Research ass

1. As a researcher you must decide at the outset whether you will use primary data or secondary
data in your research, so the choice between the two depends mainly on which considerations?
Explain.
Primary data

An advantage of using primary data is that researchers are collecting information for the specific
purposes of their study. In essence, the questions the researchers ask are tailored to elicit the data
that will help them with their study. Researchers collect the data themselves, using surveys,
interviews and direct observations.
In the field of workplace health research, for example, direct observations may involve a
researcher watching people at work. The researcher could count and code the number of times
she sees practices or behaviours relevant to her interest; e.g. instances of improper lifting posture
or the number of hostile or disrespectful interactions workers engage in with clients and
customers over a period of time.
To take another example, let’s say a research team wants to find out about workers’ experiences
in return to work after a work-related injury. Part of the research may involve interviewing
workers by telephone about how long they were off work and about their experiences with the
return-to-work process. The workers’ answers–considered primary data–will provide the
researchers with specific information about the return-to-work process; e.g. they may learn about
the frequency of work accommodation offers, and the reasons some workers refused such offers.
Secondary data

There are several types of secondary data. They can include information from the national
population census and other government information collected by Statistics Canada. One type of
secondary data that’s used increasingly is administrative data. This term refers to data that is
collected routinely as part of the day-to-day operations of an organization, institution or agency.
There are any number of examples: motor vehicle registrations, hospital intake and discharge
records, workers’ compensation claims records, and more.
Compared to primary data, secondary data tends to be readily available and inexpensive to
obtain. In addition, administrative data tends to have large samples, because the data collection is
comprehensive and routine. What’s more, administrative data (and many types of secondary
data) are collected over a long period. That allows researchers to detect change over time.
 Going back to the return-to-work study mentioned above, the researchers could also examine
secondary data in addition to the information provided by their primary data (i.e. survey results).
They could look at workers’ compensation lost-time claims data to determine the amount of time
workers were receiving wage replacement benefits. With a combination of these two data
sources, the researchers may be able to determine which factors predict a shorter work absence
among injured workers. This information could then help improve return to work for other
injured workers.
The type of data researchers choose can depend on many things including the research question,
their budget, their skills and available resources. Based on these and other factors, they may
choose to use primary data, secondary data–or both
Q.2 What are the most common methods of collecting primary data? As a researcher, elucidate
each of them in detail with their usage and suitability?
What is Primary Data? 
Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources through
interviews, surveys, experiments, etc. Primary data are usually collected from the source—where
the data originally originates from and are regarded as the best kind of data in research.
The sources of primary data are usually chosen and tailored specifically to meet the demands or
requirements of a particular research. Also, before choosing a data collection source, things like
the aim of the research and target population need to be identified.
For example, when doing a market survey, the goal of the survey and the sample population need
to be identified first. This is what will determine what data collection source will be most
suitable—an offline survey will be more suitable for a population living in remote areas without
internet connection compared to online surveys.
Examples of Primary Data
 Market Research
This is an important aspect of business strategy that involves the process of gathering
information about the target market and customers. The data gathered during market research is
primary as it is tailored specifically to meet the business needs.
An organization doing market research about a new product (say phone) they are about to release
will need to collect data like purchasing power, feature preferences, daily phone usage, etc. from
the target market. The data from past surveys are not used because the product differs.
 Student Thesis
When conducting academic research or a thesis experiment, students collect data from the
primary source. The kind of data collected during this process may vary according to the kind of
research being performed—lab experiments, statistical data gathering, etc.
For example, a student carrying out a research project with the aim of finding out the effect of
daily intake of fruit juice on an individual's weight will need to take a sample population of 2 or
more people, feed them with fruit juice daily and record the changes in their weight. The data
gathered throughout this process is primary.
 Trauma Survivors
Although people react differently to trauma, there is usually a trait common to people who have
gone through the same kind of trauma. The research aimed at finding out how victims of sexual
abuse overcame the traumatic experience will include interviewing the survivors, sending them
surveys, or any other primary source of data collection.
Experiences differ and every situation is unique. Therefore, using secondary data may not be the
best option in this case.
 Primary Data Collection Methods
Primary data collection methods are different ways in which primary data can be collected. It
explains the tools used in collecting primary data, some of which are highlighted below:
 Interviews:
Interview is a method of data collection that involves two groups of people, where the first group
is the interviewer (the researcher(s) asking questions and collecting data) and the interviewee
(the subject or respondent that is being asked questions). The questions and responses during an
interview may be oral or verbal as the case may be.
 Interviews can be carried out in 2 ways, namely; in-person interviews and telephonic interviews.
An in-person interview requires an interviewer or a group of interviewers to ask questions from
the interviewee in a face to face fashion. 
It can be direct or indirect, structured or structure, focused or unfocused, etc. Some of the tools
used in carrying out in-person interviews include a notepad or recording device to take note of
the conversation—very important due to human forgetful nature.
Telephonic interviews, on the other hand, are carried out over the phone through ordinary voice
call or video calls. The 2 parties involved may decide to use video calls like Skype to carry out
interviews.
A mobile phone, Laptop, Tablet or desktop computer with an internet connection is required for
this.
Pros
 In-depth information can be collected.
 Non-response and response bias can be detected.
 The samples can be controlled.
Cons
 It is more time-consuming.
 It is expensive.
 The interviewer may be biased.
 Surveys & Questionnaires
Surveys and questionnaires are 2 similar tools used in collecting primary data. They are a group
of questions typed or written down and sent to the sample of study to give responses.
After giving the required responses, the survey is given back to the researcher to record. It is
advisable to conduct a pilot study where the questionnaires are filled by experts and meant to
assess the weakness of the questions or techniques used.
There are 2 main types of surveys used for data collection, namely; online and offline
surveys. Online surveys are carried out using internet-enabled devices like mobile phones, PCs,
Tablets, etc.
They can be shared with respondents through email, websites, or social media. Offline surveys,
on the other hand, do not require an internet connection for it to be carried out.
 The most common type of offline survey is paper-based surveys. However, there are also offline
surveys like Formplus that can be filled with a mobile device without access to an internet
connection. 
This kind of survey is called online-offline surveys because they can be filled offline but require
an internet connection to be submitted.
Pros
 Respondents have adequate time to give responses.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer.
 They are cheaper compared to interviews.
Cons
 A high rate of non-response bias.
 It is inflexible and can't be changed once sent.
 It is a slow process.

 Observation
Observation method is mostly used in studies related to behavioral science. The researcher uses
observation as a scientific tool and method of data collection. Observation as a data collection
tool is usually systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.
There are different approaches to the observation method—structured or unstructured, controlled
or uncontrolled, and participant, non-participant, or disguised approach.
The structured and unstructured approach is characterized by careful definition of subjects of
observation, style of observer, conditions, and selection of data. An observation process that
satisfies this is said to be structured and vice versa.
A controlled and uncontrolled approach signifies whether the research took place in a natural
setting or according to some pre-arranged plans. If an observation is done in a natural setting, it
is uncontrolled but becomes controlled if done in a laboratory.
Before employing a new teacher, academic institutions sometimes ask for a sample teaching
class to test the teacher's ability. The evaluator joins the class and observes the teaching, making
him or her a participant.
 The evaluation may also decide to observe from outside the class, becoming a non-participant.
An evaluator may also be asked to stay in class and disguise as a student, in order to carry out a
disguised observation.
Pros
 The data is usually objective.
 Data is not affected by past or future events.
Cons
 The information is limited.
 It is expensive 
 Focus Groups
Focus Groups are gathering of 2 or more people with similar characteristics or who possess
common traits. They seek open-ended thoughts and contributions from participants.
A focus group is a primary source of data collection because the data is collected directly from
the participant. It is commonly used for market research, where a group of market consumers
engage in a discussion with a research moderator.
It is slightly similar to interviews, but this involves discussions and interactions rather than
questions and answers. Focus groups are less formal and the participants are the ones who do
most of the talking, with moderators there to oversee the process.
Pros
 It incurs a low cost compared to interviews. This is because the interviewer does not have
to discuss with each participant individually.
 It takes lesser time too.
Cons
 Response bias is a problem in this case because a participant might be subjective to what
people will think about sharing a sincere opinion.
 Group thinking does not clearly mirror individual opinions.
 Experiments
An experiment is a structured study where the researchers attempt to understand the causes,
effects, and processes involved in a particular process. This data collection method is usually
controlled by the researcher, who determines which subject is used, how they are grouped and
the treatment they receive.
 During the first stage of the experiment, the researcher selects the subject which will be
considered. Some actions are therefore carried out on these subjects, while the primary data
consisting of the actions and reactions are recorded by the researcher.
After which they will be analyzed and a conclusion will be drawn from the result of the analysis.
Although experiments can be used to collect different types of primary data, it is mostly used for
data collection in the laboratory.
Pros
 It is usually objective since the data recorded are results of a process.
 Non-response bias is eliminated.
Cons 
 Incorrect data may be recorded due to human error.
 It is expensive.
3. As a researcher you know very well that relevance and accuracy are the two basic
criteria to be met if the questionnaire is to achieve the researcher's purposes and to achieve
these ends, a researcher who plans systematically to design a questionnaire will be required
to make several decisions. Briefly explain each of the decisions with proper examples?
Data collection methods
Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use
a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).
Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys,
observations or case studies, your data can be represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or
counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you
observe).
However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.
Quantitative data collection methods
 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to
a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be
controlled.
 The most common sources of quantitative data include:
 Surveys, whether conducted online, by phone or in person. These rely on the same
questions being asked in the same way to a large number of people;
 Observations, which may either involve counting the number of times that a particular
phenomenon occurs, such as how often a particular word is used in interviews, or coding
observational data to translate it into numbers; and
 Secondary data, such as company accounts.

Qualitative data collection methods

 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that
can be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of
time to closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
Sources of Qualitative Data
Although qualitative data is much more general than quantitative, there are still a number
of common techniques for gathering it. These include:
 Interviews, which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured;
 Focus groups, which involve multiple participants discussing an issue;
 ‘Postcards’, or small-scale written questionnaires that ask, for example, three or four
focused questions of participants but allow them space to write in their own words;
 Secondary data, including diaries, written accounts of past events, and company reports;
and
 Observations, which may be on site, or under ‘laboratory conditions’, for example,
where participants are asked to role-play a situation to show what they might do
Q.4 Questionnaire Design
The two most common types of survey questions are closed-ended questions and open-ended
questions.
Closed-Ended Questions
 The respondents are given a list of predetermined responses from which to choose their
answer.
 The list of responses should include every possible response and the meaning of the
responses should not overlap.
 An example of a close-ended survey question would be, "Please rate how strongly you
agree or disagree with the following statement: 'I feel good about my work on the job.' Do you
strongly agree, somewhat agree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat disagree, or strongly
disagree?"
 A Likert scale, which is used in the example above, is a commonly used set of responses
for closed-ended questions.
 Closed-ended questions are usually preferred in survey research because of the ease of
counting the frequency of each response.
Open-Ended Questions
 Survey respondents are asked to answer each question in their own words. An example
would be, "In the last 12 months, what was the total income of all members of your household
from all sources before taxes and other deductions?" Another would be, "Please tell me why you
chose that child care provider?"
 It is worth noting that a question can be either open-ended or close-ended depending on
how it is asked. In the previous example, if the question on household income asked respondents
to choose from a given set of income ranges instead, it would be considered close-ended.
 Responses are usually categorized into a smaller list of responses that can be counted for
statistical analysis.
A well designed questionnaire is more than a collection of questions on one or more topics.
When designing a questionnaire, researchers must consider a number of factors that can affect
participation and the responses given by survey participants. Some of the things researchers must
consider to help ensure high rates of participation and accurate survey responses include:
 It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented.
o Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity,
should generally be placed near the end of the survey. This allows a level of trust or
psychological comfort to be established with the respondent before asking questions that might
be embarrassing or more personal.
o Researchers also recommend putting routine questions, such as age, gender, and
marital status, at the end of the questionnaire.
o Questions that are more central to the research topic or question and that may
serve to engage the respondent should be asked early. For example, a survey on children's early
development that is administered to parents should ask questions that are specific to their
children in the beginning or near the beginning of the survey.
 Double-barreled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a
survey. An example of a double-barreled question is, "Please rate how strongly you agree or
disagree with the following statement: 'I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along
well with others at work.'" This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked to
give one response for their feelings about two conditions of their job.
 Researchers should avoid or limit the use of professional jargon or highly specialized
terms, especially in surveys of the general population.
 Question and response option text should use words that are at the appropriate reading
level for research participants.
 The use of complex sentence structures should be avoided.
 Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases.
 The length of a questionnaire is always a consideration. There is a tendency to try and ask
too many questions and cover too many topics. The questionnaire should be kept to a reasonable
length and only include questions that are central to the research question(s). The length should
be appropriate to the mode of administration. For example, in general, online surveys are shorter
than surveys administered in-person.
Questionnaires and the procedures that will be used to administer them should be pretested (or
field tested) before they are used in a main study. The goal of the pretest is to identify any
problems with how questions are asked, whether they are understood by individuals similar to
those who will participate in the main study, and whether response options in close-ended
questions are adequate. For example, a parent questionnaire that will be used in a large study of
preschool-age children may be administered first to a small (often non-random) sample of
parents in order to identify any problems with how questions are asked and understood and
whether the response options that are offered to parents are adequate.
Q.5
A questionnaire can be a useful tool for gathering information. It can be used for survey research,
gathering data or testing a hypothesis. For a questionnaire to be effective and give you the
information you are looking for, you will need to design a survey that is easy to understand and
easy to complete. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The questionnaire was
invented by Sir Francis Galton. A questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent fills in by himself. It consists of a number of
questions printed or typed in a definite order. These forms are actually mailed to the respondent
who was expected to read and understand the questions and reply to them by writing the relevant
answers in the spaces provided. Ideally speaking respondent must answer to a verbal stimulus
and give a written or verbal response. It is totally devoid of any table. Its purpose is to collect
information from the respondents who are scattered over a vast area. Goode and Hatt have
defined questionnaire as a device for securing answers to questions by using a form
which the respondent fills himself.
According to Barr, Davis and Johnson “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions
that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired
In educational researches, the questionnaire consists of a sense of questions or statements to
which individuals are asked to respond the questions frequently asked for facts or the opinions,
attitudes or preferences of the respondents. Beginners are more commonly tempted to this tool,
because they imagine that planning and using a questionnaire is easier than the use of other tools.
It is also considered to be the most flexible of tools and possesses a unique advantage over others
in collecting both qualitative and quantitative information. Critics speak of it as the lazy man’s
way of gaining information, because it is comparatively easy to plan and administer a
questionnaire. As a matter of fact, preparation of a good questionnaire takes a great deal of time,
ingenuity and hard work.

Questionnaires are useful for

collecting biographical information on
speakers,
and quantifiable data on language
abilities, practices, and attitudes.
Survey research
can thus provide an overview of the
language situation of a given
population. In
community studies, for example,
questionnaires are helpful to get an
idea of who,
when and where the different
languages are spoken and of attitudes
towards them
Questionnaires are useful for
collecting biographical information on
speakers,
and quantifiable data on language
abilities, practices, and attitudes.
Survey research
can thus provide an overview of the
language situation of a given
population. In
community studies, for example,
questionnaires are helpful to get an
idea of who,
when and where the different
languages are spoken and of attitudes
towards them
Questionnaires are useful for
collecting biographical information on
speakers,
and quantifiable data on language
abilities, practices, and attitudes.
Survey research
can thus provide an overview of the
language situation of a given
population. In
 community studies, for example,
questionnaires are helpful to get an
idea of who,
when and where the different
languages are spoken and of attitudes
towards them
Q.6

Examples of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions

In a conversation, when completing a research survey, being interviewed for a job
or working on a homework assignment, you might find yourself presented with a
series of closed-ended or open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions are those
which can be answered by a simple "yes" or "no," while open-ended questions are
those which require more thought and more than a simple one-word answer.

Closed-Ended Questions

If you can answer a question with only a "yes" or "no" response, then you are
answering a closed-ended type of question.

Examples of closed-ended questions are:

 Are you feeling better today?

 May I use the bathroom?
 Is the prime rib a special tonight?
 Should I date him?
 Will you please do me a favor?
 Have you already completed your homework?
 Is that your final answer?
 Were you planning on becoming a fireman?
 Should I call her and sort things out?
 Is it wrong to want to live on my own at this age?
 Shall we make dinner together tonight?
 Could I possibly be a messier house guest?
 Might I be of service to you ladies this evening?
 Did that man walk by the house before?
 Can I help you with that?
 May I please have a bite of that pie?
 Would you like to go to the movies tonight?
 Is math your favorite subject?
 Does four plus four equal eight?
 Is that haunted house really scary?
 Will you be going to Grandmother's house for Christmas?
 Did Dad make the cake today?
 Is there a Mass being held at noon?
 Are you pregnant?
 Is he dead?

Closed-ended questions should not always be thought of as simple questions that

anyone can quickly answer merely because they require a yes or no answer.
Closed-ended questions can also be very complicated. For example, "Is 1 in binary
equal to 1 in counting numbers?" is a closed-ended question that not everyone
would be able to quickly answer.

Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions are ones that require more than one word answers. The
answers could come in the form of a list, a few sentences or something longer such
as a speech, paragraph or essay.

Here are some examples of open-ended questions:

 What were the most important wars fought in the history of the United
States?
 What are you planning to buy today at the supermarket?
 How exactly did the fight between the two of you start?
 What is your favorite memory from childhood?
 How will you help the company if you are hired to work for us?
 What do you plan to do immediately following graduation from college?
 What types of decorations do you plan to have for your friend's birthday
party?
 What was your high school experience like?
 How did you and your best friend meet?
 What sights do you expect to see on your vacation?
 How do you go about booking tickets for a flight?
 What were the major effects of World War II for the United States?
 How do you go about purchasing a home?
 What is it like to live in Morocco?
 What is the quickest way to get to the pet store in town?
 Why is it that every time I talk with you, you seem irritated?
 How could I present myself better?
 How do you manage to raise those children alone?
 What is the matter with the people in that class?
 Where are you going to find the time to write all those letters?
 Why can't I come along with you?
 What makes the leaves change color?
 How exactly does one replace the screen to a cellular phone?

Although open-ended questions require lengthier responses than closed-ended

questions, open-ended questions are not always more complicated. For example,
asking "What are you planning to buy today at the supermarket?" may simply
require the respondent to read off of a list.

When These Questions Are Used

Either type of question can be used in a wide variety of scenarios. However, if

you're looking for a guide to liken these types of questions to, you can think of
 closed-ended questions as multiple choice questions on a school exam and open-
ended questions as short responses and essay questions on an exam.

Open-ended Questions

Open-ended questions require an answer with more depth and a lengthier

response. Open-ended questions are also helpful in finding out more about a
person or a situation, whether it's during an interview, at a party, or when getting to
know a new friend.

Closed-ended Questions

Closed-ended questions can be answered in only one word or with a short, specific
piece of information. Closed-ended questions can also be used in the situations
mentioned above, although they have the potential to end the conversation.

Here are examples of closed-ended questions in these types of situations:

 Would you like vanilla ice cream?

 Have you ever met Joe before?
 Where did you go to college?
 What is your best quality?
 Are you happy?
 Do you enjoy your car?
 Does your brother have the same interests as you?
 Do you have a pet?
 Do you like animals?
 When is your birthday?
 Do you like rain?

Now, here's some examples of these closed-ended questions turned into open-
ended questions - to keep the conversation going:

 What is your favorite flavor of ice cream and why?

 How did you meet Joe?
 What do you feel was most beneficial about your college experience?
 How can your top qualities help our company to thrive and grow?
 What are some of the things that bring you the most joy?
 Why did you decide to purchase a Volvo?
 What interests do you and your brother share, and which interests do you
not share?
 Do you have a pet and what is your pet like?
 Do you like animals and why?
 When is your birthday and how do you like to celebrate?
 Do you like rain and what do you usually do during rain storms?