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Debilitative and facilitative perceptions of trait anxiety among students in a

college golf class

Article  in  Perceptual and Motor Skills · July 2002

DOI: 10.2466/PMS.94.3.739-742 · Source: PubMed

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 Skills, 2002, 94,739-742. O Perceptual and Motor Skds 2002
Percepfzral a~zd~Motor

DEBILITATNE AND FACILITATIVE PERCEPTIONS O F TRAIT

ANXIETY AMONG STUDENTS IN A COLLEGE GOLF CLASS

GEORGE B. CUNNINGHAM AND FRANK B. ASHLEY

The Ohio Sfate University Texas AGM University

Szrmmay.-This study examined the debilitative and facilitative perceptions of

trait anxiety among 94 students enrolled in a college golf class. Analyses indicated no
differences in performance benveen those classified as debhating interpreters, i.e.,
chose with ncg.lrl\.e perceptions of trait anxiety, versus those classified as facilitating
interpreters. I e , [hose with positive perceptions of trait anxiety. Also, no differences
were found in perceived intensicy and direction of trait anxiety as a function of per-
formance. Results differ from previous research on direction of trait anxiety among
elite and high level performers so direction of perceptions may be correlated with
competition or skill of the performer.

Researchers of trait anxiety in the sport setting have produced a signifi-

cant literature concerning elite and high level competitors. Comparatively,
however, there is relatively little research concerning students in physical ac-
tivity classes (Ashley, 1989; Martin & Mack, 1996; Cunningham, 2000). Such
research would be useful as it affords "instructors with the necessary infor-
mation to teach students . . . effectivelyu (Cunningham, 2000, p. 693). In this
research studies have concentrated on the intensity of the persondty trait.
This stands in contrast to studies of the direction of anxiety (Jones, Hanton,
& Swain, 1994; Jones & Swain, 1995; Perry & Wdhams, 1998). Such a &s-
tinction may be necessary because many believe that perceived direction of
anxiety is a better indicator of performance than intensity alone (Jones, et
al., 1994; Jones & Swain, 1995; Perry & Wdhams, 1998). The research has
indicated that performers with advanced skLU have more fachtating interpre-
tations of trait anxiety than less skdled peers (Jones & Swain, 1995; Perry &
W&ams, 1998). However, the focus of these studies has also been on elite
performers which has created a void in the literature. Accordingly, the pur-
pose of this study was to examine the relationship of performance with inten-
sity and direction of trait anxiety among students participating in a collegiate
class of beginning golf.
METHOD
Participants were male (n = 76) and female ( n= 18) students randomly
selected from a population of 178 students participating in a beginning golf

'Address correspondence to George B. Cunn~li~ll.lrn, School of Physical Activity and Educa-

cional Services, The Ohio State University, 337 LY1c.>r 17th Ave.. Columbus, O H 43210-1248 or
e-mail (cunningham.287@osu.edu).
740 G. B. CUNNINGHAM & F. B. ASHLEY

class at a large, southern university. As in previous research (Jones & Swain,

1995; Perry & Williams, 1998), students were administered a modified ver-
sion of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2-an inventory originally
developed by Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, and Smith (1990) to assess
cognitive and somatic state anxiety as well as self-confidence. This was done
with the kind permission of the publisher, Human Kinetics.
Cognitive anxiety refers to negative concerns about performance where-
as somatic anxiety consists of autonomic reactions, such as sweating. Because
the focus of the study was on anxiety, the self-confidence subscale was not
used. Jones and Swain (1995) modified the inventory to (a) assess trait re-
sponses or "how the individual usually feels" (Jones & Swain, 1995, p. 204,
italics original) and (b) include a direction scale for each dimension of anxi-
ety so participants rate "the degree to which the intensity of each symptom
they normally experience is perceived to be either facilitative or debilitative
to their subsequent performances" (Jones & Swain, 1995, p. 204). Their ver-
sion of the inventory of 18 items measures intensity on a scale anchored by 1:
not at alJ and 4: very much so and directional perceptions using anchors of
-3: very debilitating and 3 : very facihtating.
Item-to-total correlations indicated the factor validity of the adapted in-
ventory. All subscales had acceptable reliability estimates (Cronbach alpha)
according to Nunnally's standards (1978): Cognitive Intensity (a=.81), So-
matic Lntensity (a=.85), Cognitive Direction (a=.78), and Somatic Direc-
tion ( a =.81).
Students completed the inventory one week prior to the performance
test to ensure a trait response. They also completed the Pitching Wedge
Skds Test, a performance test designed by Cunningham (2000) to gauge the
students' effectiveness in hitting a golf ball with the pitching wedge golf
club. Criteria for the ~erformancetest included hitting a shot with appropri-
ate loft (at least 20 feet off the ground) and accuracy (landed within the des-
ignated area). Possible scores ranged from 1 (low) to 10 (high). In Cunning-
ham's study (2OOO), a panel of experts (n= 7 ) appraised the face vahdity of
the test by verifying that it effectively measured abhty to hit a golf ball us-
ing a pitching wedge golf club.
RESULTS
Consistent with previous research (Jones, et al., 1994; Jones & Swain,
1995; Perry & WAams, 1998), participants' scores were dichotomized into
those with negative perceptions of anxiety (debhtating interpreters) and
those with positive perceptions (facilitating interpreters). Those participants
with a zero or both a positive and negative subscale score were eliminated
from analysis (n=23),leaving a total of 71. The sex representation of those
eluninated (74% men, 26% women) was similar to the distribution in the
 PERCEPTIONS O F TRAIT ANXIETY 74 1

total sample (81% men, 19% women). Next, consistent with the gradmg
policy of the university, students were divided into two groups based on per-
formance of the Pitching Wedge S M s Test: high performers with scores of
8 or above ( n = 4 3 ) and low performers with scores of 7 or below (n=28).
Next, a 2 x 2 chi-square analysis was carried out to assess whether the fre-
quency of debilitating interpreters and fachtating interpreters varied by s k d
level. The analysis indicated no differences in the Astribution by skill level
(xIZ= .580, ns). Distributions are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Group High Performer" Low Performer? Total

n % n YO N
Debilitating Interpretation 32 74.4 23 82.1 55
Facilitating Interpretation 11 25.6 5 17.9 16
Total 43 28 71
*Score of 8, 9, or 10. tScore of 7 or below.

Next, two separate one-way multivariate analyses of variance were car-

ried out to examine differences in intensity and direction of trait anxiety
between these high and low performers. N g h and low performers did not
differ significantly in intensity of anxiety (Wllks lambda = .99, F2,9,
= .&, ns).
J4gh and low performers did not differ significantly in direction of trait anx-
iety (Wdks lambda= .95, F2,91 =2.21, ns). Means and standard deviations are
presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2
MFANSA N D STANDARD
DEVIATIONS
OF I N T E N S I ~ DIRECTION
AND O F TRAIT
ANXIETY

Dimension of Anxiety High Performer" Low Performert

M SD M SD
Cognitive Intensiry 19.86 5.05 21.79 4.92
Somatic Intensity 16.65 4.75 18.29 5.62
Cogn111veDirection -3.70 15.61 - 9.43 11.88
Som~rlcDirection -9.28 17.27 -13.07 12.12
"Score of 8, 9, or 10. tScore of 7 or below.

DISCUSSION
Results stand in opposition co prior findings concerning hrection of
trait anxiety in the sport and exercise setting (Jones, et a/., 1994; Jones &
Swain, 1995; Perry & Wdiarns, 1998) in chat perceived direction of trait anx-
iety did not Affer between the high and low performers. That the present
study specifically examined participants competing a t an extremely low level
 742 G. B. CUNNINGHAM & F. B. ASHLEY

of competition might explain these findings. For instance, in Jones and

Swain's earlier analysis of elite and nonelite performers (1995), participants
competed at the professional and semiprofessional levels, respectively. That
level of competition is far different than the levels in the current study as
present participants were in a class for beginning golf instruction.
Further, in a study of elite swimmers, Hanton and Jones (1999) noted
that the athletes had to learn that anxiety could be viewed as helpful to per-
formance. Only when the swimmers developed the skds through years of
practice did they realize that anxiety was needed and served to enhance per-
formance. In the current study, consequently, the participants have likely not
been exposed to the level of competition necessary to adapt their percep-
tions of anxiety. Even participants who performed well held a negative inter-
pretation of anxiety. This suggests a correlation of fachtative trait anxiety
with (a) the skill of the individual performer and (b) the level of competi-
tion. Further, it is possible that perceptions of state anxiety, rather than the
trait response, might better explain performance differences among begin-
ning learners.
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Accepted March 11, 2002

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