Paragraphs and Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost
every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be organized into paragraphs. This is
because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader
see the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief examples
or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of
events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects.
Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most
important of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence
called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an
essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it
advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look
to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why
it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more
effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current
paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background information.

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a paragraph might not
need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a paragraph that narrates a
series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the
previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main
point. The vast majority of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this
structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information.
Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the
beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and
other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the
paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic sentence and
concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of
the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see
2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a
microscope into a drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there,
many of which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth,
they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which they re-create
as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long
ago and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force
light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest
of an injured child, they send the information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it
back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF
SIGHT IN SOME WAY.

George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”

COHERENCE/UNITY

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more
to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious
shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to
make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its length. If you have
written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example, you should check it
carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea.
On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop
its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.

A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.

Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or
theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and
help your reader understand your definition or description.

Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences
that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you
make your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive
sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and
the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a parallel way. The
parallel structures (which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set
of examples of a general statement.

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number
is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,”
from past to present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such
inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs. Transitional expressions
emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see connections
that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen
transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from
our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast.
FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain
size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS
we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size
increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals
have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies.
SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we
must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not
recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in
particular.

Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”

SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS/COHESIVE DEVICES

(modified from Diana Hacker, A Writer’s Reference)

To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still,
though, yet

To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole,
that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier,
finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite,
to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

Produced by Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN

Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs

A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in the topic sentence. It must have a single
focus and it must contain no irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining,
exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine whether a paragraph is well developed or
not, ask yourself: "What main point am I trying to convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does every sentence
clearly relate to this idea?"

There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs. This section will discuss three of the most
common types of paragraph structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process. Finally, it
will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of development strategies.

Paragraph Development by Detail

This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development: you simply expand on a general topic
sentence using specific examples or illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it
before):

Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked
what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.
What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes
a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or other
physical activity before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although
most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and
not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot
produce anything without much dust and heat.

The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be associated only with school. The rest
of the sentences provide various illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three categories,
"environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic sentence. The details provide the concrete
examples which your reader will use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence.

Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast

You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and contrast when you are describing two or
more things which have something, but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by
point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple.) or subject by subject (X is big and purple; Y is small and
purple.). Consider, for example, the following paragraph:

Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem highly standardized, close observation reveals
regional variations across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central Canada and the West
as surely as dominant dialects or political inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs
drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily populated with pedestrians and
oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a halt on
the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider crossing at some
unspecified time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick, finally, traffic lights (along
with painted lines and posted speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup trucks,
which together account for most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any observant Canadian dropped
from an alien space vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he or she could
almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding traffic patterns.

This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the
Maritimes, in Montreal, and in Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places inform
behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they all drive; in contrast, they drive differently
according to the area in which they live.

It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If
you wanted to consider two or more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph.

Paragraph Development by Process

Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Those of you in the
sciences will recognise it as the formula followed in the "method" section of a lab experiment. Process description
often follows a chronological sequence:

The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod. This should be about half-way up the cork
handle, absolutely firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around the handle,
the little finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork
solidly into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The forefinger supports and steadies
the grip but supplies its own firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper side of the
handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")

The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to describe the process of establishing the
"grip of the hand on the rod," and this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.

Paragraph Development by Combination

Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combination of methods. It may begin with a brief
comparison, for example, and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A
process analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many paragraphs include lists of
examples:

The broad range of positive characteristics used to define males could be used to define females too,
but they are not. At its entry for woman Webster's Third provides a list of "qualities considered distinctive
of womanhood": "Gentleness, affection, and domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality,
and folly." Among the "qualities considered distinctive of manhood" listed in the entry for man, no
negative attributes detract from the "courage, strength, and vigor" the definers associate with males.
According to this dictionary, womanish means "unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either
sex."

This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison and contrast of contemporary notions of
"manliness" and "womanliness" with an extended list of examples.

Produced by the University of Ottawa Writing Center

Further examples on paragraph development

Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.

One North Carolina man found quite a surprise last year while fishing in the Catawba River: a piranha. Jerry Melton, of
Gastonia, reeled in a one pound, four ounce fish with an unusual bite. Melton could not identify it, but a nearby fisherman did.
Melton at first could not believe he had caught a piranha. He said, "That ain't no piranha. They ain't got piranha around here."
Melton was right: the fish is native to South America, and North Carolina prohibits owning the fish as a pet or introducing the
species to local waterways. The sharp-toothed, carnivorous fish likely found itself in the Catawba River when its illegal owner
released the fish after growing tired of it. Wildlife officials hope that the piranha was the only of its kind in the river, but locals
are thinking twice before they wade in the water.

Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in
order of appearance, or by topic.
Piranha are omnivorous, freshwater fish, which are mostly known for their single row of sharp, triangular teeth in both jaws.
Piranhas' teeth come together in a scissor-like bite and are used for puncture and tearing. Baby piranha are small, about the
size of a thumbnail, but full-grown piranha grow up to about 6-10 inches, and some individual fish up to 2 feet long have been
found. The many species of piranha vary in color, though most are either silvery with an orange underbelly and throat or almost
entirely black.

Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—first, second, third.
You can safely swim with piranhas, but it's important to know how and when to do it. First, chose an appropriate time,
preferably at night and during the rainy season. Avoid piranha-infested waters during the dry season, when food supplies are
low and piranhas are more desperate. Piranhas feed during the day, so night-time swimming is much safer. Second, streamline
your movement. Wild or erratic activity attracts the attention of piranhas. Swim slowly and smoothly. Finally, never enter the
water with an open wound or raw meat. Piranhas attack larger animals only when they are wounded. The presence of blood in
the water may tempt the fish to attack. If you follow these simple precautions, you will have little to fear.

Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.

Piranhas comprise more than 30-60 species of fish, depending on whom you ask. The many species fall into four genera:
Pygocentrus, Pygopristis, Serrasalmus, and Pristobrycon. Piranha in the Pygocentrus genus are the most common variety, the
kind you might find in a pet store. Pygopristis piranha are herbivores, feasting on seeds and fruits, not flesh. In contrast, fish in
the Serrasalmus genus eat only meat, and their teeth are razor-sharp. Pristobrycon are the least friendly of all piranhas; they
often bite the fins of other fish, even fish of the same species. The label piranha, then, refers to a wide variety of species.

Produced by the University North Carolina Writing Center

Practice

http://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/academic-writing/index.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeParaphrasing.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeMixedPatterns.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeInf1.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeInf2.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeDiscPoint.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeEvalSupport.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeTone.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeDrawingConclusions.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeConclusions2.html

http://www.laflemm.com/RfT/Practice/RfTPracticeReadings.html