = 0 (3.54)
|µ2 |
60
Figure 3.15: The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection of
the curves for a DNG slab with ε1 = µ1 = 1 , ε2 = µ2 = −1.5 and V = 0.5
2
2 µ1 2
sin (b) + cos (b) + b cot(b) = 0 (3.55)
|µ2 |
The representation of the dispersion diagram for the DNG dielectric slab, shown on Figure
3.17.
Here we can see the two dashed lines that represent transition limits dened by functions of
modes on the slab, where h1 d = 0. The second limit line, from the relation k0 d = √ βd , gives
µ2 ε2
us the transition border from a slow-mode to a super-slow surface mode, as we can see from
Figure 3.17 where the fundamental mode is a super-slow odd mode represented by a red curve.
µ1
This super-slow mode, from Figure 3.17, becomes a slow-mode when V = |µ2 | and propagates
61
Figure 3.16: The representation of the modal solutions (red dots) given by the intersection of
the curves for a DNG slab with ε1 = µ1 = 1 , ε2 = µ2 = −1.5 and V =3
π
until V = 2 as we can see from Figure 3.18.
i) ii)
Figure 3.18: Modal solutions (red dots) for a DNG slab with ε1 = µ 1 = 1 , ε2 = µ2 = −2,
with (i) V = µ1
|µ2 | and (ii) V = π
2
On this DNG slab structure, from the results on Figure 3.18, we can conclude that there is a
direct relation between the constitutive parameters and the resultant dispersive diagram, as
the point from which the fundamental mode transitions from a super-slow mode to a slow-
mode depends on the value of both µ1 and µ2 . On the previous situation, that we have used to
62
Figure 3.17: Dispersion diagram for a DNG slab with ε1 = µ 1 = 1 and ε2 = µ2 = −1.5
generate the results on both Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17, we have assumed that µ1 ε1 < µ2 ε2
and that µ1 < |µ2 |, however, if we consider a case where the slab's inner medium is less dense
than the outer medium, µ1 ε1 > µ2 ε2 , we obtain dierent and important results.
From the expression (3.50), where we dened the normalized frequency, we can easily nd that
V2 <0 (3.56)
From this result, and still considering the situation where the outer medium is more dense
b2 + a2 < 0 (3.57)
Considering that, in order to have propagation one must satisfy the condition:
63
a2 ≥ 0 (3.58)
So now we can conclude, from equations (3.57) and (3.58), that the following relation must be
b2 < 0 (3.59)
These conditions can only be true if we are in the presence of super-slow modes, as we can
see from Figure 3.19, which verify (3.58) , (3.59) and B 2 + V 2 ≥ 0. From this result we can
say that the propagation on less dense interior medium, as stated by the inequality (3.56), is
only possible if we are in the presence of super-slow modes and this is a phenomenon that is
We will now analyze the dispersion diagrams for this situations but considering the inuence
of the constitutive parameters, as we have mentioned before. As we have done for the denser
inner medium, we will rst consider the case where |µ2 | > µ1 . The dispersion diagram is
Here we can see that there is propagation of two super-slow modes where, as we increase in
ω
frequency, or k0 = c , both transverse propagation constants, β tend for the same value. Both
these modes have a null cuto frequency, one being a conventional mode, the even one, and a
The dispersion diagram where |µ2 | < µ1 is shown on Figure 3.20 in order to compare with the
64
Figure 3.19: Dispersion diagram for a DNG slab with ε1 = 2, µ1 = 1 , ε2 = −1 and µ2 = −1.5
Figure 3.20: Dispersion diagram for a DNG slab with ε1 = 2, µ1 = 2 , ε2 = −1 and µ2 = −1.5
65
On this situation we can see that only one even super-slow mode propagates and on a limited
frequency band. We can also notice that, for all the frequency band in which the mode
propagates, there are always two modal solutions and these tend to the same value as we
increase the frequency. The point where the double-solutions intersect represents the limit
3.3 Conclusions
In this chapter we have studied and presented the propagation in a DNG metamaterial medium
by analyzing the physical phenomena and implications of having both a negative magnetic
permeability and electric permittivity. We have shown that in this kind of media the existence
of waves that propagate in a antiparticle direction of the power ux is noticed, called the
Backward Waves, and that we are in the presence of a Negative Index of Refraction material,
which implies some modications in the interpretation of Snell's Law. A dispersive analysis
is also made using the Lorentz Dispersive Model, and for a particularization called the Drude
Model, and using these models we have also shown that it is possible to nd a DNG interval
even when considering dispersion. From this introduction of losses we have also concluded that
both the group and phase velocities have dierent values and, for this kind of DNG media,
We have also presented, in this chapter the study of two wave guiding structures using DNG
metamaterials: the DPS-DNG interface and the DNG slab. This is important because these
kind of waveguides present particular physical eects that could be used in wave propagation
structures and even replace some most common DPS guides. The dispersive models mentioned
First we have showed that it is possible to have both TE and TM surface mode wave prop-
agation on a DPS-DNG interface. This kind of propagation mode is new and does not exist
in other more conventional DPS wave guiding structures. We have also found that, when
66
not neglecting losses, the feature of being a NIR medium can be applied to all DNG media
but the NIR designation is not exclusive of DNG materials since there are other non DNG
frequency bands where the medium also acts as a NIR. When dealing with the propagation of
this surface waves we have also seen that it permits large attenuation outside the interface.
Finally we have analyzed the guided propagation on a DNG slab, whose electromagnetic
proprieties can be of large interest for the practical application of DNG materials to the
construction of waveguides. In this structure there's also the possibility of having surface
wave mode propagation but the most important result is the propagation of super-slow modes
that are a consequence of having a phase velocity that is smaller than the outer medium in
which a DNG slab is immersed (there is also slow-mode propagation that exhibits a double
modal solution for some frequency bands). The existence of these super-slow modes enables the
propagation on the DNG slab even if we use a less dense medium for the slab (i.e., medium
2) when compared to the outer medium (i.e. medium 2), ε1 µ1 > ε2 µ2 . This phenomenon
is veried, fullling the propagation conditions, only on double negative materials. When
analyzing the dispersion relation diagrams for the ε1 µ1 > ε2 µ2 structure we could see that
for a medium with |µ2 | > µ1 the are two super-slow modes and for a medium with µ1 > |µ2 |
only one super-slow mode propagates on a limited frequency band, but that there are, in this
The study of DNG media characterization and the application of DNG materials in the pre-
sented wave guiding structures could help the understanding of implications and capabilities
67
68
Chapter 4
Let us consider that there are light rays emanating from a source at point O and that they
are being transmitted in the θ direction. In order to convert these light rays to plane waves
we must use a lens to assure that the optical paths for the dierent directions are equal as
69
Considering, in this 2D representation, a plane wavefront dened by the line formed with
points P1 and P2 , we can state that the two optical paths must be equal, one from O to P1
(where we have free space propagation), and one from O to P2 (where there is free space
propagation from O to c, and the propagation in a medium with a refraction index of n from
Or in polar coordinates:
d(1 − n)
R= (4.3)
[1 − n cos(θ)]
R
x= d cos(θ)
(4.4)
y= R
sin(θ)
d
Where,
R p 2 1−n
= x + y2 = (4.5)
d 1 − n cos(θ)
From expression (4.5) we can also establish a direct relation between the coordinates and only
70
p 1−n
x2 + y 2 = (4.6)
1 − n √ 2x
x +y 2
2
y2
n 1
x− − = (4.7)
n+1 n2 − 1 (n + 1)2
From this expression we can achieve the lens contour in order to verify the equality we have
shown in (4.1). We can also see that expression (4.7) is in fact an elliptical formula, which
the 2D lens contours are also commonly called as circles [19]. Dierent lens' contours, for
Figure 4.2: The lenses contours for dierent refraction indexes, n = −2.5, −1.5, 100, 1.5, 2.5
1
From (4.2) we can see that there is an asymptote in n= cos(θ) , making the contours hyperbolic.
We can also see from Figure 4.2 that the curvature is the opposite depending on n being either
positive or negative.
After we have calculated the optical path we can now analyze the design in terms of focal
71
length. The focal length can be seen as a measure of how strongly the lens converges or
diverges light, or in geometric terms, the distance over which initially transmitted rays are
Rc
f = (4.8)
1 − n
From this expression we can see that this length depends on the refractive index, n, and
the radius-of-curvature of the lens surface, Rc . We can note, as an example, that a concave
cylindrical lens with n = −1 has the same focusing properties as a convex lens with n = +3
so, if we consider n to be negative, a lens with that properties can alter the trajectory of
As we have seen from the expression (4.7) and in Figure 4.2, as the refraction index tends
to large values (or even innity), the contour tends to a straight line, which can be called
?
as a at lens [ ]. Knowing that such a large refractive index does not have any important
?
practical application [ ], a functional at lens was proposed by Victor Georgievich Veselago
? ?
in 1968 [ ]. In Veselago's paper [ ] he proposed that a planar slab, composed by a material
with the refractive index n = −n0 , with n0 being the refractive index of the medium in which
the slab was immersed, would focus the light waves emitted by a source to a single point. This
can be showed by a simple application of Snell's law, using a structure with two consecutive
?
boundaries. This structure is called the Veselago's at lens [ ] and a graphical representation
72
Figure 4.3: Passage of light waves through a Veselago at lens, A: the image source, B: focused
image, i.f.: the internal focus point
This lens geometry and structure, which converts a diverging beam to a converging one, and
vice-versa, creates the existence of a particular point called the internal focus, represented in
Figure 4.3. Knowing that the optical path from the external focus point to the internal focus
point must be zero, we can also processed to the computation of the lens contour, as we have
done in the previous section. From Figure 4.3 we can state that, in order to have an equality
where, n is the refractive index of the lens. Assuming that the optical path from focus to focus
d1 + nd2 = 0 (4.11)
73
In polar coordinates, after some manipulation:
2
r1 r1
(n + 1) − 2n cos(θ) + (n − 1) = 0 (4.12)
d1 d1
As done in (4.4), using the Cartesian co-ordinates we obtain the following equation for the
lens contour:
2
n 1
x− + y2 = (4.13)
n+1 (n + 1)2
n
Which is the expression of a circumference centered at
n+1 , 0 , and when n = −1 we also
obtain a at lens. The equality imposed by expression (4.4) clearly implies that one must have
Let us now consider the general expression for the impedance of a specic medium:
r
µ 0 µi
Zi = (4.14)
ε 0 εi
If we consider that the slab's material has, for the relative permittivity and permeability,
both εr = µr = −1, we can state that this DNG medium is a perfect match to free space
(ε0r = µ0r = 1). From this result, one of the conclusions is that there will not be reections
at the interfaces between the lens and freespace and even at the far boundary interface there
is again an impedance match, and the light is again perfectly transmitted to vaccum.
If the propagation is done in the zb axis, in order to have all the energy transmitted through
r
ω
kz0 =− − kx2 − ky2 (4.15)
c2
74
r
0 ω
T = tt = exp(ikz0 d) = exp −i 2 2
− kx − ky d (4.16)
c2
where d is the thickness of the slab. The choice of the propagation constant is done in order to
maintain causality and this phase correction is what grants the lens the capability of refocusing
the image by canceling the phase of the transmitted wave as it propagates from its source [ ]. ?
Let us consider a TE wave propagating in the vaccum, medium 1, with the following eld
expression:
r
ω2
kz = i kx2 + ky2 − (4.18)
c2
ω
with kx2 + ky2 > c2
. From this eld expression in (4.17) we can easily identify that we are
dealing with an exponentially evanescent eld. At the interface, between media 1 and 2, the
waves experience both transmission (into medium 2) and the reection (back to medium 1).
It is also important to notice that in order to maintain causality the elds must decay as the
get away from the interface, so the eld expression for the transmitted wave can be:
75
r
ω
kz0 = i kx2 + ky2 − ε2 µ2 2 (4.21)
c
with ε2 and µ2 being the permittivity and permeability of the slab, and also having kx2 + ky2 >
ε2 µ2 cω2 .
When matching the wave elds at the interface from medium 1 to medium 2 we obtain the
2µkz
t= (4.22)
µkz + kz0
µkz − kz0
r= (4.23)
µkz + kz0
And for the transmission and reection coecients of the transition from inside medium 2 to
medium 1:
2kz0
t0 = (4.24)
µkz + kz0
kz0 − µkz
r0 = (4.25)
kz0 + µkz
Now in order to obtain the expression for the transmission of light through both the interfaces
Ts = tt0 exp(ikz0 d) + tt0 r02 exp(3ikz0 d) + tt0 r03 exp(5ikz0 d) + (...) (4.26)
tt0 exp(ikz0 d)
Ts = (4.27)
1 − r02 exp(2ikz0 d)
76
Considering the DNG situation (with ε = µ = −1), and using (4.22)-(4.27), we can compute
the limit to this values of permittivity and permeability in order to nd the overall transmission
coecient. The solution for this special kind of structure is calculated asymptotically as n
approaches −1:
limµ→−1,ε→−1 (T s) =
tt0 exp(ikz0 d)
= limµ→−1,ε→−1 1−r02 exp(2ikz0 d)
= (4.28)
!
2µkz 2kz0 exp(ikz0 d)
= limµ→−1,ε→−1 µkz +kz0 µkz +kz0 kz −µkz 2
0 =
1− k0 +µk exp(2ikz0 d)
z z
= exp(−ikz0 d) = exp(−ikz d)
This result in (4.29) is very important. As another consequence of having a negative index of
refraction, we have waves of the form exp(−kz ), outside the lens, that couple to waves of the
form exp(kz ) inside the lens. So, even if the waves decay outside the lens, they are amplied
on the inside of it, recovering an image on the opposite side of the lens, from the source, and
all done by the transmission process. On Figure 4.4 we can see the evolution of the evanescent
Since the waves decay in amplitude and not in phase, as they get further from the source, the
lens focus the image by amplifying these waves rather than correcting the phase. This is a
proof that this medium does in fact amplify the evanescent waves, and so, with this kind of
lens, both the propagating and evanescent waves contribute to the resolution of the resulting
?
image [ ].
As we have stated before, as the result of the perfect matched impedance, there will be no
reected wave on the interface as we can also see by the asymptotic analysis of the overall
reection coecient:
77
Figure 4.4: Evanescent eld variation in the presence of the Veselago's at lens.
limµ→−1,ε→−1 (Rs) =
(4.29)
tt0
exp(ikz0 d)
= limµ→−1,ε→−1 r + 1−r exp(2ikz0 d)
02 =0
Which conrms that all the energy is transmitted between the media transitions.
4.3 Conclusions
In this chapter we have presented the optical lens design using the concept of optical path,
and we have particularized the design process with the usage of DNG materials. In order to
do so we have studied the situation where a DNG slab is used in order to produce an high
From the concept of optical path we have obtained an expression that enables us to infer
about the geometrical form of the lens contour and about its dependence on the value of the
refractive index of the lens material. The curvature of the lens contour can be concave if we are
dealing with positive refraction indexes and convex if we are dealing with negative refraction
78
index materials. The at lens contour is obtained when using large values of n, which is really
unpractical, or if n → −1. The concept of focal lenght is also introduced into the lens design
and we have seen that for a lens made of a DNG material, we can obtain the same focal lenght
as we would if a DPS material was used, but with the implication of having a much smaller
refraction index.
Then we introduce the Veselago DNG at lens. This lens structure consists of a planar DNG
slab, composed by a material with the refractive index n = −n0 , with n0 being the refractive
index of the medium in which the slab was immersed, that can focus the light waves emitted by
a source to a single point. This phenomenon is achieved by a simple ray tracing problem using
Snell's Law. When considering that the slab's material has, for the relative permittivity and
permeability, both εr = µr = −1 we could see that there was a perfect impedance match for
both interfaces between the DNG slab and the medium in which it was immersed. From this
result, one of the conclusions is that there will not be reections at the interfaces between the
lens and free space and even at the far boundary interface there is again an impedance match,
and the light is again perfectly transmitted to vaccum to a single point. The DNG material
properties creates a physical phenomenon where we have waves of the form exp(−kz ), outside
the lens, that couple to waves of the form exp(kz ) inside the lens. So, even if the waves decay
outside the lens, they amplied inside of it, recovering an image on the opposite side of the
lens, from the source. These two results are the responsible of granting the lens a capability
of refocusing the image by canceling the phase of the transmitted wave as it propagates from
its source.
This introduction into the lens design using DNG materials is important as its particular
physical properties could enable the creation of high resolution lenses and it is a proof of
79
80
Chapter 5
Conclusions
In this chapter main conclusions are exposed as well as some developing potential applica-
tions and further investigation hypothesis of the subjects addressed in this dissertation are
introduced.
5.1 Summary
In the second chapter we study the electromagnetic phenomena associated with DNG meta-
materials. After formulating the classication of a specic medium as DNG, the implications
of having a negative permittivity and permeability lead into studying the characterization of
the medium and the physical phenomena. We have shown that in this kind of media the exis-
tence of waves that propagate in a antiparalell direction of the power ux is noticed, called the
Backward Waves, and that we are in the presence of a Negative Index of Refraction material,
which implies some modications in the interpretation of Snell's Law. A dispersive analysis
is also made using the Lorentz Dispersive Model, and for a particularization called the Drude
Model, and using these models we have also shown that it is possible to nd a DNG interval
even when considering dispersion. From this introduction of losses we have also concluded that
81
both the group and phase velocities have dierent values and, for this kind of DNG media,
The third chapter deals with the guided wave propagation with DNG materials. We have
chosen to study two simple structures, the DPS-DNG interface and te DNG slab. A modal
analysis was made for both waveguiding structures and also numerical simulations, with the
respective interpretations. First we have showed that it is possible to have both TE and TM
surface mode wave propagation on a DPS-DNG interface. This kind of propagation mode is
new and does not exist in other more conventional DPS wave guiding structures. We have
also found that, when not neglecting losses, the feature of being a NIR medium can be applied
to all DNG media but the NIR designation is not exclusive of DNG materials since there
are other non DNG frequency bands where the medium also acts as a NIR. When dealing
with the propagation of this surface waves we have also seen that it permits large attenuation
outside the interface. Finally we have analyzed the guided propagation on a DNG slab,
whose electromagnetic proprieties can be of large interest for the practical application of DNG
materials to the construction of waveguides. In this structure there's also the possibility of
having surface wave mode propagation but the most important result is the propagation of
super-slow modes that are a consequence of having a phase velocity that is smaller than the
outer medium in which a DNG slab is immersed (there is also slow-mode propagation that
exhibits a double modal solution for some frequency bands). The existence of these super-slow
modes enables the propagation on the DNG slab even if we use a less dense medium for the
slab (i.e., medium 2) when compared to the outer medium (i.e. medium 2), ε1 µ1 > ε2 µ2 .
This phenomenon is veried, fullling the propagation conditions, only on double negative
materials. When analyzing the dispersion relation diagrams for the ε1 µ1 > ε2 µ2 structure we
could see that for a medium with |µ2 | > µ1 the are two super-slow modes and for a medium
with µ1 > |µ2 | only one super-slow mode propagates on a limited frequency band, but that
The fourth chapter is dedicated to the study of lens design using DNG metamaterials. We have
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presented the optical lens design using the concept of optical path, and we have particularized
the design process with the usage of DNG materials. In order to do so we have studied the
situation where a DNG slab is used in order to produce an high resolution lens, which is called
the Veselago's at lens. From the concept of optical path we have obtained an expression that
enables us to infer about the geometrical form of the lens contour and about its dependence
on the value of the refractive index of the lens material. The curvature of the lens contour can
be concave if we are dealing with positive refraction indexes and convex if we are dealing with
negative refraction index materials. The concept of focal lenght is also introduced into the lens
design and we have seen that for a lens made of a DNG material, we can obtain the same focal
lenght as we would if a DPS material was used, but with the implication of having a much
smaller refraction index. Then we introduced the Veselago DNG at lens. This lens structure
consists of a planar DNG slab, composed by a material with the refractive index n = −n0 ,
with n0 being the refractive index of the medium in which the slab was immersed, that can
focus the light waves emitted by a source to a single point. This phenomenon is achieved by a
simple ray tracing problem using Snell's Law. When considering that the slab's material has,
for the relative permittivity and permeability, both εr = µr = −1 we could see that there was a
perfect impedance match for both interfaces between the DNG slab and the medium in which
it was immersed. From this result, one of the conclusions is that there will not be reections at
the interfaces between the lens and free space and even at the far boundary interface there is
again an impedance match, and the light is again perfectly transmitted to vaccum to a single
point. The DNG material properties creates a physical phenomenon where we have waves of
the form exp(−kz ), outside the lens, that couple to waves of the form exp(kz ) inside the lens.
So, even if the waves decay outside the lens, they amplied inside of it, recovering an image on
the opposite side of the lens, from the source. These two results are the responsible of granting
the lens a capability of refocusing the image by canceling the phase of the transmitted wave
as it propagates from its source. This is indeed a very important result since no longer the
resolution is restricted by the wavelength of the propagated light waves, as we can found in
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conventional lens structures.
When dealing with DNG media propagation the physical implications are more profound than
one could nd at rst sight. One could study the physical aspects of DNG media in motion,
the non linear eects of a DNG medium and the study of the anisotropic properties of media,
We have also addressed two simple DNG waveguiding structures but there is a large set of
known DPS guides in which one could replace or add, one or several, DNG media, leading to
Since no longer the resolution is restricted by the wavelength of the propagated light waves,
as we can found in conventional lens structures, the design of DNG metamaterial lens can also
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