Contents

(Term II)

Preface .............. ........................................................................................................................................... (v)

Latest Syllabus ............................................................................................................................................ (vii)

QUESTIONS

4. Carbon and its Compounds ............................................................................................................................. 2

5. Periodic Classification of Elements .............................................................................................................. 21
8. How do Organisms Reproduce ...................................................................................................................... 40
9. Heredity and Evolution ................................................................................................................................. 59
10. Light—Reflection and Refraction ................................................................................................................. 76
11. The Human Eye and the Colourful World ................................................................................................. 118
15. Our Environment ........................................................................................................................................ 145
16. Management of Natural Resources ............................................................................................................ 162

MCQs BASED ON PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1.....................................................................................................................................................180

Experiment 2.....................................................................................................................................................183

Experiment 3 (i).................................................................................................................................................186

Experiment 3 (ii)...............................................................................................................................................189

Experiment 4.....................................................................................................................................................193

Experiment 5.....................................................................................................................................................199

Experiment 6.....................................................................................................................................................202

Value Based Questions.........................................................................................................................................205

Practice Papers (I-III).........................................................................................................................................213

xv
Each chapter contains:

★ TIPS AND TRICKS

★ FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
★ SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
● CBSE and Other Important Questions
● Objective Type Questions
● Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Questions
● NCERT Textbook Questions
 Carbon and its Compounds 4
CHAPTER

Tips and Tricks

l Carbon is tetravalent and easily forms a large ethene (C2H 4), propene (C3H6), butene (C4H 8).
variety of compounds on combination with carbon Alkynes (CnH2n – 2): ethyne (C2H2), propyne (C3H4)
and other atoms by sharing of electrons. It exhibits and butyne (C4H6).
phenomenon of allotropy, i.e., exists in two or more
forms in the same state, e.g., graphite and l Functional groups: Groups which determine the
diamond. chemical nature of organic compounds. In a
hydrocarbon, one or more hydrogen atoms are
l Covalent compounds: Some atoms share
replaced by another element or group. These confer
electrons among themselves or with other atoms
specific properties to the compound regardless of
to attain stable octet configuration. Bonds formed
the length and nature of chain and hence are called
are covalent bonds and the compounds so formed
functional groups.
are covalent compounds. Depending on the number
of shared pair of electrons, there is single covalent Name of functional Formula of functional
bond, double covalent bond or triple covalent bond. group group
Halo —Cl, —Br, —I
× ×
××
× ×
××
× × × × × Alcohol —OH
H × H × O × × O× ×N × × N
× × × H
Aldehyde —C
H—H O O N≡N O
Single covalent Double covalent Triple covalent
bond bond bond
|
Ketone —C = O
These compounds have low m.pts. and b.pts., do
not dissolve in water, do not conduct electricity O
Carboxylic acid —C
and are directional in nature.
OH
l Catenation is the property of carbon to get
attached to other carbon atoms. Up to 60 carbon l Homologous series is a group or family of
atoms are found to get attached in the shape of a compounds which contain the same functional
ball (Fullerenes). group but have different chain lengths. Two
successive homologous differ by one carbon and
l Saturated hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon
two hydrogen atoms in their molecular formulae.
and hydrogen attached in chains, branches or
(Note that alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are also
rings, by single covalent bonds, i.e., Alkanes
different homologous series).
(CnH2n + 2): methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10). l Isomerism: In carbon compounds, different
compounds are formed with different structures
l Unsaturated hydrocarbons are compounds of
with the same molecular formula. These
carbon and hydrogen with either carbon-carbon
compounds are called isomers and the
double bond (C = C) or carbon-carbon triple bond
phenomenon is called isomerism. For example,
(C ≡ C) in their molecules, e.g., Alkenes (CnH2n):
butane (C4H10) can be written as
2
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 3

H3C—CH2—CH2—CH3 (n-butane) and H

H3C—CH—CH3 (iso-butane) 2 1
 H3C— C—Br
CH3 
l Nomenclature of carbon compounds Br
(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the 1, 1-dibromoethane
main chain, e.g., methane, ethane, propane, l Chemical properties of carbon compounds:
butane for one, two, three, four carbon atoms
Carbon and its compounds burn in oxygen with
etc.
liberation of heat and light. Saturated
(ii) The name of functional group can be given hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame and
either a prefix or suffix (see table below). If unsaturated hydrocarbons with a yellow flame.
the functional group is used as suffix, e– of
hydrocarbon is substituted by suffix. l Addition reactions: Unsaturated hydrocarbons
add up hydrogen or halogens.
(iii) The carbon atoms are numbered from the side
of functional group. CH2 = CH2 + H2 → CH3 — CH3
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 → CH2Br — CH2Br.
Functional Prefix/Suffix Example
group l Substitution reactions: In the presence of light,
halogens are substituted with hydrogen in
Halogen prefix—chloro H3C—CH2—CH2—Cl saturated hydrocarbons
Chloropropane
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl.
Alcohol suffix—ol H3CCH2CH2OH
l Ethanol is produced on a large-scale by the
Propanol fermentation of sugar or starch with enzymes
Aldehyde suffix—al H3CCH2 C —H (invertase and zymase) present in the yeast.
|| (i) It reacts vigorously with sodium with evolution
O of H2.
Propanol
(ii) It can be dehydrated (C2H5OH → CH2 = CH2
Ketone suffix—one H3C C = O + H2O) at 443 K with excess concentrated
| sulphuric acid.
CH 3
Propanone (iii) Esterification: Reaction in which alcohol
combines with carboxylic acid in the presence
Carboxylic suffix—oic H3CCH2 C = O of conc. sulphuric acid.
|
acid acid OH conc.
C2H5OH + CH3COOH 
H SO
→
Propanoic acid 2 4
Ethanol Acetic
H or acid
| Ethyl alcohol
Double bond suffix—ene H3C— C = CH2 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Propene Ethyl ethanoate
or
Triple bond suffix—yne H3C—C ≡ CH Ethyl acetate
Propyne
(iv) It gives ethanal (acetaldehyde) in the presence
l Other examples of mild oxidising agent like cupric oxide
CH3 (Cu2O), and acetic acid in the presence of
3 2 1 4 3 2 1
acidified potassium dichromate.
CH3— C—CH3 H3C— C ≡ C— CH3 l Denatured alcohol: To make alcohol unfit for
 drinking it is mixed with poisonous substances
CH3 like methanol, pyridine and blue dyes.
2, 2-dimethyl propane 2-butyne
 4 CCE SCIENCE—X
l Ethanoic acid gets neutralized by bases like
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or sodium
bicarbonate to give sodium acetate salt.
l Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain
carboxylic acid molecules in which two ends have
different properties, one is hydrophilic which
dissolves in water), while the other end is
Formative Assessment
ORAL QUESTIONS (Conversation Type)
1. (a) What is peculiar about carbon?
(b) What is catenation?
(c) What is the cause of this property?
(d) Si is also tetravalent but it does not show
this peculiar property.
2. (a) What name is given to compounds of carbon
with hydrogen?
(b) Are all hydrocarbon similar?
(c) How are saturated hydrocarbons different
from unsaturated hydrocarbons?
(d) What other name is given to saturated
hydrocarbons?
(e) What other name is given to unsaturated
hydrocarbons?
3. (a) What is a homologous series?
(b) In what way two consecutive members of a
homologous series differ?
(c) Do they have any effect on their physical
properties?
(d) What about chemical properties?
(e) Why similar chemical properties?
(f) What are functional groups?
ORAL QUESTIONS
1. What is a covalent bond?
2. How are methane bond formed?
3. What is a double covalent bond?
4. How are ethene bond formed?
hydrophobic (dissolves in hydrocarbons). When
cleansing clothes, hydrophobic part attaches to dirt
(oily in nature) and hydrophilic part attaches to
water which on washing pulls away the
hydrophobic part along with dirt.
l Detergents are similar to soaps but hydrocarbon
part here is obtained from petroleum.
5. Why covalent compounds are generally low
melting?
6. What is allotropy?
7. Name the allotropes of carbon.
8. How does carbon occur in free state in nature?
9. What is catenation?
10. What is the name of a hydrocarbon having 3
carbon atoms?
11. Give the name of an unsaturated hydrocarbon
with 2 carbon atoms.
12. Give an account of nature of bonds in ethyne.
13. Which part of carbon compounds determine
their chemical properties?
14. What are isomers?
15. Name a functional group which gives acidic
character to carbon compounds.
16. What are fatty acids?
17. Which type of hydrocarbons give addition
products?
18. What is the name given to generally sweet
smelling organic compounds?
TRUE OR FALSE
1. Carbon like other tetravalent atoms exhibit
phenomenon of allotropy.
2. Carbon atoms combine with other atoms to form
both ionic as well as covalent bonds.
3. Compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 5

4. The functional group is attached to the carbon formula may exist with different structural
chain by replacing hydrogen atom. formulae.
5. Compounds with formula CnH2n are called 8. I am a saturated hydrocarbon which can be
unsaturated hydrocarbons. present as three isomers.
6. Synthetic detergents are sodium or potassium 9. I am composed of long chain carbon atoms with
salts of long chain carboxylic acids. carboxylic acid attached at the end.
7. Chlorine and oxygen are most likely to form
10. I am a brown coloured non-metal and, if present
either ionic bonds or covalent bonds.
as dilute solution, get decolourised by
8. Graphite unlike diamond is a conductor of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
electricity.
9. All hydrocarbons show phenomena of isomerism. PUZZLES
10. The members of a homologous series have
A. ⇒ Across
similar chemical and physical properties.
1. A phenomenon in which two or more
11. Cyclic hydrocarbons are saturated or
compounds with same molecular formulae
unsaturated organic compounds that contain
give different structures. (9)
ring of carbon atoms.
3. Sweet smelling compounds. (6)
12. Structural formula of 2-butyne contains one
triple bond and 4 single bonds. ⇓ Down
13. Both alcohol and carboxylic acids react with 2. Element possessing two or more forms in
sodium metal and give H2 with effervescence. the same state. (9)
14. Esters are used in making perfumes and 4. Breaking down of organic compounds by
flavouring agents. microorganisms. (12)
15. Ethyl alcohol is obtained by the fermentation of
2
molasses with enzymes in the absence of air.

QUIZ 4

1. I am a process to produce alcohol on a large 1

O E
scale.
3
T R
2. Though small in size, branch of organic
chemistry has no existence without me.

3. We are a large group of compounds but

constituted of only two elements.

4. I am a type of bond which is characteristic of all

types of organic compounds.

5. I give a relation between graphite and diamond.

6. I am a series that separates one type of

chemical active compound from the other
similarly active compound.

7. I represent the phenomenon in which two or O

more compounds having the same molecular
6 CCE SCIENCE—X

2 B. ⇒ Across
1. A series of compounds which contain same
1 4 functional group. (10)
H L O G
3. Compounds of carbon and hydrogen. (12)
3
C A R S ⇓ Down
2. Sodium salts of fatty acids. (5)
4. A form of carbon which conducts electricity.
(8)

SUGGESTED PROJECTS/ACTIVITIES
1. Students can prepare soap either at home or in
the laboratory and whether it forms lather with
tap water and underground water.
E 2. Students can prepare esters in the laboratory
and compare its smell with perfumes available.

NOTES
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Assignments
Name: ........................ Class: ...... Section: ...... Roll No.: ...... Grade: ...... Teacher’s sign.: ..............
CLASS ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the form of carbon which is used as a
lubricant at high temperature.
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2. What is saponification?
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3. How are synthetic detergents structurally
different from soaps? Write their advantages
over soaps.
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4. Explain the following:
(a) Carbon forms compounds mainly by
covalent bonding.
(b) Carbon forms a large no. of compounds as
compared to other members of its group.
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7
5. An organic compound with molecular formula
as C2H4O2 is widely used as a preservative in
pickles. Identify the compound. Explain its
reaction with ethanol and sodium metal.
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6. Give two examples of fermentation that you
come across in your daily life.
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7. Giving examples, explain the difference between
combustion and oxidation.
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8 CCE SCIENCE—X

8. What are isomers? State four characteristics of 10. A hydrocarbon has 3 carbon atoms. Write all
isomers. the possible structures of the hydrocarbons
formed. Give their name and suggest how will
.............................................................................. you distinguish between them.
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9. Classify the following compounds as alkane,
alkyne or alkene. ..............................................................................
C3H4, C2H6, C2H4, C6H14, C2H2, C4H6, C5H12,
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C5H8, C3H8
Which of these can be called as members of a ..............................................................................
homologous series?
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NOTES
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Name: ........................ Class: ...... Section: ...... Roll No.: ...... Grade: ...... Teacher’s sign.: ..............
HOME ASSIGNMENT
1. What is the name given to allotropes of carbon?
(a) In which compound carbon atoms are
arranged in the shape of a football.
(b) In which compound carbon atom is attached
tetrahedrally to four other carbon atoms
forming a network of carbon chains.
4. What is a homologous series of compounds?
(c) In which compound carbon atom is attached
to only three carbon atoms forming
uniplanar layers which in turn are attached
to similar layers by van der Waal’s forces?
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2. Give a brief account of the nature of bonds in
propyne (propylene).
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5. Identify the functional group in the following
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3. What is the difference between functional group
and alkyl radical? Give the name and formula
of some common functional groups.
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9
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List any two characteristics of a homologous
series.
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compound: CH2Br2. Give its common name and
IUPAC names.
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10 CCE SCIENCE—X

6. How are carboxylic acids named? How will you ...............................................................................

distinguish these from alcohols?
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9. Write notes on
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(a) Molasses
............................................................................... (b) Denatured alcohol
(c) Yeast
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7. Describe how petroleum was formed under the
earth. Give the separation technique to separate ...............................................................................
components of petroleum.
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............................................................................... 10. What are micelles? How does the formation of

a micelle help to clean the clothes?
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8. Distinguish between addition and substitution
reactions. Give one example of each. ...............................................................................

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