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Cement Kiln Dust Stabilization of Compacted Black Cotton Soil

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 Cement Kiln Dust Stabilization of
Compacted Black Cotton Soil

G. K. Moses
Department of Civil Engrg., Nigerian Defense Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria.
doveeagle4al@yahoo.com

A. Saminu
Department of Civil Engrg., Nigerian Defense Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria.
namibidisl@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Laboratory test was conducted on black cotton soil treated with up to 16% Cement Kiln
Dust (CKD) by dry weight of soil to assess its suitability for use as road pavement
material. Specimens were compacted using the energies of the British Standard Light
(BSL) and West African Standard (WAS) or “intermediate”. The expansive black cotton
soil classified as A-7-6 (16) or CL using the America Association of Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
respectively, Soils under these groups are of poor engineering benefit. The UCS values
for the untreated soil are 178 and 381kN/m2 at energy levels of BSL and WAS
respectively. CKD treated black cotton soil gave a peak 7 day UCS value of 394kN/m2
and 410kN/m2 at 12% and 8% CKD content at BSL and WAS energy level respectively.
These values fall short of the 1710 kN/m2 specified for base materials stabilization using
OPC. And this value also fails to meet the requirement of 687–1373 kN/m2 for sub-base
material. The CBR recorded an improvement in the strength from 2% and 3% for the
natural soil for BSL and WAS compactive effort to attain a peak C.B.R. of 12% at 12%
CKD and 16% at 12% CKD treatment for BSL and WAS compactive effort respectively.
However, soil –CKD mixtures failed to meet the minimum CBR value of 30% specified
for use as sub-base course material when determined at MDD and OMC. The peak
resistance to loss in strength recorded for BSL and WAS were 13.2 and 16.1% (i.e. loss
in strength) was attained at 16% CKD content at both energy levels. The resistance to
loss in strength values all fell short of the acceptable conventional minimum of 80%.
KEYWORDS: Cement Kiln Dust, Compaction, Durability, Unconfined
Compressive Strength, California Bearing Ratio

INTRODUCTION
Industrial waste disposal is constantly throwing up challenge in terms of the cost and safe
disposal of these wastes that other unexplored waste are being researched upon to determine their

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 826

suitability as road pavement material. Problematic black cotton soil on the other hand abounds in
many parts of the world such that there avoidance becomes impossible in places where the
deposits are extensive. Various researchers (Ola, 1983; Balogun, 1991; Osinubi, 1995, 1999;
Osinubi et al, 2009b, 2010) have attempted to stabilize the Nigerian black cotton soil with
different types of stabilizers agents with varying degree of success.

Cement kiln dust (CKD) is an industrial waste from cement production. The quantities and
characteristics of CKD generated depend upon a number of operational factors and characteristics
of the inputs to the manufacturing process. Although the relative constituent’s concentrations in
CKD can vary significantly, CKD has certain physical characteristics that are relatively
consistent. When managed on site in a waste pile, CKD can retain these characteristics within the
pile while developing an externally weathered crust, due to absorption of moisture and
subsequent cementation of dust particles on the surface of the pile (Liman, 2009). The ability of
the CKD to absorb water stems from its chemically dehydrated nature, which results from the
thermal treatments it receives in the system. The action of absorbing water (rehydrating) releases
a significant amount of heat from non-weathered crust, a phenomenon that can be exploited in the
stabilization of poor engineering material.

Expansive soils are also referred to as “black cotton soil” in some parts of the world. They are
so named because of their suitability for growing cotton. Black cotton soils have colors ranging
from light grey to dark grey and black. Black cotton soils are confined to the semi arid regions of
tropical and temperate climatic zones and are abundant where the annual evaporation exceeds the
precipitation (Chen, 1975; Waen and Kirly; 2004), Balogun (1991) reported that black cotton
soils occur in continuous stretches as superficial deposits and are typical of flat terrains with poor
drainage. The absence of quartz in the clay mineralogy enhances the formation of fine-grained
soil material, which is impermeable and waterlogged.

Morin (1971) reported that the Lake Chad Basin is the only extensive lacustirne deposit of
black cotton soil in Africa. The black cotton soils of North Eastern Nigeria were laid during the
tertiary and quaternary periods of the Chad formation and are composed of a sequence of
lacustrine and fluviatile clays and sands of Pleistocene age. These sediments (lacustrine sands,
lagoonal clays, deltaic sands and clays, beach sands and gravels as well as aeolian sands) underlie
the country North and East of Abakire and extend along the plains of Borno and Lake Chad and
beyond (Ola, 1983). It was also reported that black cotton soils occupy an estimated area of 104 x
103 km2 in Northeastern Nigeria. The mineralogy of this soil is dominated by the presence of
montimorillonite which is characterized by large volume change from wet to dry seasons and vice
versa. Deposits of black cotton soil in the field show a general pattern of cracks during the day
season of the year. Cracks measuring 70mm wide and over 1m deep have been observed and may
extend up to 3m or more in case of high deposit (Adeniji 1991).

Research work has been carried out on the improvement of geotechnical characteristics of
black cotton soil with very little success using bagasse ash pozzolana ( Ijimdiya, 2009).
However, no work has been done on the use of CKD treated black cotton soil as a road pavement
material. The study was aimed at the evaluation of the suitability of compacted black cotton soil
treated with CKD for use as a road pavement material; typical oxide composition of the cement
kiln dust is shown in tables.1.

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 827

Table 1: Basic Properties and Typical Oxide Composition of the Cement kiln dust
Oxide CaO Al2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 Mn2O3 Na2O K2O pH Gs
Concentration (%) 50.81 4.71 - 1.92 0.002 0.001 1.35 11.2 2.22

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Black Cotton Soil: The soil used in this study is dark grey in colour and is known as black
cotton soil, it was obtained along New-Marte road in Bayo Local Government Area of Borno
State using the method of disturbed sampling. The location lies along (latitude 10° 19’N and
longitude 11° 30’E). Specimens were varied with 0, 4, 8, 12 and 16% of cement kiln dust by dry
weight of soil.

Cement Kiln Dust: The cement kiln dust used was obtained from freshly deposited heaps of
the waste at the Ashaka cement production plant located in Nafada Local Government Area of
Gombe state, Nigeria. The CKD was sieved through Bs sieve No. 200 and was stored in air-tight
containers before usage.
Methods

Index Properties: Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the index properties of the
natural soil and soil – cement kiln dust mixtures in accordance with British Standards BS 1377
(1990) and BS 1924 (1990) respectively. A summary of the soil index properties is presented in
Table 2.

Table 2: Engineering Properties of CKD Treated Black Cotton Soil

Engineering Cement kiln dust (%)

Properties
0 4 8 12 16
Liquid Limit, % 67.5 65.0 72.6 65.0 64.0
Plastic Limit, % 22.8 20.6 19.2 16.9 14.4
Plasticity Index, % 44.7 44.4 53.4 39.1 54.6
Linear Shrinkage, % 15.3 13.3 13.1 14.0 13.5
Percentage Passing BS
No. 200 Sieve. 85.0 83.0 85.0 81.0 83.0
AASHTO
Classification A-7-6 A-7-6 A-7-6 A-7-6 A-7-6
USCS Classification CL CL CL CL CL
Specific Gravity 2.36 2.37 2.39 2.38 2.65
MDD Mg/m3
Standard Proctor 1.300 1.458 1.520 1.586 1.512
West African Standard 1.400 1.510 1.560 1.610 1.660
OMC%
Standard Proctor 24.0 23.2 22.7 18.8 17.6
West African Standard 21.0 20.6 20.3 17.6 15.3

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 828

pH Value 7.2 - - - -
Color Dark Gray
Dominant Clay Montimorillonite
mineral

Compaction
All the compactions involving moisture-density relationships, CBR and UCS were carried out
using energies derived from the Standard Light (BSL) and West African Standard (WAS). The
BSL compactions was carried out using energy derived from a rammer of 2.5 kg mass falling
through a height of 30 cm in a 1000 cm3 mould. The soil was compacted in three layers, each
receiving 27 blows. The soaked CBR tests were conducted in accordance with the Nigerian
General Specification (1997) which stipulates that specimens be cured dry for six days, then
soaked for 24 hours before testing. The CBR compaction involved the use of the same rammer
weight and drop height with each layer receiving 62 blows in a 2360 cm3 mould.

The WAS compaction, was carried out using energy derived from a rammer of 4.5 kg mass
falling through a height of 45 cm in a 1000 cm3 mould. The soil was compacted in five layers,
each layer receiving 10 blows. For the CBR compaction, the same rammer weight and drop
height was adopted with each layer receiving 30 blows in a 2360 cm3 mould. The UCS test
specimen was compacted at BSL and WAS energy levels. Specimens were cured for 7, 14 and 28
days before testing.

RESULTS AND DICUSSION

Index Properties: Results of tests carried out on the natural soil are summarized in Table.1. The
soil is classified under the A – 7 – 6 subgroup of the AASHTO classification system. Liquid limit
and plasticity index values of 67.5 % and 44.7 %, respectively, suggest that the soil is highly
plastic. Thus, from the results obtained, the soil falls below the standard recommended for most
geotechnical works (Butcher and Sailie, 1984).

Maximum Dry Density

The MDD for the BSL and WAS compactive effort is in conformity with the
trend of decreasing OMC with increasing MDD. This is as a result of CKD occupying the
void within the soil matrix and in addition, the flocculation and agglomeration of the clay
particle due to exchange of ions (Osinubi, 2000 a; Moses, 2008; Oriola and Moses, 2010,). While
the final decrease in MDD for BSL compactive effort can be attributed to CKD, a low
specific gravity material replacing the soil material which has a high specific gravity (Osinubi
and Stephen 2007).

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 829

Maximum dry density (Mg/m3) 1.7

1.65
1.6
1.55
1.5
BSL
1.45 WA
1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
0 4 8 12 16

CKD Content (%)

Figure 1: Variation of Maximum Dry Density With CKD

Optimum Moisture Content

For specimens compacted at the British standard light and West African Standard energy
levels, a decrease in OMC was recorded this is probably due to self – desiccation in which all the
water was used, resulting in low hydration. When no water movement to or from cement – paste
is permitted, the water is used up in the hydration reaction, until too little is left to saturate the
solid surfaces and hence the relative humidity within the paste decreases. The process described
above might have affected the reaction mechanism of CKD treated black cotton soil (Osinubi and
Stephen 2007, Moses 2008).

27
Optimum Moisture Content (%)

25
BSL
23
21 WA
19
17
15
13
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)
Figure 2: Variation of Optimum Moisture Content With CKD

Strength Characteristics
Unconfined compressive strength
The variation of unconfined compressive strength (UCS) with slag content for soil –CKD
mixtures at 7, 14 and 28 days curing periods are shown in Figs. 3 - 5. Generally, the UCS of the
soil – CKD – mixtures increased up to 12% CKD treatment and thereafter decreased. The 7 days
UCS of the untreated black cotton soil improved from a value of 178kN/m2 and 381kN/m2 to a
peak value of 381kN/m2 and 410kN/m2 at 12% CKD and 8% CKD treatment level at both BSL
and WAS energy levels The peak blend of CKD treated soil was attained at 12% CKD content at

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 830

BSL compactive effort with a peak 7 day UCS value of 394 kN/m2. This value falls short of 1710
kN/m2 specified by TRRL (1977) for base materials stabilization using OPC. Furthermore, this
value fails to meet the requirement of 687–1373 kN/m2 for sub-base as specified by Ingles and
Metcalf (1972).

500
7 days unconfined compressive

BSL
400
WAS
strength (kN/m2)

300

200

100
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)
Figure 3: Variation of of unconfined compressive strength (7
days curing) with CKD content for soil-CKD mixtures

The increase in UCS values could be attributed to ion exchange at the surface of clay particles.
The Ca2+ in the additives reacted with the lower valence metallic ions in the clay microstructure
which resulted in agglomeration and flocculation of the clay particles. The UCS of soil - CKD
mixture containing 12 % CKD content as expected increased with curing period as shown in Fig.
4-5. The gain in strength of specimens with age was due primarily to the long-term hydration
reaction that resulted in the formation of cementitious compounds.

600
compressive strength (kN/m2)

500 BSL
14 days unconfined

400
WAS
300
200
100
0
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)
Figure 4: Variation of of unconfined compressive strength (14
days curing) with CKD content for soil-CKD mixtures

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 831

700
28 days unconfined compressive
600
500
strength (kN/m2)

BSL
400
WAS
300
200
100
0
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)
Figure 5: Variation of of unconfined compressive strength (28
days curing) with CKD content for soil-CKD mixtures

California bearing ratio

The variation of California bearing ratio (CBR) with CKD content for soil – CKD mixtures is
shown in Fig. 6. Generally, CBR increased with higher CKD content. The reason for the
improvement in the strength from 2% and 3% for the natural soil at BSL and WAS compactive
effort to 12% at 12% CKD and 16% at 12% CKD treatment for BSL and WAS compactive effort
respectively. This could be due to the presence of adequate amounts of calcium required for the
formation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), which is the major compound for strength gain. A
CBR value of 180% is recommended by (BS, 1990b) which is expected to be attained in the
laboratory for cement-stabilized material to be constructed by the mix-in-place method. However,
soil –CKD mixtures failed to meet the minimum CBR value of 30% specified by (BS 1990b) for
materials suitable for use as base course material when determined at MDD and OMC.
Furthermore, none of the energy levels produced satisfactory values for base, sub-base and sub-
base material.

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 832

California Bearing Ratio (%) 7

6
BSL
5
WAS
4
3
2
1
0
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)

Figure 6: Variation of soaked California bearing ratio with

CKD content for soil-CKD mixtures

Durability
Compressive strength is employed as an evaluation criterion to ensure that the stabilized
material does not fail under adverse field conditions. In order to simulate some of the worst
conditions that can be experienced in the field for any soil to be used for engineering purposes,
cured specimen were immersed in water before testing. The value obtained under this laboratory
simulated field condition are analysis with the 14 days cured specimen to obtain the percentage
resistance to loss in strength of the stabilized material as recommend for tropical countries (Ola,
1974).
The peak resistance to loss in strength recorded for BSL and WAS were 13.2 and 16.1%
(i.e. loss in strength) was attained at 16% CKD content. This resistance to loss in strength falls
short of the acceptable conventional minimum of 80% (Ola, 1974).

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. F 833

18
Resistance to loss in Strength (%)
16
BSL
14
WAS
12

10

4
0 4 8 12 16
CKD Content (%)

Figure 7: Variation of resistance to loss of strength of soil

treated with CKD content for soil-CKD

CONCLUSIONS

The natural black cotton soil was classified as A – 7 – 6 or CL in the AASHTO and
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), respectively. Soils under these groups are of poor
engineering benefit.
Natural soil treated with CKD gave a peak 7 day UCS value of 381kN/m2 and 410kN/m2
at 12% and 8% CKD content at BSL and WAS energy level respectively. This values fall short of
1710 kN/m2 specified by TRRL (1977) for base materials stabilization using OPC. And this value
also fails to meet the requirement of 687–1373 kN/m2 for sub-base as specified by Ingles and
Metcalf (1972).
Peak C.B.R values of 5 and 7% were obtained at 12% CKD content at the energy levels
of BSL and WAS. These values fail to satisfy the specification for base or sub-base materials as
recommended by the Nigerian General Specifications (1997). The durability assessments of
sample also recorded values that fail to meet the acceptable limits. Finally, cement kiln dust
treated black cotton soil failed to record desired result. Therefore, it is not recommended for use
as a single stabilizing agent for road pavements.

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