Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Clay Science

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / c l a y

Review Article

Clay and non-clay minerals in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries

Part II. Active ingredients
M. Isabel Carretero a,⁎, Manuel Pozo b
a
Departamento de Cristalografía, Mineralogía y Química Agrícola, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Sevilla, Apdo. 553, 41071, Sevilla, Spain
b
Departamento de Geología y Geoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco 28049, Madrid, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A wide range and variety of minerals are used in the pharmaceutical industry as active ingredients. Such
Received 21 May 2009 minerals may be administered either orally as antacids, gastrointestinal protectors, antidiarrhoeaics, osmotic
Received in revised form 15 October 2009 oral laxatives, homeostatics, direct emetics, antianemics and mineral supplements, or parenterally as
Accepted 22 October 2009
antianemics and homeostatics. They may also be used topically as antiseptics, disinfectants, dermatological
Available online 31 October 2009
protectors, anti-inflammatories, local anesthetics, keratolytic reducers and decongestive eye drops. In all
Keywords:
cases the LADME process of the minerals is described. In the cosmetic industry minerals are used as solar
Minerals protectors as well as in toothpastes, creams, powder and emulsions, bathroom salts and deodorants.
Pharmaceutical industry The minerals in use belong to the following groups: oxides (rutile, periclase, zincite), carbonates (calcite,
Cosmetic industry magnesite, hydrocincite, smithsonite), sulphates (epsomite, mirabilite, melanterite, chalcanthite, zincosite,
Active ingredients goslarite, alum), chlorides (halite, sylvite), hydroxides (brucite, gibbsite, hydrotalcite), elements (sulphur),
Physical and physico-chemical properties sulphides (greenockite), phosphates (hydroxyapatite), nitrates (niter), borates (borax) and phyllosilicates
(smectite, palygorskite, sepiolite, kaolinite, talc, mica).
The therapeutic activity of these minerals is controlled by their physical and physico-chemical properties as
well as their chemical composition. The important properties are high sorption capacity, large specific
surface area, solubility in water, reactivity toward acids, high refractive index, high heat retention capacity,
opacity, low hardness, astringency, and high reflectance.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2. Minerals in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3. Therapeutic activity of minerals used in pharmaceutical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.1. Oral administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.1.1. Antacids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.1.2. Gastrointestinal protectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.1.3. Antidiarrhoeaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.1.4. Osmotic oral laxatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.1.5. Homoeostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.1.6. Direct emetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1.7. Antianemics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1.8. Mineral supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.2. Parenteral administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3. Topical administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.1. Antiseptics and disinfectants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.2. Dermatological protectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.3.3. Anti-inflammatories and local anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.4. Keratolytic reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.3.5. Decongestive eye drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: carre@us.es (M.I. Carretero), manuel.pozo@uam.es (M. Pozo).

0169-1317/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.clay.2009.10.016
172 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181

4. Minerals in cosmetic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

4.1. Solar protectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.2. Toothpaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.3. Cosmetic creams, powders and emulsions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.4. Bathroom salts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.5. Deodorants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5. Concluding remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

1. Introduction
Minerals have been used for therapeutic purposes since prehistoric
times (Galán et al., 1985; Bech, 1987; Veniale, 1997; Carretero et al.,
2006; Gomes and Pereira Silva, 2006; and references therein). Besides
serving as either active ingredients or excipients in pharmaceutical
preparations, minerals have other medical uses. Carretero and Pozo
(2009) have reviewed the use of minerals in the pharmaceutical
industry as excipients and minerals with other medical purposes, in
relation to their physical and physico-chemical properties.
Minerals serving as active ingredients (i.e., having therapeutic
properties) may be administered either orally (by ingestion), or
topically (by application in the body surface). Some minerals, when
previously dissolved, may also be administered parenterally. As is the
case with excipients (Carretero and Pozo, 2009) minerals used as
active ingredients must undergo a series of purification treatments in
order to meet the strict chemical, physical, and toxicological
specifications set out in the European or United States Pharmacopoeia.
Of the nearly 4500 known minerals, only about thirty are used in
the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Moreover, most of these
are synthetic analogues since it is generally more economical to
synthesize minerals than to extract and purify the naturally occurring
minerals (Fig. 1). Clay minerals (phyllosilicates) are a notable
exception because their synthesis is difficult and expensive, while
such natural minerals as calcite, halite or gypsum are used because
they are abundant and inexpensive.
The use of clay minerals and non-silicate minerals as active
ingredients in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations is well
documented (Galán et al., 1985; Veniale 1992, 1997; Bolger, 1995;
Carretero, 2002; López Galindo and Viseras, 2004; Love, 2004;
Carretero et al., 2006, Droy-Lefaix and Tateo, 2006; Carretero and
Pozo, 2007; Del Hoyo, 2007; Lefort et al., 2007; Viseras et al., 2007, and
references therein). Not all the minerals mentioned in the Pharma-
copoeias, however, were included. This review provides a compre-
hensive account of minerals used as active ingredients in
pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations. We have reviewed the
papers published until now (and the references therein) so as the
Pharmacopoeias. In each case, we attempt to correlate the physical
and physico-chemical properties of the minerals, and their chemical
composition with their pharmaceutical and cosmetic usages.
2. Minerals in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations
A large number of minerals are used as active ingredients in
pharmaceutical preparations as well as in cosmetic products. They come
under the following groups: oxides (rutile, periclase, zincite), carbo-
nates (calcite, magnesite, hydrocincite, smithsonite), sulphates (epso-
mite, mirabilite, melanterite, chalcanthite, zincosite, goslarite, alum),
chlorides (halite, sylvite), hydroxides (brucite, gibbsite, hydrotalcite),
elements (sulphur), sulphides (greenockite), phosphates (hydroxyap-
atite), nitrates (niter), borates (borax) and phyllosilicates (smectite,
palygorskite, sepiolite, kaolinite, talc, mica) (Table 1).
The therapeutic activity of these minerals is controlled by their
physical and physico-chemical properties as well as their chemical
composition (Table 2). For example, minerals that are composed of
non-toxic ions, and capable of reacting with acids can serve as
antacids. They are also effective as antidiarrhoeaics, osmotic oral
laxatives, and mineral supplements because in reacting with

Fig. 1. Source of minerals used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181 173

Table 1
Minerals used as active ingredients in pharmaceutical preparations and cosmetic products.

Mineral Chemical formulae Method of administration Therapeutic activity or cosmetic action

Oxides
Rutile TiO2 Topically Dermatological protector, solar protector
Periclase MgO Orally Antacid, osmotic oral laxative, mineral supplement
Zincite ZnO Topically Antiseptic and disinfectant, dermatological protector, solar protector

Carbonates
Calcite CaCO3 Orally, topically Antacid, antidiarrhoeaic, mineral supplement, abrasive and polishing
agent in toothpaste
Magnesite MgCO3 Orally Antacid, osmotic oral laxative, mineral supplement
Hydrozincite Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6 Topically Dermatological protector
Smithsonite ZnCO3 Topically Dermatological protector

Sulphates
Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O Orally, topically Osmotic oral laxative, mineral supplement, bathroom salts
Mirabilite Na2SO4.10H2O Orally, topically Osmotic oral laxative, bathroom salts
Melanterite FeSO4.7H2O Orally, topically Antianemic, mineral supplement
Chalcanthite CuSO4.5H2O Orally, topically Direct emetic, antiseptic and disinfectant
Zincosite ZnSO4 Orally, topically Direct emetic, antiseptic and disinfectant
Goslarite ZnSO4.7H2O Orally, topically Direct emetic, antiseptic and disinfectant
Alum KAl(SO4)2∙12H2O Topically Antiseptic and disinfectant, deodorant

Chlorides
Halite NaCl Orally, parenterally, Homeostatic, mineral supplement, decongestive eye drops, bathroom salts
topically
Sylvite KCl Orally, parenterally, Homeostatic, mineral supplement, bathroom salts
topically

Hydroxides
Brucite Mg(OH)2 Orally Antacid, osmotic oral laxative, mineral supplement
Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Orally Antacid, gastrointestinal protector, antidiarrhoeaic
Hydrotalcite Mg6Al2(CO3)(OH)16∙4H2O Orally Antacid

Others
Sulphur S Topically Antiseptic and disinfectant, keratolytic reducer
Greenockite CdS Topically Keratolytic reducer
Borax Na2B4O7∙10H2O Topically Antiseptic and disinfectant
Hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) Orally Mineral supplement
Niter KNO3 Topically Anaesthetizer in toothpastes

Phyllosilicates
Smectites Montmorillonite:(Al1,67Mg0,33)Si4O10(OH)2M+0,33 Orally, topically Antacid, gastrointestinal protector, antidiarrhoeaic, dermatological
Saponite: Mg3(Si3,67Al0,33)O10(OH)2M+0,33 protector, cosmetic creams, powders and emulsions
Hectorite: (Mg2.67Li0,33)Si4O10(OH)2M+0,33
Palygorskite (Mg,Al,Fe3+)5(Si, Al)8O20(OH)2(OH2)4.4H2O Orally, topically Antacid, gastrointestinal protector, antidiarrhoeaic, cosmetic creams,
powders and emulsions
Sepiolite Mg8Si12O30(OH)4(OH2)4∙8H2O Orally, topically Antacid, gastrointestinal protector, antidiarrhoeaic, cosmetic creams,
powders and emulsions
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Orally, topically Gastrointestinal protector, antidiarrhoeaic, dermatological protector,
anti-inflammatory and local anesthetic, cosmetic creams, powders
and emulsions
Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Topically Dermatological protector, cosmetic creams, powders and emulsions
Mica Muscovite: KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 Topically Cosmetic creams, powders and emulsions

hydrochloric acid of the stomach, cations disposable for absorption or
capable to be effective in the bowel are liberated. Those minerals with
a high sorption capacity and a large specific surface area, can also
function as gastrointestinal and dermatological protectors, and anti-
inflammatories and local anesthetics, while water-soluble species can
be used as homeostatics, antianemics and decongestive eye drops.
Likewise, minerals with a high heat retention capacity can serve as
anti-inflammatories and local anesthetics, minerals with high astrin-
gency are used as antiseptics and disinfectants and minerals which
react with cysteine can serve as keratolytic reducers.
Occasionally, it is not essential that the mineral is composed of non-
toxic ions in order that it may serve as an active ingredient in pharma-
ceutical preparations. This applies to minerals that induce vomiting since
they are quickly eliminated. These water-soluble minerals, composed of
(toxic) Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions, are used as direct emetics.
Minerals are also used in cosmetic products for their physical and
physico-chemical properties as well as their chemical composition
(Table 2). Minerals with a high refraction index can be used as solar
protectors. Water-soluble species can be utilized as ingredients in
toothpastes and bathroom salts. Those minerals with a high sorption
capacity and a large specific surface area can function as creams,
powders and emulsions while minerals with proper hardness can act
as abrasives in toothpastes. Highly opaque minerals and minerals of
high reflectance are used in creams, powders and emulsions. Likewise,
minerals with high astringency are included in deodorants.
Minerals with therapeutic activity may be administered to the
patient orally, parenterally, or topically (Tables 3a, 3b and 3c). The
therapeutic action is often correlated with the physical and physico-
chemical properties of the mineral; in other instances, it is related to the
ionic composition of the mineral. In common with organic active
ingredients, minerals in contact with the human body will pass through
one or several of the following phases: liberation, absorption, distribu-
tion, metabolism and excretion, which together are referred to by the
acronym ‘LADME’ (Table 3a, 3b and 3c; Pla Delfina and del Pozo Ojeda,
174 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181

Table 2 Table 2 (continued)

Physical and physico-chemical properties and chemical features for which the minerals Activity Mineral Physical and physico-chemical
are used as active ingredients in pharmaceutical preparations and cosmetic products. properties and chemical features
Activity Mineral Physical and physico-chemical Cosmetic products
properties and chemical features Cosmetic creams, Palygorskite Opacity and high sorption capacity
Pharmaceutical powders and Sepiolite
products emulsions Kaolinite
Antacids Calcite Reaction with acids (HCl); Smectites
Magnesite release of non-toxic ions Talc
Mica Micaceous habit and high reflectance
Periclase
Bathroom salts Halite High water solubility; release
Brucite
Gibbsite
Sylvite of Na+, K+ or Mg2+ ions
Epsomite
Hydrotalcite
Mirabilite
Palygorskite Surface adsorption of H+ and
Sepiolite decomposition in gastric acid; Deodorants Alum High astringent capacity
Smectites release of non-toxic ions
Gastrointestinal Gibbsite High sorption capacity and
protectors Palygorskite large specific surface area
Sepiolite 1974; Brunton et al., 2005). The type and number of phases will depend
Smectites on the nature of the mineral, the way of administration (oral, topical,
Kaolinite parenteral), and the kind of formulation (tablets, suspensions, powder,
Antidiarrhoeaics Gibbsite High sorption capacity and
etc.). Concerning the metabolism phase, minerals can induce or catalyze
Palygorskite large specific surface area
Sepiolite certain reactions within the organism, giving rise to products or
Smectites metabolites that must be excreted. It is in this sense that the term
Kaolinite ‘metabolism’ will be used here. Also, as is the case with (organic) drugs,
Gibbsite Decomposition in gastric acid; the metabolites of minerals exercise sometimes the therapeutic action.
Calcite release of Ca2+ or Al3+ ions
Osmotic oral Mirabilite High solubility in water and HCl;
laxatives Epsomite release of Na+ or Mg2+ ions and 3. Therapeutic activity of minerals used in pharmaceutical industry
Periclase non-toxic anions when ingested
Brucite Here we describe the therapeutic activity of minerals used in the
Magnesite
pharmaceutical industry, with special emphasis on the importance of
Homoeostatics Halite High solubility in water; release
Sylvite of Na+ or K+ ions and non-toxic physical and physico-chemical properties in controlling mineral activity.
anions when ingested
Direct emetics Chalcanthite Highly soluble Cu2+ and Zn2+ 3.1. Oral administration
Goslarite minerals
Zincosite
Antianemics Melanterite Highly soluble Fe2+ minerals Minerals that are administered orally to the patient may act as
Mineral Calcite Highly soluble in water and HCl; antacids, gastrointestinal protectors, antidiarrhoeaics, osmotic oral
supplements Magnesite release of essential ions laxatives, direct emetics, antianemics, homeostatics, or mineral supple-
Hydroxyapatite
ments (Table 3a).
Epsomite
Periclase
Brucite 3.1.1. Antacids
Halite Gastric acidity, arising from the excess production of hydrochloric
Sylvite acid in the stomach, can be effectively reduced by oral administration
Melanterite
Antiseptics and Sulphur High astringent capacity
of non-systemic antacids. Minerals can function as antacids through
disinfectants Borax two mechanisms: (a) neutralization of gastric acid and (b) adsorption
Chalcanthite of H+ ions to surface sites, leading to mineral decomposition. In both
Zincite cases, the minerals should be composed of non-toxic ions (Table 2).
Goslarite
Acid neutralization increases the pH of the gastric fluid from 1.5–2.0
Zincosite
Alum to ≥7, depending on mineral type. According to current opinion, an
Dermatological Kaolinite High sorption capacity; effective antacid is one that elevates the pH by 3–4 units, and causes
protectors Talc non-fibrous habit the disappearance of “free acidity”. When the pH of the gastric fluid
Smectites exceeds 7, ‘acid rebound’ may occur by which the parietal glands are
Zincite
Hydrozincite
stimulated in order to restore normal acidity.
Smithsonite Carbonates (calcite, magnesite), oxides (periclase), and hydroxides
Rutile (brucite, gibbsite, hydrotalcite) are widely used as antacids. Since calcite
Anti-inflammatories Kaolinite High absorption and heat tends to cause ‘acid rebound’, it should only be administered in treat-
and local anesthetics retention capacities
ments of short duration. The neutralization by minerals of hydrochloric
Keratolytic reducers Sulphur Reaction between the sulphur
Greenockite and the cysteine in keratinocytes acid in the stomach may be represented by the following reactions:
Decongestive Halite Na+ mineral; high water solubility
eye drops þ 2þ
XCO3 þ 2H →X þ CO2 þ H2 O X ¼ Ca; Mg
Cosmetic products
þ 2þ
Solar protectors Rutile High refraction index MgO þ 2H →Mg þ H2 O
Zincite
Toothpastes Niter +
Non-toxic K minerals; high water þ 2þ
MgðOHÞ2 þ 2H →Mg þ 2H2 O
solubility
Calcite Non-toxic; hardness is inferior to þ 3þ
that of enamel AlðOHÞ3 þ 3H →Al þ 3H2 O

þ 2þ 3þ
Mg6 Al2 ðCO3 ÞðOHÞ16 ∙ 4H2 O þ 18H →6Mg þ 2Al þ CO2 þ 21H2 O
 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181 175

Table 3a
Therapeutic activity, kind of formulation and LADME process of minerals orally administered to the patients (in grey colour are marked the phases of LADME process that happen).

Oral administration LADME process

Therapeutic Mineral Kind of Liberation Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion

activity formulation
Disintegration Dissolution Diffusion
Antacids Calcite, magnesite, Tablets For tablets It is the Of Of Of Mg2+, Al3+, Faeces
periclase, brucite, Suspensions therapeutical metabolites metabolites metabolites Ca2+ Kidney:
gibbsite, hydrotalcite Powders action except Al3+ except Al3+ CO2 (gas) Mg2+, Ca2+
Buccal
conduit:
CO2

Palygorskite, Tablets For tablets It is the Of Of Of Silica gel Faeces

sepiolite, smectites Suspensions therapeutical metabolites metabolites metabolites Mg2+, Al3+ Kidney: Mg2+
Powders action except except
together silica gel silica gel
with the and Al3+ and Al3+
adsorption
of H+ ions

Gastrointestinal Gibbsite, Tablets For tablets Except for Of Of Silica gel Faeces
protectors palygorskite, Suspensions kaolinite metabolites metabolites Mg2+, Al3+ Kidney:
sepiolite, kaolinite, Powders except silica except silica Ca2+ Ca2+
smectites gel and Al3+ gel and Al3+ Mg2+

Antidiarrhoeaics Calcite, gibbsite Tablets For tablets Of Of Al3+, Ca2+ Faeces

Suspensions metabolites metabolites CO2 (gas) Kidney:
Powders except Al3+ except Al3+ Ca2+
Buccal
conduit:
CO2

Kaolinite, palygorskite, Tablets For tablets Except Of Of Mg2+, Al3+, Faeces

sepiolite, smectites Suspensions for kaolinite metabolites metabolites Ca2+ Kidney:
Powders except silica except silica Silica gel Ca2+, Mg2+
gel and Al3+ gel and Al3+

Osmotic oral Mirabilite, epsomite, Solutions Periclase Of Of Na+, Mg2+ Faeces

2-
laxatives periclase, brucite, Granulated Brucite metabolites metabolites SO4 Perspiration
magnesite Suspensions Magnesite CO2 (gas) and saliva:
Na+
Kidney:
Mg2+, Na+
Biliar
vesicle:
SO42-
Buccal
conduit:
CO2

Homoeostatics Halite, sylvite Solutions Kidney

Perspiration
Saliva

Direct emetics Chalcanthite, Solutions Low Low Low Buccal

goslarite, zincosite concentration concentration concentration conduit
Kidney,
faeces

Antianemics Melanterite Drinkable Fe2+ → Fe3+ Faeces

blisters Kidney
Biliar
vesicle:
2-
SO4
-
Mineral Calcite, magnesite, Tablets PO43 , Ca2+, Faeces,
supplements hydroxyapatite, Mg2+, Na+, kidney
epsomite, K+, Fe2+ Perspiration,
periclase, brucite, CO2 (gas) saliva
halite, sylvite, SO42- Buccal
melanterite conduit:
CO2
Biliar
vesicle:
SO42-

LADME process phases for the different applications.

176 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181

Table 3b
Therapeutic activity and LADME process of minerals parenterally administered to the patients (in grey colour are marked the phases of LADME process that happen).

Parenteral administration LADME process

Therapeutic activity Mineral Liberation Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion

Disintegration Dissolution Diffusion
Faeces
Kidney
Antianemics Melanterite Fe2+ → Fe3+ Biliar vesicle:
2-
SO4
Kidney
Homoeostatics Halite, sylvite Perspiration
Saliva

LADME process phases for the different applications.

The main reaction products are CO2 (gas) together with Mg2+, Ca2+,
and Al3+ ions.
Gastric acidity may also be reduced through adsorption of H+ ions
(protons) to the mineral surface. The clay minerals (palygorskite,
sepiolite, montmorillonite, saponite, or mixtures of any two) can act
as antacids through this mechanism. The main reaction products are
silica gel, structural cations from the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet
(Mg2+, Al3+), and interlayer cations in the case of smectite. Kaolinite
is not used as an antacid because it has a low capacity for neutralizing
acids and adsorbing protons.
Minerals, acting as antacids, are usually administered in the form
of tablets, suspensions, or powders. Within the LADME process
(Table 3a), tablets should go through the liberation phase during
which they disintegrate and the mineral, acting as active ingredient, is
released. This phase happens in the stomach or in the oral cavity in
function of the kind of formulation (oral or buccal tablets, respec-
tively). This phase does not occur when minerals are administered as
suspensions or powders. The dissolution phase is the therapeutical
action and the diffusion, absorption and distribution phases only
occur for the metabolites. The reaction products released during the
therapeutic process (metabolites) are mainly Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+
ions (in solution); silica gel when clay minerals are used; and CO2
(gas) in the case of carbonates.
Carbon dioxide is usually emitted through the esophagus and
buccal conduit, and can sometimes give rise to flatulence as a
secondary effect. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions mostly pass to the bowel
although a portion (15–30%) is absorbed into the blood. The
absorption of Ca2+ ions in the small bowel is promoted by vitamin
D in its active form (1,25-dihydroxicolecalciferol). The absorbed Ca2+
is eliminated through the kidney. The same applies to Mg2+ ions
unless renal insufficiency exists in which case the use of Mg-rich
minerals as antacids is dissuaded. The unabsorbed portion (70–85%)
of these divalent cations is excreted through the faeces. By forming
insoluble salts, Al3+ ions are not absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract,
and pass through the faeces. The same applies to insoluble silica gel,
derived from clay minerals. The continual use of clay minerals as
antacids, however, may lead to the formation of renal silica calculi
(Joekes et al., 1973; Levison et al., 1982).
Passage of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ions to the bowel can produce
various secondary effects depending on the nature of the cation. For

Table 3c
Therapeutic activity, kind of formulation and LADME process of minerals topically administered to the patients (in grey colour are marked the phases of LADME process that happen).

Topical administration LADME process

Therapeutic Mineral Kind of Liberation Absorption Distribution Metabolism Excretion

activity formulation
Disintegration Dissolution Diffusion

Sulphur, chalcanthite, Lotions Low Low Low

zincite, goslarite, Drops Kidney, faeces
concentration concentration concentration
zincosite Powders
Antiseptics and
disinfectants Borax, alum Lotions
Drops
Powders

Kaolinite, talc,
Creams
Dermatological smectites, zincite, Creams
Ointments
protectors hydrozincite, Ointments
Powders
smithsonite, rutile

Anti-inflammatories
Kaolinite Poultices
and local anesthetics

Creams
Ointments
Keratolytic reducers Sulphur, greenockite Lotions Low Low Faeces
Shampoo concentration concentration
suspensions
Kidney
Decongestive eye Low Low Lachrymal
Halite Collyrium
drops concentration concentration Perspiration
Saliva

LADME process phases for the different applications.

 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181
example, Ca2+ ions give rise to constipation by forming insoluble
hydrated phosphates. Similarly, Al3+ ions can form insoluble hydro-
xides, fatty acid salts, and phosphates. Since these compounds are
partially desiccated in the colon-rectum, the faeces that forms is
powdery and difficult to evacuate. The resultant constipation may
even cause intestinal obstruction. On the other hand, Mg2+ ions exert
a laxative effect, causing frequent and liquescent defecations. In
practice, these secondary effects may be suppressed by using a
mixture of several minerals containing different cations. The
combination of different antacids has the added advantage of
prolonging the therapeutic effect of the pharmaceutical preparation.
A case in point is the combination of gibbsite and brucite. The latter
mineral acts very quickly, while gibbsite is relatively slow-acting.
Their combined administration will therefore enhance both the action
and duration of the antacid effect.
3.1.2. Gastrointestinal protectors
The effect of a peptic ulcer is to decrease the thickness of the
gastro-duodenal mucous membrane. By impeding contact between
gastric enzymes and mucous cells, the mucosa protects the cells from
being damaged. As the thickness of the mucous membrane
diminishes, the mucolytic activity of gastric enzymes increases,
requiring the application of mineral sorbents. To be effective, such
minerals should have a large specific surface and a high sorption
capacity. They should also be non-toxic to organisms. Minerals used as
gastrointestinal protectors include metal hydroxides (e.g., gibbsite)
and clay minerals (e.g., palygorskite, sepiolite, kaolinite, smectites)
(Table 2).
By adhering to the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane, these
minerals diminish irritation and gastric secretion, take up gases,
toxins, bacteria, and even viruses (Droy-Lefaix and Tateo, 2006). The
mode of action involves increasing the viscosity and stability of the
gastric mucus, and decreasing the degradation of glycoproteins in the
mucus (López Galindo and Viseras, 2004; Droy-Lefaix and Tateo,
2006). Since these minerals can also remove enzymes, vitamins, and
other vital substances, their continual and prolonged administration is
not recommended.
By binding the mucous components, smectites can completely
inhibit the damage induced by pepsin (Leonard et al., 1994).
Nevertheless, smectites do not provide long-term protection. Although
smectites can quickly adhere to the gastric mucosa, they are rapidly
degraded by contact with the acidic medium of the stomach and/or
bowel. Indeed, in vivo studies with rats indicate that the coating capacity
of the smectites decrease after only 10 min of ingestion.
Gastrointestinal mineral protectors are orally administered to the
patient in the form of tablets, suspensions, or powders. The LADME
process of these minerals (Table 3a) consists of a disintegration phase
in the case of tablets, and diffusion of the active ingredients to the
gastric and/or intestinal wall where their therapeutic action is
exercised. The absorption and distribution phases happen for
metabolites, except for silica gel and Al3+. Excretion is essentially
carried out through the faeces. With the exception of acid-stable
kaolinite, all the minerals used as gastrointestinal protectors will
dissolve to varying extents, releasing Mg2+, Al3+, and silica gel as has
just been described for antacids.
3.1.3. Antidiarrhoeaics
Diarrhoea is either an acute or chronic pathological state,
characterized by increased fluidity of the faeces and frequency of
evacuation. Diarrhoea may be caused by bacterial infection, intoxica-
tion, defective intestinal absorption, allergy, etc. Treatment must
therefore focus on eliminating its cause although the symptoms of
diarrhoea may be eliminated using drugs that act by antidiarrhoeaics.
Most drugs against diarrhoea act by reducing the quantity of liquid
that arrives in the colon from the thin bowel. Minerals used as
antidiarrhoeaics should have a high specific surface and sorption
177
capacity, and be non-toxic to organisms (Table 2). Besides removing
excess water and compacting the faeces, effective antidiarrhoeaics can
adsorb excess gases from the digestive tract.
Clay minerals, such as kaolinite, palygorskite, sepiolite, and
smectites (e.g., montmorillonite) are widely used as antidiarrhoeaics.
Prior to usage, palygorskite, sepiolite and smectites are normally
“activated” by heating or acid treatment in order to enhance their
sorption capacity (Jones and Galán, 1988; Vicente Rodríguez et al.,
1995; Christidis et al., 1997), and hence their antidiarrhoeaic
efficiency. We should point out that these clay minerals except
kaolinite can undergo partial degradation in the acidic medium of the
stomach (Novak and Čičel, 1978; Corma et al., 1987; Tkáč et al., 1994;
Vicente Rodríguez et al., 1994; Galán et al., 1999). The silica gel
produced has a high sorption capacity and can contribute to the
antidiarrhoeaic action. The long-term use of clay minerals antidiar-
rhoeaics is not recommended because of the risk of renal silica calculi
(kidney stone) formation (Joekes et al., 1973; Levison et al., 1982).
Calcite and gibbsite (Table 2) also feature as antidiarrhoeaics. In
this case, the therapeutic action may be ascribed to the release of Ca2+
ions (from calcite) and Al3+ ions (from gibbsite), followed by the
formation of insoluble salts in the bowel as previously mentioned.
The LADME process in this case is similar to that of the antacids
and gastrointestinal protectors (Table 3a).
3.1.4. Osmotic oral laxatives
Oral laxatives have active ingredients that induce defecation, or
bowel evacuation prior to radiological examination, endoscopy, or
surgery. Oral laxatives act by osmosis, irritating the small bowel or the
colon-rectum.
Minerals used as oral laxatives contain Na+ or Mg2+ ions and non-
toxic anions, and have a high solubility in water or hydrochloric acid
(Table 2). Examples are mirabilite, epsomite, periclase, brucite and
magnesite. Sodium and magnesium ions exert their therapeutic action
as they spread through the stomach's fluids and reach the small bowel
where they increase the osmotic pressure of the intestinal contents.
This induces water to pass from the blood plasma through the bowel
wall in order to re-establish osmotic balance. As a result, there is a
considerable increase in the volume of the bowel's contents which, in
turn, stimulates the propulsive motor activity of the smooth intestinal
muscle. This effect continues in the colon-rectum, producing liquid
faeces. The intensity of the laxative action depends on mineral
solubility, cation concentration in the intestinal liquid, rate of cation
absorption, and osmotic pressure that it exerts. The laxative activity of
minerals decreases in the order: mirabilite N epsomite N periclase N
brucite N magnesite.
The highly water-soluble mirabilite and epsomite are orally
administered as a solution, or as dissolved granules. Sparingly soluble
minerals are usually administered as suspensions, and dissolve in the
acidic medium of the stomach.
In order to exercise their therapeutic action, the cations must spread
through the fluids of the stomach until they reach the bowel. Sulphate,
sodium, and magnesium ions are largely excreted through the faeces but
between 15 and 20% cross the intestinal wall, enter the blood plasma,
and are eliminated through the kidney (Na+ and Mg2+), by perspiration
and saliva (Na+), or through the bile duct (SO2− 4 ). In the latter case, the
anion can return to the bowel, and be excreted through the faeces.
When magnesite is used, the CO2 produced by reaction with hydro-
chloric acid in the stomach is eliminated through the buccal conduit
(Table 3a).
3.1.5. Homoeostatics
Homoeostasis refers to the tendency toward electrostatic equilib-
rium between body liquids. Water is the main liquid constituent of
living organisms, making up about 60% of body weight. Mineral
substances are also indispensable for the maintenance of life, since
they are actively involved in regulating osmotic pressure, acid-base
178 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181
equilibrium, and diverse organic functions. During dehydration the
loss of water is always accompanied by the loss of electrolytes of
which Na+ and K+ ions are the most important. Therefore water-
soluble minerals containing Na+ or K+ ions (and their complemen-
tary non-toxic anions) act as homoeostatics (Table 2). The most
commonly used minerals are halite and sylvite.
These minerals are administered as saline solutions, either orally
in mild cases or parenterally in very severe cases. The LADME process
for oral administration consists of diffusion, absorption, distribution,
and excretion (Table 3a). Excretion is largely effected through urine,
although these ions may also be excreted through perspiration and
saliva. Ions excreted through saliva would return to the gastrointes-
tinal tract, and begin a new cycle.
3.1.6. Direct emetics
Emetics are substances that cause vomiting. Being absorbed by,
and distributed through, the blood plasma, emetics can act directly on
the nerve endings of the stomach, or indirectly on the vomit centre in
the medulla oblongata. Chalcanthite, goslarite and zincosite have been
used as emetics. They contain Cu2+ and Zn2+ ions, are highly soluble
in water (Table 2), and act directly. These cations irritate the gastric
mucosa, and stimulate the vomit centre. When vomiting is delayed,
however, the ions can move to the bowel causing intestinal colic and
diarrhoea. For this reason, these minerals are not used as much as in
past centuries (Del Amo y Mora, 1871) to treat acute poisonings.
Chalcanthite is also useful as an antidote in phosphorus poisoning.
The copper phosphide formed in the stomach, is much less caustic
than phosphorus and cover the stomach impeding its caustic action.
Vomiting eliminates most of the copper and phosphide.
Mineral emetics are administered orally as aqueous solutions. The
LADME process consists mainly of two phases: (1) diffusion through the
gastric fluid to the stomach wall where the therapeutic action takes
place by irritation of the mucous gastric nerves; and (2) excretion
through the oral cavity as vomit (Table 3a).
3.1.7. Antianemics
Anemia is a blood dysfunction caused by a deficiency of red blood
cells, or a low concentration of hemoglobin. The body needs iron to
manufacture hemoglobin. If there is not enough available iron,
hemoglobin production is limited and this affects the production of
red blood cells. Ferrous ions are much less irritating to, and more
quickly absorbed by, the organism than are ferric ions. Melanterite is
widely used as an antianemic because this mineral is highly soluble in
water, and contains Fe2+ ions in its structure.
Melanterite is generally administered orally as a drink but in
severe cases, it is administered parenterally. When orally taken, all
phases of the LADME process are in place (Table 3a). The liberation
phase consists of diffusion to the small bowel where absorption of Fe2+
ions occurs. These ions then passes to the blood plasma where they
bind to transferrin, a glycoprotein (globulin β), and convert into the
ferric form which is then transported to the bone marrow for
incorporation into hemoglobin. The iron is eventually stored in cells
that belong to the reticuloendothelial system: liver, spleen, and bone
marrow. Not all of the iron, however, is stored. Some of the supplied
iron is excreted through the faeces, and some of the absorbed iron is
eliminated through urine. Sulphate ions are eliminated through the
gallbladder, or pass to the bowel through the common bile duct, and
evacuated as faeces.
3.1.8. Mineral supplements
Mineral supplements are administered in situations of physical
weakness, convalescence, or asthenia in order to remedy slight
deficiencies of essential ions, such as PO3−
4 , Ca
2+
, Mg2+, Na+, K+ and
2+
Fe . The minerals used for this purpose are calcite, magnesite,
hydroxyapatite, epsomite, periclase, brucite, halite, sylvite, and melan-
terite. Besides containing the above-mentioned ions, these minerals are
highly soluble in water and hydrochloric acid (Table 2).
Mineral supplements are usually administered orally as tablets.
They have all the phases of the LADME process (Table 3a).
3.2. Parenteral administration
In severe cases, minerals used as antianemics (melanterite) and
homoeostatics (halite and sylvite) may be administered parenterally
in a dissolved form. As such, the distribution and excretion phases of
the LADME process apply. Diffusion and absorption phases do not
happen in this administration way because they are administered
directly in the blood stream. In the case of antianemics the
metabolism phase also occurs. The excretion mechanisms are the
same as for oral administration (Table 3b).
3.3. Topical administration
Minerals can be administered to the patient topically as antiseptics
and disinfectants, dermatological protectors, anti-inflammatories and
local anesthetics, keratolytic reducers and decongestive eye drops
(Table 3c).
3.3.1. Antiseptics and disinfectants
Antiseptics are substances that inhibit microbial growth or destroy
microorganisms in living tissues. Disinfectants have the same action
as antiseptics but are applied to surfaces of inanimate objects. Some
substances can be used as both antiseptic and disinfectant.
Mineral antiseptics and disinfectants have a high astringent
capacity (Table 2). Sulphur, borax, chalcanthite, zincite, goslarite,
zincosite, and alum are widely used in liquid forms (lotions, drops) or
as solids (powders). The antiseptic or disinfectant activity of these
minerals is largely controlled by their concentration. We should
emphasize that at high concentrations these substances are corrosive
and highly toxic to organisms because they can be readily absorbed by
the skin. For this reason, they should not be applied continually over
extensive areas of skin, or spread over broken skin.
Sulphur is used as a soft antiseptic and disinfectant. Borax acts as a
weak bacteriostatic and soft astringent agent. Historically, borax was
used as a disinfectant in the form of skin lotions, and eye-, nose-, and
mouth-washes. It is also used as lotions for colutories and gargles for
aphthous ulcers and stomatitis. Chalcanthite is used as an astringent
and fungicide solution. The oxides and sulphates of zinc are used as
astringent lotions for painless ulcers, and as gargles and astringent
colutories. They are also used as ophthalmic drops (0.25% solutions)
to treat conjunctivitis and chronic cornea inflammation. Alum (1–4%
solutions) is used in gargles and colutories for stomatitis and faringitis.
On the other hand, in solid form (powder), alum is also applied as a
hemostatic agent (to inhibit hemorrhages) for cuts or superficial skin
damage.
The LADME process of these minerals comprises diffusion of the
active ingredient. In some cases, they are absorbed in low concentra-
tion and excreted by the kidney and faeces (Table 3c).
3.3.2. Dermatological protectors
As the name suggests, dermatological protectors are creams,
ointments, and powders that protect the skin against external agents
and, occasionally, against exudations and liquid excretions. Minerals
with a high sorption capacity are used as dermatological protectors
(Table 2). Fibrous minerals (palygorskite, sepiolite), however, are
excluded due to their possible carcinogenic effect when inhaled
(Guthrie and Mossman, 1993; Wagner et al., 1998; Carretero et al.,
2006). Suitable minerals are kaolinite, talc, smectites (e.g., montmo-
rillonite), zincite, hydrozincite, smithsonite and rutile. These minerals
can adhere to skin to form a film, which provides (mechanical)
protection against external physical and chemical agents. By taking up
 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181
skin exudations and creating a surface for evaporation, such minerals
also have a refreshing action. In addition, they exert a soft antiseptic
action by producing a water-poor medium that is unfavourable to
bacterial growth. Indeed, some of these minerals (e.g., kaolinite, talc,
smectites) are good sorbents of dissolved or suspended substances
(greases, toxins), bacteria and viruses.
Since these minerals are applied as creams, powder and ointments,
the LADME process only consists of a diffusion phase through the
semifluid medium until they reach the skin (Table 3c). The other
LADME phases do not occur because these minerals are not absorbed
through the skin, and hence do not give rise to secondary effects.
3.3.3. Anti-inflammatories and local anesthetics
Inflammation is a reaction of the organism against an irritating or
infectious agent. It can produce pain, swelling, reddening, rigidity or
loss of mobility, and heat in the affected area. When the inflammation
is produced by sprains or muscular stretching, the associated pain can
be alleviated by applying some cold compresses, relaxation, and the
complete immobilization of the affected area. Sometimes, in the
treatment of musculoskeletal disorders, rheumatism, trauma or
stress, hot poultices are also used, because the heat is also a
therapeutic agent. These therapeutic actions may be enhanced by
using minerals with adsorbent and heat retention properties of which
kaolinite is the most common. It is topically applied as a poultice to
reduce inflammation and alleviate pain.
In this case there are no phases of the LADME process.
3.3.4. Keratolytic reducers
Keratolytic reducers act on the corneous, superficial layer of the
epidermis, reducing its thickness, or causing its peeling. They are used
to treat cutaneous affections, such as seborrheoic dermatitis, psoriasis,
chronic eczemas or acne.
Sulphur and greenockite are effective keratolytic reducers. Sulphur
has been used extensively in dermatology for its keratolytic effect and
its supposed antimicrobial effect. The keratolytic effect of sulphur is
probably due to the reaction between the sulphur and the cysteine in
keratinocytes forming hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide can
break down keratin, thus demonstrating sulphur's keratolytic activity.
The smaller the particle size, the greater is the degree of such
interaction and therefore the therapeutic efficacy. The supposed
antimicrobial effect depends on the conversion of sulphur to
pentathionic acid, which is toxic to fungi, by the normal skin flora
or the keratinocytes. The keratolytic properties may promote fungal
shedding from the stratum corneum. Sulphur has an inhibitory effect
on the growth of Propionibacterium acnes as well as Sarcoptes scabiei,
some Streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus. This suggested anti-
bacterial activity purportedly results from the inactivation of
sulfhydryl groups contained in bacterial enzyme systems. The precise
mechanism of action is still unknown (Shapiro and Maddin, 1996;
Gupta and Nicol, 2004; Sanfilippo and English, 2006).
Cadmium sulphide, applied as shampoo or a suspension in an
alkaline detergent base, is effective against dandruff and seborrhoea.
Although it is not absorbed by the scalp, cadmium sulphide is very
toxic when ingested, and hence has fallen into disuse. Sulphur has
traditionally been applied as lotions, ointments, and creams to treat
acne. Since these minerals are applied as shampoo, suspensions,
lotions, ointments and creams, they are practically not absorbed, in
fact about only 1% of topically applied sulphur is systemically
absorbed. Adverse effects from topically applied sulphur are uncom-
mon and are mainly limited to the skin (Lin et al., 1988).
3.3.5. Decongestive eye drops
Minerals are used in ophthalmology as decongestive eye drops to
treat eye dryness, stinging and weeping induced by smoke, dust, or
air-borne particles, light ocular irritation, and problems of visual
fixation.
179
Halite is the principal mineral used for this purpose because it is
highly soluble in water. The mineral, previously dissolved, is
administered in the form of an isotonic collyrium.
The LADME process consists of a diffusion phase until the ocular
membrane. Absorption is limited and the excretion takes place
through the kidney, the lachrymal and nasal ducts, perspiration and
saliva (Table 3c).
4. Minerals in cosmetic products
Minerals are used in cosmetic products as solar protectors, tooth-
pastes, creams, powder and emulsions, bathroom salts and deodorants.
4.1. Solar protectors
Solar protectors are substances that can minimize skin damage by
preventing solar ultraviolet radiation from penetrating the skin.
Minerals used as solar protectors must have a high refractive index
and good light-scattering properties.
Rutile and zincite fulfil these requirements. Natural rutile, however,
is not used; rather, the synthetic analogous obtained of rutile or ilmenite
feature as solar protectors. Synthetic titanium dioxide is white and has a
very high refractive index (n = 2.70). This mineral is an excellent solar
protector because it reflects ultraviolet radiation when applied to skin as
a fine layer. It is also more effective than other photosensitive organic
compounds because of its high stability against photodegradation. The
light-scattering ability of the mineral is controlled by particle size. For
example, titanium dioxide with an average particle size of 230 nm
scatters visible light, while its counterpart with an average particle size
of 60 nm scatters ultraviolet light and reflects visible light (Hewitt,
1992).
The disadvantage of using (synthetic) titanium dioxide is that it
gives a white appearance to the skin. Transparent sunscreen
ointments presently use TiO2 with a very small particle size. A
particle size of 50 nm is considered optimum in that it provides good
protection against ultraviolet radiation while the dispersion of visible
light is such that the cream is not white on the skin. Nanosize TiO2 is
extensively used in sunscreen lotions (Jaroenworaluck et al., 2006).
Zincite is also used as a solar protector because its physical properties
are similar to those of titanium dioxide although its refractive index is
smaller (n = 2.02).
4.2. Toothpaste
Minerals are used in toothpaste for two purposes: (a) formulation
for sensitive teeth, and (b) as abrasives or polishing agents.
Minerals comprising potassium and non-toxic anions with a high
solubility in water are used in toothpaste formulated for sensitive
teeth (Table 2). Niter is a prime example because it contributes K+
ions when the mineral dissolves on contact with saliva. These ions act
on nerve endings inside the dentine, inhibiting transmission of painful
stimuli (Orchardson and Gillam, 2000; Wara-aswapati et al., 2005).
We have included toothpaste formulated for sensitive teeth in
cosmetic products, but this product could be also included in
pharmaceutical products because it has a therapeutic action, is sold
only in pharmacies and in most cases are prescribed by doctors.
Calcite is used as an abrasive/polishing agent because it is non-
toxic to organisms, while its hardness of 3 (in the Mohs scale) is less
than that of tooth enamel (5 in the Mohs scale).
4.3. Cosmetic creams, powders and emulsions
Creams, powders, emulsions used as cosmetic products are applied
to external parts of the body in order to embellish or modify physical
appearance, or preserve the physico-chemical conditions of skin.
180 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181
Opaque minerals with a high sorption capacity are used in
cosmetic formulations as creams, powders, emulsions in order to
give opacity, remove shine, and cover blemishes. Besides adhering to
skin and forming a protective film, these minerals can take up grease
and toxins. Palygorskite and sepiolite (in liquid preparations)
together with kaolinite, smectites, and talc are the principal minerals
used for this purpose.
On the other hand, micas have long been used in eye shades and
lipsticks for their high reflectance and iridescence. More recently,
muscovite mica are added to moisturizing creams in order to produce
a luminous effect on skin.
4.4. Bathroom salts
Some minerals are used in bathroom salts because of their high
solubility in water and specific chemical composition. Examples are
halite, sylvite, epsomite and mirabilite (Table 2).
4.5. Deodorants
Alum is widely used nowadays as a deodorant because of its high
astringence, although this mineral is used with cosmetic purposes at
least from the Roman Time. Pliny the Elder in his “Natural History”
(XXXV, 52) describes the alum for its use as deodorant “The liquid
alum is astringent, hardening and corrosive (…). This cure is used in
the bath: two parts of honey for one of alum are taken. It dispels bad
smell and sweat of armpits”.
5. Concluding remarks
A wide variety of minerals are used for pharmaceutical, medical and
cosmetic purposes. Among these, phyllosilicates (clay minerals) are the
most interesting because of their small particle size, large surface area,
and peculiar layer charge characteristics. The high capacity of many clay
minerals for sorbing cations, including protons, and organic substances
together with their rheological properties are conducive to using them
as excipients and/or active ingredients. Thus, minerals can delay drug
action, and serve as a carrier–releaser of organic active ingredients.
Among the clay minerals, the smectite group of minerals enjoys wide
applications in the pharmaceutical industry because of their high
swelling and cation exchange capacity. Kaolinite, sepiolite, and
palygorskite are also used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.
Among non-silicate minerals, the water-soluble chlorides and sulphates
of Na+, Mg2+, Fe2+ and K+ stand out. These minerals (halite, sylvite,
melanterite, epsomite, mirabillite) commonly serve as active ingredi-
ents in laxatives, homeostatics, antianemics, and mineral supplements.
Future developments would include purification (e.g., elimination
of potentially harmful trace elements), laboratory synthesis of
selected minerals, delamination of clay minerals, and preparation of
nanosize mineral particles. The overall aim is to obtain minerals of
high purity with controlled particle size and shape, enhancing its
physical and physico-chemical properties.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. Benny Theng for his detailed review of this
manuscript, improving it by means of several comments, suggestions
and advices. This work was funded by the Research Group RNM-349
of the Andalousia Board.
References
Bech, J., 1987. Les Terres Medicinals. Discurs per Reial Academia de Farmàcia de
Barcelona. Reial Acadèmia de farmàcia de Barcelona-CIRIT (Generalitat de
Catalunya), Barcelona. 105 pp.
Bolger, R., 1995. Industrial minerals in pharmaceuticals. Industrial Minerals 8, 52–63.
Brunton, L.L., Lazo, J.S., Parker, K.L., 2005. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological
Basis of Therapeutics, 11e. Ed. McGraw-Hill.
Carretero, M.I., 2002. Clay minerals and their beneficial effects upon human health. A
review. Applied Clay Science 21, 155–163.
Carretero, M.I., Pozo, M., 2007. Mineralogía Aplicada: Salud y Medio Ambiente. Madrid,
Thompson. 406 pp.
Carretero, M.I., Pozo, M., 2009. Clay and non-clay minerals in the pharmaceutical industry.
Part I. Excipients and medical applications. Applied Clay Science 46, 73–80.
Carretero, M.I., Gomes, C., Tateo, F., 2006. Clays and human health. In: Bergaya, F.,
Theng, B.K.G., Lagaly, G. (Eds.), Handbook of Clay Science. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp. 717–741.
Christidis, G.E., Scott, P.W, Dunham, A.C., 1997. Acid activation and bleaching capacity
of bentonites from the islands of Milos and Chios, Aegean, Greece. Applied Clay
Science 12, 329–347.
Corma, A., Mifsud, A., Sanz, E., 1987. Influence of the chemical composition and textural
characteristics of palygorskite on the acid leaching of octahedral cations. Clay
Minerals 22, 225–232.
Del Amo y Mora, M., 1871. Programa y Resumen de las Lecciones de Materia
Farmacéutica Mineral y Animal. Granada University, Spain.
Del Hoyo, C., 2007. Layered double hydroxides and human health: an overview. Applied
Clay Science 36, 103–121.
Droy-Lefaix, M.T., Tateo, F., 2006. Clays and clay minerals as drugs. In: Bergaya, F.,
Theng, B.K.G., Lagaly, G. (Eds.), Handbook of Clay Science. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp. 743–752.
Galán, E., Liso, M.J., Forteza, M., 1985. Minerales utilizados en la industria farmaceútica.
Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Mineralogía 8, 369–378.
Galán, E., Carretero, M.I., Fernández Caliani, J.C., 1999. Effects of acid mine drainage on
clay minerals suspended in the Tinto River (Río Tinto, Spain). An experimental
approach. Clay Minerals 34, 99–108.
Gomes, C.S.F., Pereira Silva, J.B., 2006. Minerals and Human Health. Benefits and Risks.
Centro de Investigação«Minerais Industriais e Argilas». Fudação para a Ciência e
a Tecnologia do Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior. Aveiro
(Portugal).
Gupta, A.K., Nicol, K., 2004. The use of sulphur in dermatology. Journal of Drugs in
Dermatology 3 (4), 427–431.
Guthrie, G.D., Mossman, B.T. (Eds.), 1993. Health effects of mineral dusts. Reviews in
Mineralogy, vol. 28. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C. 584 pp.
Hewitt, J.P., 1992. Titanium dioxide: a different kind of sunshield. Drug and Cosmetic
Industry 151 (3), 26–32.
Jaroenworaluck, A., Sunsaneeyametha, W., Kosachan, N., Stevens, R., 2006. Character-
istics of silica-coated TiO2 and its UV absorption for sunscreen cosmetic
applications. Surface and Interface Analysis 38, 473–477.
Joekes, A.M., Rose, G.A., Sutor, J., 1973. Multiple renal silica calculi. British Medical
Journal 1, 146–147.
Jones, B.F., Galán, E., 1988. Sepiolite and palygorskite. In: Bailey, S.W. (Ed.), Hydrous
Phyllosilicates. Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 19. Mineralogical Society of America,
Washington, D.C, pp. 631–674.
Lefort, D., Deloncle, R., Dubois, P., 2007. Les minéraux en pharmacie. Géosciences 5,
6–19.
Leonard, A.J., Droy-Lefaix, M.T., Allen, A., 1994. Pepsin hydrolysis of the adherent mucus
barrier and subsequent gastric mucosal damage in the rat: effect of diosmectite and
16, 16 dimethyl prostaglandin E2. Gastroenterologie Clinique et Biologique 8,
609–616.
Levison, D.A., Crocker, P.R., Banim, S., Wallace, D.M.A., 1982. Silica stones in the urinary
bladder. Lancet 27, 704–705.
Lin, A.N., Reimer, R.J., Carter, D.M., 1988. Sulphur revisited. Journal of the American
Academy of Dermatology 18 (3), 553–558.
López Galindo, A., Viseras, C., 2004. Pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications of clays.
In: Wypych, F., Satyanarayana, K.G. (Eds.), Clay Surfaces. Fundamentals and
Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 267–289.
Love, P., 2004. Mineral makeover. Industrial Minerals 9, 56–57.
Novak, I., Čičel, B., 1978. Dissolution of smectites in hydrochloric acid: II. Dissolution
rate as a function of crystallochemical composition. Clays and Clay Minerals 26,
341–344.
Orchardson, R., Gillam, D.G., 2000. The efficacy of potassium salts as agents for treating
dentin hypersensitivity. Journal of Orofacial Pain 14 (1), 9–19.
Pla Delfina, J.M., Del Pozo Ojeda, A., 1974. Manual de Iniciación a la Biofarmacia.
Romargraf, S.A., Barcelona. 315 pp.
Sanfilippo, A., English, J.C., 2006. An overview of medicated shampoos used in dandruff
treatment. P&T 31 (7), 396–400.
Shapiro, J., Maddin, S., 1996. Medicated shampoos. Clinics in Dermatology 14, 123–128.
Tkáč, I., Komadel, P., Müller, D., 1994. Acid-treated montmorillonites. A study by 29Si
and 27Al MAS-NMR. Clay Minerals 29, 11–19.
Veniale, F., 1992. Clay science: facts and perspectives. Proceedings of the Mediterranean
Clay Meeting, Lipari 27–30 September 1992: Mineralogica et Petrographica Acta,
vol. XXXV-A, pp. 13–44.
Veniale, F., 1997. Applicazioni e utilizzazioni medico-sanitarie di materiali argillosi
(naturali e modificati). In: Morandi, N., Dondi, M. (Eds.), Argille e Minerali delle
Argille. Guida alla Definizione di Caratteristiche e Proprietà per gli Usi Industriali.
Corso di Formazione, Gruppo Ital. AIPEA, Rimini, Italy, pp. 205–239.
Vicente Rodríguez, M.A., López González, J.D., Bañares Muñoz, M.A., 1994. Acid
activation of a Spanish sepiolite: physicochemical characterization, free silica
content and surface area of products obtained. Clay Minerals 29, 361–367.
Vicente Rodríguez, M.A., López González, J.D., Bañares Muñoz, M.A., Casado Linarejos, J.,
1995. Acid activation of a Spanish sepiolite: II. Consideration of kinetics and
physicochemical modifications generated. Clay Minerals 30, 315–323.
 M.I. Carretero, M. Pozo / Applied Clay Science 47 (2010) 171–181 181

Viseras, C., Aguzzi, C., Cerezo, P., Lopez-Galindo, A., 2007. Uses of clay minerals in
semisolid health care and therapeutic products. Applied Clay Science 36, 37–50.
Wagner, J.C., McConnochie, K., Gibbs, A.R., Pooley, F.D., 1998. Clay minerals and health.
In: Parker, A., Rae, J.E. (Eds.), Environmental Interactions of Clays. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, pp. 243–265.
Wara-aswapati, N., Krongnawakul, D., Jiraviboon, D., Adulyanon, S., Karimbux, N.,
Pitiphat, W., 2005. The effect of a new toothpaste containing potassium nitrate and
triclosan on gingival health, plaque formation and dentine hypersensitivity. Journal
of Clinical Periodontology 32 (1), 53–58.