VECTOR MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS:

STATICS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr. Rigid Bodies:
Lecture Notes:
Equivalent Systems
J. Walt Oler of Forces
Texas Tech University
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Contents
Introduction Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
External and Internal Forces Sample Problem 3.5
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Moment of a Couple
Forces Addition of Couples
Vector Products of Two Vectors Couples Can Be Represented By Vectors
Moment of a Force About a Point Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a
Varigon’s Theorem Couple
Rectangular Components of the Moment Sample Problem 3.6
of a Force System of Forces: Reduction to a Force and a
Sample Problem 3.1 Couple
Scalar Product of Two Vectors Further Reduction of a System of Forces
Scalar Product of Two Vectors: Sample Problem 3.8
Applications Sample Problem 3.10
Mixed Triple Product of Three Vectors
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Introduction
•  Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible. In
general, the size of the body and the specific points of application of the
forces must be considered.

•  Most bodies in elementary mechanics are assumed to be rigid, i.e., the

actual deformations are small and do not affect the conditions of
equilibrium or motion of the body.

•  Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and
how to replace a given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system.
- moment of a force about a point
- moment of a force about an axis
- moment due to a couple

•  Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an

equivalent system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one
couple.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
External and Internal Forces
•  Forces acting on rigid bodies are
divided into two groups:
-  External forces
-  Internal forces

•  External forces are shown in a

free-body diagram.

•  If unopposed, each external force

can impart a motion of
translation or rotation, or both.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
•  Principle of Transmissibility -
Conditions of equilibrium or motion
are not affected by transmitting a force
along its line of action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

•  Moving the point of application of

the force F to the rear bumper
does not affect the motion or the
other forces acting on the truck.

•  Principle of transmissibility may

not always apply in determining
internal forces and deformations.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Vector Product of Two Vectors
•  Concept of the moment of a force about a point is
more easily understood through applications of
the vector product or cross product.

•  Vector product of two vectors P and Q is defined

as the vector V which satisfies the following
conditions:
1. Line of action of V is perpendicular to plane
containing P and Q.
2. Magnitude of V is V = PQ sin θ
3. Direction of V is obtained from the right-hand
rule.

•  Vector products:
-  are not commutative, Q × P = −(P × Q )
-  are distributive, P × (Q1 + Q2 ) = P × Q1 + P × Q2
-  are not associative, (P × Q )× S ≠ P × (Q × S )
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Vector Products: Rectangular Components
•  Vector products of Cartesian unit vectors,
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
i ×i = 0 j × i = −k k × i = j
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
i× j =k j× j =0 k × j = −i
! ! ! " ! ! ! !
i ×k = − j j ×k = i k ×k = 0

•  Vector products in terms of rectangular

coordinates
! ! ! ! ! ! !
( ) (
V = Px i + Py j + Pz k × Q x i + Q y j + Q z k )
! !
( )
= Py Q z − Pz Q y i + (Pz Q x − Px Q z ) j
!
(
+ Px Q y − Py Q x k )
! ! !
i j k
= Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Force About a Point
•  A force vector is defined by its magnitude and
direction. Its effect on the rigid body also depends
on it point of application.
•  The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r × F
•  The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the
plane containing O and the force F.
•  Magnitude of MO measures the tendency of the force
to cause rotation of the body about an axis along MO.
M O = rF sin θ = Fd
The sense of the moment may be determined by the
right-hand rule.
•  Any force F’ that has the same magnitude and
direction as F, is equivalent if it also has the same line
of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Force About a Point
•  Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but
negligible depth and are subjected to forces contained in
the plane of the structure.

•  The plane of the structure contains the point O and the

force F. MO, the moment of the force about O is
perpendicular to the plane.

•  If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the

sense of the moment vector is out of the plane of the
structure and the magnitude of the moment is positive.

•  If the force tends to rotate the structure counterclockwise,

the sense of the moment vector is into the plane of the
structure and the magnitude of the moment is negative.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Varignon’s Theorem

•  The moment about a give point O of the

resultant of several concurrent forces is equal
to the sum of the moments of the various
moments about the same point O.
" " " " " " "
r × (F1 + F2 + !) = r × F1 + r × F2 + !

•  Varigon’s Theorem makes it possible to

replace the direct determination of the
moment of a force F by the moments of two
or more component forces of F.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

The moment of F about O,

! ! ! ! ! ! !
M O = r × F , r = xi + yj + zk
! ! ! !
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
! ! ! !
M O = M xi + M y j + M z k

! ! !
i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

! ! !
( ) ( )
= yFz − zFy i + ( zFx − xFz ) j + xFy − yFx k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

The moment of F about B,

! ! !
M B = rA / B × F
! ! !
rA / B = rA − rB
! ! !
= (x A − x B )i + ( y A − y B ) j + (z A − z B ) k
! ! ! !
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

! ! !
i j k
!
M B = (x A − xB ) ( y A − y B ) (z A − z B )
Fx Fy Fz
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
For two-dimensional structures,
! !
(
M O = xFy − yFz k )
MO = M Z
= xFy − yFz

! !
[
M O = (x A − x B )Fy − ( y A − y B )Fz k ]
MO = M Z
= (x A − x B )Fy − ( y A − y B )Fz
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1
A 100-N vertical force is applied to the end of a
lever which is attached to a shaft at O.
Determine:
a)  moment about O,
b)  horizontal force at A which creates the same
moment,
c)  smallest force at A which produces the same
moment,
d)  location for a 240-N vertical force to produce
the same moment,
e)  whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is
equivalent to the original force.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1
a) Moment about O is equal to the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and O. Since the force
tends to rotate the lever clockwise, the moment
vector is into the plane of the paper.

M O = Fd
d = (24 m )cos 60° = 12 m M O = 1200 N ⋅ m
M O = (100 N )(12 cm )
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1
c) Horizontal force at A that produces the same
moment,

d = (24 m )sin 60° = 20.8 m

M O = Fd
1200 N ⋅ m = F (20.8 m )
1200 N ⋅ m F = 57.7 N
F=
20.8 m
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1
c) The smallest force A to produce the same moment
occurs when the perpendicular distance is a
maximum or when F is perpendicular to OA.

M O = Fd
1200 N ⋅ m = F (24 m )
1200 N ⋅ m F = 50 N
F=
24 m
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1

d) To determine the point of application of a 240 lb

force to produce the same moment,

M O = Fd
1200 N ⋅ m = (240 N )d
1200 N ⋅ m
d= = 5 cm
240 N
OB = 10 m
OB cos60 ° = 5 cm
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.1

e) Although each of the forces in parts b), c), and d)

produces the same moment as the 100 N force, none
are of the same magnitude and sense, or on the same
line of action. None of the forces is equivalent to the
100 N force.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
The moment MA of the force F exerted
by the wire is obtained by evaluating
the vector product,
! ! !
M A = rC A × F

The rectangular plate is supported by

the brackets at A and B and by a wire
CD. Knowing that the tension in the
wire is 200 N, determine the moment
about A of the force exerted by the
wire at C.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.4
SOLUTION:
! ! !
M A = rC A × F
! ! ! ! !
rC A = rC − rA = (0.3 m )i + (0.08 m ) j
!
! ! rC D
F = Fλ = (200 N )
rC D
! ! !
− (0.3 m )i + (0.24 m ) j − (0.32 m )k
= (200 N )
0.5 m
! ! !
= −(120 N ) i + (96 N ) j − (128 N )k
! ! !
i j k
!
M A = 0.3 0 0.08
− 120 96 − 128
" ! ! !
M A = −(7.68 N ⋅ m)i + (28.8 N ⋅ m) j + (28.8 N ⋅ m)k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
•  The scalar product or dot product between
two vectors P and Q is defined as
! !
P • Q = PQ cosθ (scalar result )

•  Scalar products:
! ! ! !
-  are commutative, P•Q = Q• P
! ! ! ! ! ! !
-  are distributive, P • (Q1 + Q2 ) = P • Q1 + P • Q2
! ! !
-  are not associative, (P • Q)• S = undefined
•  Scalar products with Cartesian unit components,
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
( )(
P • Q = Px i + Py j + Pz k • Qx i + Q y j + Qz k )
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! !
i •i =1 j • j =1 k •k =1 i • j = 0 j •k = 0 k •i = 0
! !
P • Q = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz
! !
P • P = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2 = P 2
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Scalar Product of Two Vectors: Applications
•  Angle between two vectors:
! !
P • Q = PQ cos θ = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz
Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz
cos θ =
PQ

•  Projection of a vector on a given axis:

POL = P cos θ = projection of P along OL
! !
P • Q = PQ cos θ
! !
P•Q
= P cos θ = POL
Q

•  For an axis defined by a unit vector:

! !
POL = P • λ
= Px cos θ x + Py cos θ y + Pz cos θ z
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Mixed Triple Product of Three Vectors
•  Mixed triple product of three vectors,
! ! !
S • (P × Q ) = scalar result

•  The six mixed triple products formed from S, P, and

Q have equal magnitudes but not the same sign,
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
S • (P × Q ) = P • (Q × S ) = Q • (S × P )
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
= − S • (Q × P ) = − P • (S × Q ) = −Q • (P × S )

•  Evaluating the mixed triple product,

! ! !
( )
S • (P × Q ) = S x Py Qz − Pz Q y + S y (Pz Qx − Px Qz )
(
+ S z Px Q y − Py Qx )
Sx Sy Sz
= Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
•  Moment MO of a force F applied at the point A
about a point O,
! ! !
MO = r × F

•  Scalar moment MOL about an axis OL is the

projection of the moment vector MO onto the
axis,
! ! ! ! !
M OL = λ • M O = λ • (r × F )

•  Moments of F about the coordinate axes,

M x = yFz − zFy
M y = zFx − xFz
M z = xFy − yFx
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Force About a Given Axis

•  Moment of a force about an arbitrary axis,

! !
M BL = λ • M B
! ! !
= λ • (rA B × F )
! ! !
rA B = rA − rB

•  The result is independent of the point B

along the given axis.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.5

A cube is acted on by a force P as

shown. Determine the moment of P
a)  about A
b)  about the edge AB and
c)  about the diagonal AG of the cube.
d)  Determine the perpendicular distance
between AG and FC.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.5
•  Moment of P about A,
! ! !
M A = rF A × P
! ! ! ! !
rF A = ai − a j = a (i − j )
! ! ! ! !
P = P ( 2 i + 2 j ) = P 2 (i + j )
! ! ! ! !
M A = a (i − j )× P 2 (i + j )
! ! ! !
(
M A = (aP 2 ) i + j + k )
•  Moment of P about AB,
! !
M AB = i • M A
! ! ! !
= i • (aP 2 )(i + j + k )

M AB = aP 2
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.5
•  Moment of P about the diagonal AG,
! !
M AG = λ • M A
! ! ! !
! rA G ai − aj − ak 1 ! ! !
λ=
rA G
=
a 3
=
3
(i − j −k)

! aP ! ! !
MA =
2
(i + j +k)

1 ! ! ! aP ! ! !
M AG =
3
( i − j − k )•
2
(i + j +k)

aP
= (1 − 1 − 1)
6

aP
M AG = −
6
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.5
•  Perpendicular distance between AG and FC,
! ! P ! ! 1 ! ! ! P
P•λ =
2
( j − k )•
3
(i − j − k )=
6
(0 − 1 + 1)
=0
Therefore, P is perpendicular to AG.
aP
M AG = = Pd
6
a
d=
6
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Couple
•  Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude,
parallel lines of action, and opposite sense are said
to form a couple.

•  Moment of the couple,

! ! ! ! !
M = rA × F + rB × (− F )
! ! !
= (rA − rB )× F
! !
= r×F
M = rF sin θ = Fd

•  The moment vector of the couple is

independent of the choice of the origin of the
coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can
be applied at any point with the same effect.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Moment of a Couple

Two couples will have equal moments if

•  F1d1 = F2 d 2

•  the two couples lie in parallel planes, and

•  the two couples have the same sense or

the tendency to cause rotation in the same
direction.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Addition of Couples
•  Consider two intersecting planes P1 and
P2 with each containing a couple
! ! !
M 1 = r × F1 in plane P1
! ! !
M 2 = r × F2 in plane P2

•  Resultants of the vectors also form a

couple
! ! ! ! ! !
M = r × R = r × (F1 + F2 )

•  By Varigon’s theorem
! ! ! ! !
M = r × F1 + r × F2
! !
= M1 + M 2

•  Sum of two couples is also a couple that is equal

to the vector sum of the two couples
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Couples Can Be Represented by Vectors

•  A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude

and direction equal to the moment of the couple.

•  Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.

•  Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., the point of application

is not significant.

•  Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.

Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

•  Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying its

action on the body.

•  Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net

effect on the body.

•  The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and

couple vector, i.e, a force-couple system.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a Couple

•  Moving F from A to a different point O’ requires the

addition of a different couple vector MO’
! ! !
M O ' = r ʹ′ × F
•  The moments of F about O and O’ are related,
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
M O ' = r '×F = (r + s )× F = r × F + s × F
! ! !
= MO + s × F
•  Moving the force-couple system from O to O’ requires the
addition of the moment of the force at O about O’.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.6
SOLUTION:
•  Attach equal and opposite 20 N forces in
the +x direction at A, thereby producing 3
couples for which the moment components
are easily computed.

•  Alternatively, compute the sum of the

moments of the four forces about an
arbitrary single point. The point D is a
good choice as only two of the forces will
produce non-zero moment contributions..

Determine the components of the

single couple equivalent to the
couples shown.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.6
•  Attach equal and opposite 20 N forces in
the +x direction at A

•  The three couples may be represented by

three couple vectors,
M x = −(30 N )(18 m ) = −540 N ⋅ m
M y = +(20 N )(12 m ) = +240 N ⋅ m
M z = + (20 N )(9 m ) = +180 N ⋅ m
! ! !
M = −(540 N ⋅ m)i + (240N ⋅ m) j
!
+ (180 N ⋅ m)k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.6
•  Alternatively, compute the sum of the
moments of the four forces about D.

•  Only the forces at C and E contribute to

the moment about D.

! ! ! !
M = M D = (18 m) j × (− 30 N )k
! ! !
[ ]
+ (9 m) j − (12 m)k × (− 20 N )i
! ! !
M = −(540 N ⋅ m)i + (240N ⋅ m) j
!
+ (180 N ⋅ m)k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
System of Forces: Reduction to a Force and Couple

•  A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of

force-couple systems acting a given point O
•  The force and couple vectors may be combined into a
resultant force vector and a resultant couple vector,
! ! !R ! !
R = ∑F M O = ∑ (r × F )
•  The force-couple system at O may be moved to O’
with the addition of the moment of R about O’ ,
!R !R ! !
M O' = M O + s × R
•  Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can be
reduced to the same force-couple system.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Further Reduction of a System of Forces
•  If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually
perpendicular, they can be replaced by a single force acting
along a new line of action.

•  The resultant force-couple system for a system of forces

will be mutually perpendicular if:
1) the forces are concurrent,
2) the forces are coplanar, or
3) the forces are parallel.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Further Reduction of a System of Forces
•  System of coplanar forces
! is!reduced to a
force-couple system R and M OR that is
mutually perpendicular.

•  System can be reduced to a single! force

by moving the line of action of !R until
its moment about O becomes M OR

•  In terms of rectangular coordinates,

xR y − yRx = M OR
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.8
For the beam, reduce the system of
forces shown to (a) an equivalent
force-couple system at A, (b) an
equivalent force couple system at B,
and (c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the support reactions are
not included, the given system will
not maintain the beam in equilibrium.
SOLUTION:
a)  Compute the resultant force for the
forces shown and the resultant
couple for the moments of the
forces about A.
b)  Find an equivalent force-couple
system at B based on the force-
couple system at A.
c)  Determine the point of application
for the resultant force such that its
moment about A is equal to the
resultant couple at A.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.8
SOLUTION:
a)  Compute the resultant force and the
resultant couple at A.
! !
R = ∑F
! ! ! !
= (150 N ) j − (600 N ) j + (100 N ) j − (250 N ) j
! !
R = −(600 N) j
!R ! !
M A = ∑ (r × F )
! ! ! !
= 1.6 i × − 600 j + 2.8 i × 100 j )
( ) ( ) ( ) (
! !
+ (4.8 i )× (− 250 j )
!R !
M A = −(1880 N ⋅ m)k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.8
b)  Find an equivalent force-couple system at B
based on the force-couple system at A.
The force is unchanged by the movement of the
force-couple system from A to B.
! !
R = −(600 N ) j

The couple at B is equal to the moment about B

of the force-couple system found at A.
!R !R ! !
M B = M A + rB A × R
! ! !
= −(1880 N ⋅ m )k + (− 4.8 m )i × (− 600 N ) j
! !
= −(1880 N ⋅ m )k + (2880 N ⋅ m )k
!R !
M B = +(1000 N ⋅ m)k
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.10
SOLUTION:
•  Determine the relative position vectors
for the points of application of the
cable forces with respect to A.

•  Resolve the forces into rectangular

components.

•  Compute the equivalent force,

! !
R = ∑F
Three cables are attached to the •  Compute the equivalent couple,
bracket as shown. Replace the "R ! !
forces with an equivalent force- M A = ∑ (r × F )
couple system at A.
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.10
•  Resolve the forces into rectangular
components.
! !
FB = (700 N )λ
! ! ! !
! rE B 75 i − 150 j + 50k
λ= =
rE B 175
! ! !
= 0.429 i − 0.857 j + 0.289k
! ! ! !
FB = 300 i − 600 j + 200k (N )
SOLUTION:
! ! !
•  Determine the relative position FC = (1000 N )(cos 45 i − cos 45 j )
vectors with respect to A. = 707 i − 707k (N )
! ! !
rB A = 0.075 i + 0.050k (m ) ! ! !
! ! ! FD = (1200 N )(cos 60 i + cos 30 j )
rC A = 0.075 i − 0.050k (m ) ! !
! ! = 600 i + 1039 j (N )
!
rD A = 0.100 i − 0.100 j (m )
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
Sample Problem 3.10
•  Compute •  Compute the equivalent couple,
! ! the equivalent force,
R = ∑F "R ! !
! M A = ∑ (r × F )
= (300 + 707 + 600) i ! ! !
! i j k
+ (− 600 + 1039) j ! ! ! !
! rB A ×F B = 0.075 0 0.050 = 30i − 45k
+ (200 − 707 )k 300 − 600 200
! ! ! ! ! ! !
R = 1607i + 439 j − 507k (N ) i j k
! ! !
rC A ×F c = 0.075 0 − 0.050 = 17.68 j
707 0 − 707
! ! !
i j k
! ! !
rD A ×F D = 0.100 − 0.100 0 = 163.9k
600 1039 0

!R ! ! !
M A = 30 i + 17.68 j + 118.9k