8.

Ingredients used in cake, principles involved in cake preparation

different types of cake and decoration

Cakes are the richest and sweetest of all the baked products we have
studied so far. From the baker’s point of view, producing cakes requires as
much precision as producing breads, but for the completely opposite reason.
Breads are lean products that require strong gluten development and careful
control of yeast action during the long fermentation and proofing periods.
Cakes, on the other hand, are high in both fat and sugar. The baker’s job is
to create a structure that supports these ingredients and yet keeps it as
light and delicate as possible. Fortunately, producing cakes in quantity is
relatively easy—if the baker follows good, well-balanced formulas, scales
ingredients accurately, and understands basic mixing methods well.

Cakes owe their popularity not only to their richness and sweetness but also
to their versatility. They can be presented in many forms, from simple sheet
cakes in cafeterias to elaborately decorated works of art for weddings and
other important occasions. With only a few basic formulas and a variety of
icings and fillings, the chef or baker can construct the perfect dessert for
any occasion or purpose.
Mixing

The selection of high-quality ingredients is, of course, necessary to

produce a high-quality cake. However, good ingredients alone do not
guarantee a fine cake. A thorough understanding of mixing procedures is
essential. Slight errors in mixing can result in cakes with poor texture and
volume.
The mixing methods presented here are the basic ones used for most types
of cakes prepared in the modern bakeshop. Each of these methods is used
for particular types of formulas, as listed here:
## High-fat or Shortened Cakes
1. Creaming method
2. Two-stage method
3. One-stage (liquid shortening) method
 4. Flour-batter method
## Low-fat or Foam-type Cakes
1. Sponge method
2. Angel food method
3. Chiffon method
The three main goals of mixing cake batters are:
 To combine all ingredients into a smooth, uniform batter.
 To form and incorporate air cells in the batter.
 To develop the proper texture in the finished product.
These three goals are closely related. They may seem fairly obvious,
especially the first one. But understanding each of the goals in detail will
help you avoid many errors in mixing. For example, inexperienced bakers
often grow impatient and turn the mixer to high speed when creaming fat
and sugar, thinking high speed will do the same job faster. But air cells do
not form as well at high speed, so the texture of the cake suffers.
Let’s examine these three goals one at a time.
 Combining Ingredients into a Homogeneous Mixture
 Two of the major ingredients in cakes—fat and water (including the
water in milk and eggs)— are, by nature, unmixable. Therefore,
careful attention to mixing procedures is important to reach this goal.
 Part of the purpose of mixing is to form such an emulsion. Properly
mixed cake batters contain a water-in-fat emulsion; that is, the water
is held in tiny droplets surrounded by fat and other ingredients.
Curdling occurs when the fat can no longer hold the water in
emulsion. The mixture then changes to a fat-in-water mixture, with
small particles of fat surrounded by water and other ingredients.

The following factors can cause curdling:

1. Using the wrong type of fat. Different fats have different emulsifying
abilities. High-ratio shortening contains emulsifiers that enable it to hold a
large amount of water without curdling.
You should not substitute regular shortening or butter in a formula that
calls specifically for high-ratio, or emulsified, shortening.
Butter has a desirable flavor but relatively poor emulsifying ability. Butter
is, of course, used in many cake batters, but the formula should be
specifically balanced so it contains no more liquid than the batter can hold.
Also, remember that butter contains some water.
Egg yolks, as you will recall, contain a natural emulsifier. When whole eggs
or yolks are properly mixed into a batter, they help the batter hold the other
liquids.
2. Having the ingredients too cold. Emulsions are best formed when the
temperature of the ingredients is about 70°F (21°C).
3. Mixing the first stage of the procedure too quickly. If you do not
cream the fat and sugar properly, for example, you will not form a good cell
structure to hold the water
4. Adding the liquids too quickly. In most cases the liquids, including the
eggs, must be added in stages—that is, a little at a time. If they are added
too quickly, they cannot be absorbed properly.
In batters made by the creaming method the liquid is often added alternately
with the flour. The flour helps the batter absorb the liquid.
5. Adding too much liquid. This is not a problem if the formula is a good
one. However, if you are using a formula that is not properly balanced, it
might call for more liquid than the fat can hold in emulsion.
Forming Air Cells Air cells in cake batters are important for texture and
leavening. A fine, smooth texture is the result of small, uniform air cells.
Large or irregular air cells result in a coarse texture. Air trapped in a mix
helps leaven a cake when the heat of the oven causes the air to expand.
When no chemical leavener is used, this trapped air, in addition to steam,
provides nearly all the leavening. Even when baking powder or soda is used,
the air cells provide places to hold the gases released by the chemical
leavener. Correct ingredient temperature and mixing speed are necessary for
good air cell formation.
Cold fat (below 60°F/16°C) is too hard to form good air cells, and fat that is
too warm (above 75°F/24°C) is too soft. Mixing speed should be moderate
(medium speed). If mixing is done on high speed, friction warms the
ingredients too much. Not as many air cells are formed, and those that do
form tend to be coarse and irregular.
Granulated sugar is the proper sugar for creaming-method cakes.
Confectioners’ sugar is too fine to produce good air cells. In the case of egg-
foam cakes (sponge, angel food, chiffon), the air cells are formed by whipping
eggs and sugar. For the best foaming, the egg and sugar mixture should be
slightly warm (about 100°F/38°C). Whipping may be done at high speed at
first, but the final stages of whipping should be at medium speed in order to
retain air cells.
Developing Texture
Both the uniform mixing of ingredients and the formation of air cells are
important to a cake’s texture, as we discussed in the preceding sections.
Another factor of mixing that affects texture is gluten development. For the
most part, we want very little gluten development in cakes, so we use cake
flour, which is low in gluten. Some sponge cake formulas call for cornstarch
to replace part of the flour, so there is even less gluten (the high percentage
of eggs in sponge cakes provides much of the structure). In contrast, some
pound cake and fruit cake formulas need more gluten than other cakes for
extra structure and to support the weight of the fruit. Thus, the cake
formulas calling for part cake flour and part bread flour.
The amount of mixing affects gluten development. In the creaming
method, the sponge method, and the angel food method, the flour is added
at or near the end of the mixing procedure so there is very little gluten
development in properly mixed batters. If the batter is mixed too long after
the flour is added, or if it becomes too warm during mixing, the cakes are
likely to be tough.
In the two-stage method, the flour is added in the first step. However,
it is mixed with high ratio shortening, which spreads well and coats the
particles of flour with fat. This coating action limits gluten development. It is
important to mix the flour and fat thoroughly for the best results. Observe
all mixing times closely. Also, keep in mind that high-ratio cakes contain a
high percentage of sugar, which is also a tenderizer.
High-Fat Cakes
Creaming Method
The creaming method, also called the conventional method, was for a long
time the standard method for mixing high-fat cakes. The development of
emulsified, or high-ratio, shortenings led to the development of simpler
mixing methods for shortened cakes containing greater amounts of sugar
and liquid. The creaming method is still used for many types of butter
cakes, however. The fat specified in creaming-method formulas in this book
is butter. Butter cakes are highly prized for their flavor; shortening adds no
flavor to cakes. Butter also influences texture because it melts in the mouth,
whereas shortening does not.
Nevertheless, many bakers may prefer to substitute shortening for all or
part of the butter in these formulas. Shortening has the advantages of being
less expensive and easier to mix. In creaming recipes, use regular
shortening, not emulsified shortening. Regular shortening has better
creaming abilities. It is usually a good idea not to substitute an equal weight
of shortening for butter. Remember that butter is only 80% fat, so you will
need less shortening. Also, butter contains about 15% water; it should be
adjusted to the quantity of milk or water.
Two-Stage Method
The two-stage method was developed for use with high-ratio plastic
shortenings. High-ratio cakes contain a large percentage of sugar, more
than 100% based on the weight of the flour. Also, they are made with more
liquid than creaming-method cakes, and the batter pours more freely. The
two-stage mixing method is a little simpler than the creaming method, and it
produces a smooth batter that bakes up into a fine-grained, moist cake. It
gets its name because the liquids are added in two stages.
The first step in making high-ratio cakes is to blend the flour and other dry
ingredients with shortening. When this mixture is smooth, the liquids
(including eggs) are added in stages.
Throughout this procedure, it is important to follow two rules:
1. Mix at low speed and observe correct mixing times. This is important
to develop proper texture.
 2. Stop the machine and scrape down the sides of the bowl frequently
during mixing. This is important to develop a smooth, well-mixed
batter.
Note the variation following the basic procedure. Many bakers prefer this
variation. It is somewhat simpler because it combines steps 2 and 3.
The two-stage method can sometimes be adapted to butter cakes, especially
those high in fat. As an experiment, try making a butter cake formula with
the creaming method and the two stage method and comparing the texture
of the finished cakes.
One-Stage (Liquid Shortening) Method
High-ratio liquid shortening, is so effective at emulsifying and at
spreading through the batter to tenderize gluten that cake batters made
from it can generally be mixed all in one step—thus called the one-stage
method. Adding the liquid ingredients to the bowl first simplifies the
procedure because there is less chance for moistened flour to coat the
bottom and sides of the bowl, making scraping down difficult. Mix at low
speed until the dry ingredients are moistened, to prevent dry flour from
being thrown from the bowl. Then mix for a period at high speed, followed by
a period at medium speed, to properly develop air cells and create a smooth,
fine-textured batter.
Flour-Batter Method
The flour-batter method is used for only a few specialty items. It produces a
fine-textured cake, but there may be some toughening due to the
development of gluten. Flour-batter cakes include those made with either
emulsified shortening or butter or both.
Low-Fat or Egg-Foam Cakes
Most egg-foam cakes contain little or no shortening and depend on the air
trapped in beaten eggs for most or all of their leavening. Growing interest in
fine pastries and cakes has led to new appreciation of the versatility of
sponge cakes. Therefore, this chapter includes formulas for a great variety of
egg-foam batters.
Egg-foam cakes have a springy texture and are tougher than shortened
cakes. This makes them valuable for many kinds of desserts that require
much handling to assemble. Most European cakes and tortes are made with
sponge or egg-foam cakes. These cakes are baked either in thin sheets or
disks or in thick layers that are then sliced horizontally into thinner layers.
The thin sponge layers are then stacked with a variety of fillings, creams,
mousses, fruits, and icings.
In addition, sponge layers in this kind of cake are usually moistened with a
flavored sugar syrup, to compensate for their lack of moisture. Sponge
sheets for jelly rolls and other rolled cakes are often made without any
shortening so they do not crack when rolled. Because fat weakens gluten,
sponge cakes containing fat may split more easily. Flour for egg-foam cakes
must be weak in order to avoid making the cake tougher than necessary.
Cornstarch is sometimes added to cake flour for these cakes to weaken the
flour further.
Sponge Methods
The many types of sponge method cakes have one characteristic in common:
They are made with egg foam that contains yolks. These are usually whole-
egg foams but, in some cases, the base foam is yolk foam, and egg white
foam is folded in at the end of the procedure.
In its simplest form, sponge cake batter is made in two basic steps:
(1) Eggs and sugar are whipped to a thick foam, and
(2) Sifted flour is folded in.
Additional ingredients, such as butter or liquid, complicate the procedure
slightly. It would be too confusing to try to include all the variations in one
procedure, so instead we describe four separate procedures.
Please note the difference between the main procedure and the first
variation. There may be some confusion because in North American
bakeshops, genoise nearly always contains butter. Nevertheless, in classical
pâtisserie, genoise is often made without butter, and it is still commonly
made in European bakeshops with only eggs, sugar, and flour. Furthermore,
the main procedure as given here explains sponge cakes in their simplest
and most basic form, and this procedure is the foundation for the variations
that follow. If you work in a bakeshop in Canada or the United States,
however, you can expect to use the first variation instead of the main
procedure to mix basic genoise.
Angel Food Method
Angel food cakes are based on egg-white foams and contain no fat. Egg
whites for the angel food method should be whipped until they form soft, not
stiff, peaks. Overwhipped whites lose their capability to expand and to
leaven the cake. This is because the protein network in stiffly beaten whites
has already stretched as far as it can. If the whites are whipped to soft
peaks instead, they can stretch more during baking, allowing the cake to
rise.
Chiffon Method
Chiffon cakes and angel food cakes are both based on egg-white foams, but
here the similarities in the mixing methods end. In angel food cakes, a dry
flour-sugar mixture is folded into the egg whites. In the chiffon method, a
batter containing flour, egg yolks, vegetable oil, and water is folded into the
whites.
Egg whites for chiffon cakes should be whipped until they are a little firmer
than those for angel food cakes, but not so much that they become dry.
Chiffon cakes contain baking powder, so they do not depend on the egg
foam for all their leavening.
Mixing and Baking
Combination Creaming/Sponge Method
Some European-style cakes are begun by using the creaming method. In
other words, butter is creamed with sugar until the mixture is light. These
cakes usually contain no chemical leavening, however. Instead, whipped egg
whites are folded into the batter, as for some sponge cakes. Examples of this
kind of cake are Hazelnut Sponge Cake and Baumkuchen.
Prepared Mixes
Many mixes are available that contain all ingredients except water and,
sometimes, eggs. These products also contain emulsifiers to ensure an even
blending of ingredients. To use them, follow the package instructions
exactly. Most mixes produce cakes with excellent volume, texture, and
tenderness. Whether or not they also taste good is a matter of opinion. On
the other hand, cakes made from scratch are not necessarily better. They
are better only if they are carefully mixed and baked, are prepared from
good, tested formulas, and incorporate high-quality ingredients.
Ingredient Functions
For the purpose of balancing cake formulas, we can classify cake ingredients
according to four functions: tougheners (or stabilizers), tenderizers, dryers,
and moisteners (or moisturizers).The idea of formula balancing is that
tougheners should balance tenderizers and dryers should balance
moisteners. If, for example, we increase the amount of tougheners in a
formula, we must compensate by also increasing the amount of tenderizers.
Many ingredients fill more than one function, sometimes even opposite
functions. Egg yolks contain protein, which is a toughener, but they also
contain fat, which is a tenderizer. The major cake ingredients act as follows:
Tougheners provide structure: flour, eggs (whites and yolks).
Tenderizers provide softness or shortening of protein fibers: sugar, fats
(including butter, shortening, and cocoa butter), chemical leaveners.
Moisteners provide moisture or water: water, liquid milk, syrups and liquid
sugars, eggs.
Dryers absorb moisture: flours and starches, cocoa, milk solids.
A cake that fails even if mixed and baked correctly may require formula
balancing. For example, if a cake is too dry, you might increase one or more
of the moisteners, or decrease the dryers. Doing so, however, takes a certain
amount of experience. Remember that most ingredients have more than one
function. If you decide to increase the eggs in a dry cake, you may wind up
with an even harder, tougher cake. Although whole eggs do provide some
moisture, they add even more toughening power because of their strong
protein content.
As a further complication, many successful cake formulas apparently
break the rules. For example, one rule for creaming-method cakes made
with butter or regular shortening says the weight of the sugar should not
exceed the weight of the flour. In practice, however, there are successful
creaming method recipes calling for more than 100% sugar. Many baking
manuals insist on these balancing rules rather strongly. But it may be
better to think of them not as ironclad laws but as guidelines that give you a
starting point for judging or correcting recipes. In summary, it takes an
experienced baker to be consistently successful at adjusting cake formulas.
However, even as a novice baker you should have some knowledge of
formula balancing.
Balancing Fat-Type or Shortened Cakes
A normal starting point in discussing cake balancing is old-fashioned pound
cake. This cake is made of flour, sugar, butter, and eggs in equal parts. As
bakers experimented with this basic recipe over the years, they reduced the
quantities of sugar, fat, and eggs, and compensated by adding milk. This is
the origin of the modern butter cake.
The general rules for balancing creaming-method cakes made with butter or
regular shortening are as follows (all ingredient quantities are, of course, by
weight):
 The sugar (a tenderizer) is balanced against the flour (a toughener). In
most creamingmethod
 cakes, the weight of sugar is less than or equal to the weight of flour.
 The fat (a tenderizer) is balanced against the eggs (tougheners).
 The eggs and liquids (moisteners) are balanced against the flour (a
dryer).
Balancing one ingredient against another, as indicated in the preceding
guidelines, means that if one ingredient is increased or decreased, then the
balancing ingredients must also be adjusted. For example, if the fat is
increased, then the eggs must be increased to keep the formula in balance.
With the development of emulsified shortening, it became possible to
increase the quantities of sugar, eggs, and liquids. For example, the weight
of sugar in high-ratio cakes is greater than the weight of flour, yet the
formula is still in balance. Similarly, the quantity of liquid may be greater
because the emulsifiers in the shortening keep the batter stable.
Nevertheless, the general principles of balancing, as outlined above, still
hold. If one ingredient is increased, other ingredients must be adjusted to
compensate.
 A common practice in balancing a formula is to decide on the
sugar/flour ratio and then balance the rest of the ingredients against these.
The following guidelines are helpful in this regard:
 If eggs are increased, increase the shortening.
 If extra milk solids are added as enrichment, add an equal weight of
water.
 If cocoa is added, add water equal in weight to 75 to 100% of the
cocoa.
 If cocoa or bitter chocolate is added, increase the amount of sugar to
as much as 180% of the weight of the flour in high-ratio cakes, and to
over 100% of the weight of the flour in creaming-method cakes. This is
to account for the starch content of the cocoa and chocolate.
 In cakes to be baked in very large units, use less liquid because less
water will evaporate during baking.
 If a liquid sugar is added (honey, corn syrup, etc.), reduce other
liquids slightly.
 If large quantities of moist ingredients, such as applesauce or mashed
bananas, are added, reduce the liquid. Extra-large additions of moist
ingredients may also require increasing the flour and eggs.
 Use less baking powder with creamed batters than two-stage batters
because the creamed batters get more aeration in the creaming stage.
Pan Preparation
Prepare pans before mixing cake batters so cakes can be baked
without delay as soon as they are mixed.
For high-fat cakes, layer pans must be greased, preferably with a
commercial pan-greasing preparation. If this is not available, dust the
greased pans with flour and tap out the excess rolls, it is necessary to use
level pans without dents or warps. Silicone mats are especially good to use
for lining pans for thin layers.
For angel food cakes and chiffon cakes, do not grease the pan. The batter
must be able to cling to the sides so it doesn’t sink back into the pan after
rising.
## For sponge cake layers with little or no fat, grease the bottoms but not
the sides of the pans.
Scaling
For consistency, cake batters should be scaled into prepared pans by
weight, as explained in the Procedure for Scaling Cake Batters. This is the
most accurate method for all types of cake batters. However, some chefs
prefer alternative methods for certain batters because they believe those
methods are faster.
Because two-stage and one-stage batters are pourable, some bakers prefer
to scale them by volume, as described in the Alternative Procedure for
Scaling Two-Stage and One-Stage Batters
This method is quick and also fairly accurate.
Foam batters should be handled as little as possible and baked immediately
to avoid deflating the beaten eggs. While these cake batters may be scaled
by weight as in the basic procedure. Creaming method batters are thick,
and so do not pour easily. Thus, they should always be weighed, as in the
first procedure.
Baking and Cooling
Cake structure is fragile, so proper baking conditions are essential to
produce high-quality products. Follow these guidelines to help you avoid
cake failures.
## Preheat the ovens. To conserve expensive energy, don’t preheat longer
than necessary.
## Make sure ovens and shelves are level.
## Do not let pans touch each other. If pans touch, air circulation is
inhibited and the cakes rise unevenly.
## Bake at the correct temperature:
Too hot an oven causes the cake to set unevenly with a humped center, or to
set before it has fully risen. Crusts will be too dark.
Too slow an oven causes poor volume and texture because the cake doesn’t
set fast enough and may fall.
## If steam is available in the oven, use it for creamed, two-stage, and one-
stage batters.
These cakes bake with a flatter top if baked with steam because the steam
delays the formation of the top crust. Do not use steam with sponge and
angel food cakes.
## Do not open the oven or disturb cakes until they have finished rising and
are partially browned. Disturbing the cakes before they are set may cause
them to fall.
## Cool angel food and chiffon cakes upside down in their pans, so they
won’t collapse back into the pans. Because they are baked in ungreased
pans, they won’t fall out of their pans.
When completely cool, they are sturdy enough to be pulled out of the pans
without breaking.
Tests for Doneness
## Shortened cakes shrink away slightly from sides of pan.
##Cake is springy. The center of the top of the cake springs back when
pressed lightly.
## A cake tester or wooden pick inserted in center of cake comes out clean.
Cooling and Removing from Pans
## Cool layer cakes and sheet cakes 15 minutes in pans and turn out while
slightly warm. Because they are fragile, they may break if turned out when
hot.
## Turn out layer cakes onto racks to finish cooling.
## To turn out sheet cakes:
1. Sprinkle the top lightly with granulated sugar.
2. Set a cake board on top of the cake, and then set an empty sheet pan on
top, bottom side down. (If a cake board is not available, just set the upside-
down sheet pan on top.)
3. Invert both pans.
4. Remove the top pan.
5. Peel the parchment off the cake.
## Cool angel food cakes and chiffon cakes upside down in pans so they do
not fall back into the pans and lose volume. Support the edges of the pan so
the top of the cake is off the bench. When cool, loosen the cake from sides of
the pan with a knife or spatula and carefully pull out the cake.
 9. Types of Icings -butter cream, royal icing and fondant icing water
icing

Icing, often called frosting in the United States, is a sweet, often

creamy glaze made of sugar with a liquid, such as water or milk, that is
often enriched with ingredients like butter, egg whites, cream cheese,
or flavorings. It is used to cover or decorate baked goods, such
as cakes or cookies. When it is used between layers of cake, it is
called filling.

Icing can be formed into shapes such as flowers and leaves using
a pastry bag. Such decorations are commonplace on birthday and wedding
cakes. Chef's color dye (food coloring) is commonly added to icing mixtures
to achieve the desired color. Sprinkles, coloring mist, edible ink designs, or
other decorations are often used on top of icing.

The simplest icing is a glacé icing, containing powdered sugar and

water. This can be flavored and colored as desired, for example, by
using lemon juice in place of the water. More complicated icings can be
made by beating fat into powdered sugar (as in butter cream), by melting fat
and sugar together, by using egg whites (as in royal icing), and by adding
other ingredients such as glycerin (as in fondant). Some icing can be made
from combinations of sugar and cream cheese or sour cream, or by using
ground almonds (as in marzipan).

Icing can be applied with a utensil such as a palate knife or spatula,

or it can be applied by drizzling or dipping (see glaze), or by rolling the icing
out and draping it over the cake. The method of application largely depends
on the type and texture of icing being used. Icing may be used between
layers in a cake as a filling, or it may be used to completely or partially cover
the outside of a cake or other baked product.

Types of icing:

 Butter cream
 Royal icing
 Fondant icing.
Butter cream

Butter cream is probably the easiest type of icing of both use and
make made from a mixture of butter, icing sugar and little amount of water.
It can be used to fill and cover cakes and the piping and making
decorations. The ingredients used for butter cream preparation are unsalted
softened butter, icing sugar, hot water and desired flavourings.

Method

 Beat the butter until soft and fluffy

 Add the sugar water and essence
 Beat until pale and creamy

Royal icing

Royal icing is a hard white icing, made from softly beaten egg

whites, icing sugar (powdered sugar), and sometimes lemon or lime juice. It
is used to decorate Christmas cakes, wedding cakes, gingerbread
houses and many other cakes and biscuits. It is used either as a smooth
covering or in sharp peaks. Glycerin is often added to prevent the icing from
setting too hard. When placing icing on cakes, Marzipan is usually used
under the royal icing in order to prevent discoloration of the icing.

Usual proportions are 2 egg whites to 1 teaspoon of lemon juice, 1

teaspoon of glycerine, and around 1 pound of sugar depending on the
application.

Method of preparation of royal icing

 Whisk egg whites with lemon juice and glycerin in a large mixing
bowl.
 Add icing sugar little by little to egg white mixture.
 Icing will become thicker as it is stirred.
 Use a large wooden / plastic spoon for stirring ease.
 Add more powdered sugar for flat icing.
  Use immediately keep bowl covered with damp kitchen cloth while
using. If icing becomes too stiff and a few drops of water and stir
to combine.

As well as coating cakes and biscuits, royal icing is used to make

decorations such as flowers and figures for putting on the cake. The royal
icing is piped into shapes which are allowed to harden on a non-stick
surface. These can then be arranged to create edible decorative effects on a
variety of sweet foods. The Glycerine must be omitted for this purpose. Royal
Icing is often used to create snow scenes but is also used as an edible
adhesive – particularly for gingerbread houses.

Fondant icing

Fondant icing, also commonly referred to simply as fondant is an

edible icing used to decorate or sculpt cakes and pastries. It is made from
sugar, water, gelatin, butter, and glycerol. It does not have the texture of
most icings; rolled fondant is akin to stiff clay, while poured fondant is a
thick liquid.

Types of Fondant

Poured fondant is a creamy confection used as a filling or coating

for cakes, pastries, and candies or sweets. In its simplest form, it
is sugar and water stabilized with gelatin and glycerine. It is cooked to
the soft-ball stage, cooled slightly, and stirred or beaten to incorporate air,
until it is an opaque mass with a creamy consistency. Sometimes lemon or
vanilla is added to the mixture for taste. Other flavorings are used as well,
as are various colorings. An example of its use is the Cadbury Creme Egg,
the filling of which is inverted sugar syrup, produced by processing fondant
with invertase. Fondant fancies are a type of cake typically coated in poured
fondant.

Rolled fondant, fondant icing, or pettinice, which is not the same

material as poured fondant, is commonly used to decorate wedding cakes.
Although wedding cakes are traditionally made with marzipan and royal
icing, fondant is increasingly common due to nut allergies as it does not
require almond meal. Rolled fondant includes gelatin (or agar in vegetarian
recipes) and food-grade glycerine, which keeps the sugar pliable and creates
a dough-like consistency. It can also be made using powdered sugar and
melted marshmallows. Rolled fondant is rolled out like a pie crust and used
to cover the cake.

Commercial shelf-stable rolled fondant often consists principally of sugar

and hydrogenated oil. However, different formulations for commercial shelf-
stable fondant are available and include other ingredients, such as
sugar, cellulose gum, and water.

Marshmallow fondant is a form of rolled fondant often made and used by

home bakers and hobbyists. Marshmallow fondant is made by combining
melted shelf-stable marshmallows, water, powered sugar, and solid
vegetable shortening. Home bakers use this recipe for homemade fondant
due to the readily available access to required ingredients.

Sculpting fondant is similar to rolled fondant but with a stiffer

consistency, which makes it a good sculpting material.

Sugar paste or gum paste is similar to rolled fondant, but hardens

completely—and therefore is used for bigger cake decorations, such as bride
and groom figures, bigger flowers, etc. Sugar paste is made mainly of egg
whites and powdered sugar.

The ingredients used for preparation of fondant icing are icing sugar,
cold water gelatin, glucose syrup, glucerine, flavourings and corn starch.

Method
- Take a large bowl (no Metal)
- Sift the sugar and make a well in the centre
- Take a small sauce pan, add water and sprinkle the gelatin on top to
soften about 5 minutes.
- Heat the gelatin and stir until gelatin is dissolved and clear (Do not
Boil)
- Turn off heat and add the glucose and glycerine stirring until well
blended.
 - Add the flavouring pour into the well of sugar. and mix until all the
sugar is blended.
- Use hands to knead until it becomes stiff. Add small amounts of
confectioners’ sugar. if mixture is sticky)
- Form the mixture is to ball and wrap lightly in plastic wrap.
- Place in an airtight container.

Covering cake with fondant:

- Dust a clean pastry cloth/ smooth surface with corn starch.

- Roll the fondant with rolling pin.
10. Ingredients of biscuits, principles involved in biscuits and cookies
preparation types of biscuits and cookies

Biscuit is a term used for a variety of primarily flour-based baked food

products. The term is applied to two distinct products in North America and
the Commonwealth of Nations and Europe. The North American biscuit is
typically a soft, leavened quick bread, and is covered in the article Biscuit
(bread). This article covers the other type of biscuit, which is typically hard,
flat and unleavened.

In Commonwealth nations and Ireland, a biscuit is a small baked

product that would be called either a "cookie" or a "cracker" in the United
States and most of English-speaking Canada. Biscuits in the United
Kingdom, the Isle of Man and Ireland are hard and may be savoury or
sweet, such as chocolate biscuits, digestives, hobnobs, ginger nuts, rich
tea, bourbons, and custard creams. In the Commonwealth Nations and
Ireland, the term "cookie" typically refers to only one type of biscuit
(chocolate chip cookie); however, it may also locally refer to specific types of
biscuits or breads.

In the United States and some parts of English Canada, a "biscuit" is

a quick bread, somewhat similar to a scone, and usually unsweetened.
Leavening is achieved through the use of baking powder or, when using
buttermilk, baking soda. Biscuits are usually referred to as either "baking
powder biscuits" or "buttermilk biscuits" if buttermilk is used rather than
milk as a liquid. A Southern regional variation using the term "beaten
biscuit" (or in New England "sea biscuit") is closer to hardtack than soft
dough biscuits.
Definition:
These products are cereal based and baked to moisture content of less than
5%.
Ingredients:
There are three major ingredients wheat flour, fat and sugar.
The problems in defining the boundaries between biscuits and cakes, and
biscuits and sugar confectionery one may be reasonably consider that the
boundaries are not important, and well they might not to be until
authority decide that different packaging.
Grouping have been made in various ways based on:
 Name, eg., biscuits, crackers and cookies, which is basically on the
texture and hardness.
 Method of forming of the dough and dough piece eg fermented,
developed, laminated and cut, moulded, and wire cut and co
extruded.
 The enrichment of the recipe with fat and sugar.
As technologists it is useful to be able to characterized biscuits from
their external and internal appearance as these helps in deciding likely,
recipe and means for forming and baking.
In all cases, recipes are of biscuits which have been commercially
produced with in the last 20 years. The recipe are of dough‘s mixed before
various late additions like puff fat, crackers filling or garnishing sugar
have been added. There are not therefore representations of finished
biscuits but of basic mixed dough‘s.
Each recipe has been adjusted to be relative to hundred units of flour
including other cereal products such as cornstarch, vital wheat gluten,
malt flour.
The sugar level is on a dry bases and it is assumed that liquid sugar
has 67% solids, invert syrups 80% solids, malt extract 80% solids,
glucose syrups 80% solids.
The fat values on pure fat, so margrines and butter are only 85%.
The water level is the total added water. This is principally as liquid
water but may be as fresh milk (87.6% water), butter and margarine (15%
water), fresh eggs (75%), syrups (20%), liquid sugar (33%) etc.,
Cereals and some other ingredients have natural moisture content, so
the water values do not represent the total dough moisture level even
though these important for calculating the losses during baking.
Types of biscuits
 1. Cream crackers
2. Soda crackers
3. Savoury or snack crackers
4. Water biscuits and matzos
5. Puff biscuits
6. Hard Sweet , Semi Sweet & Garibaldi Fruit Sandwich Biscuit
7. Short dough biscuits
8. Deposited soft and sponge drop biscuits
9. Wafers
10.  Miscellaneous biscuits-like products

Processing of biscuits:
 Take the wheat flour and mixed with water and to make dough, the
dough requires a conditioning period in which to allow many
changes to take place. This period is referred to as the fermentation
period.
 The changes have a great influence on the finished product, so it is
important that the total fermentation of the dough permit only
desirable changes to take place.
 Timing and temperature must be regulated to control the
fermentation to preclude undesirable changes.
 Baker‘s fermentation of dough beings when the dough is mixed and
ends when it is make up.
 True fermentation of dough being when the dough is mixed and
ends when the yeast is killed in the oven.
Conditions:
 Dough consistency is also related to the type of flow or other cereal
flour used the level of alkaline leveling agents, and of course dough
temperature.
 The increases in the level of fat are usually accompanied with
higher level of sugar, but sugar solutions do have a softening on
gluten resulting in lower water requirements for dough, the effect of
sugar alone on the dough water requirement is not usually
 sufficient.
 The greatest fundamental differences between all the biscuits group
areas shown is in the existence or otherwise in the dough of a three
dimensional structure of gluten that imparts extensibility and
cohesiveness to a dough.
 Dough‘s which very soft and pourable, known as soft are or
deposited doughs, are always rich in fat and sugar.
 Water is a catalyst in biscuit making. It is added at the doughing
stage then is driven of during baking.

The layering of fat between the dough to make puff biscuits occurs in
the low sugar types. Layering of fruit between and extensible dough gives
sandwiches like garibaldi.
After baking, the biscuits may be fat sprayed (mostly savoury types)
sandwiched with sweet or savoury fat creams or marshmallow or
variously enrobed with chocolate, chocolate substitutes or water icing. All
of these types and processes will be described in subsequent sections.

A simple comparison of how different parameters or properties change as

the recipe becomes enriched with fat and sugar

Crackers Semi Short high Short high soft

sweet fat sugar
Moisture in 30% 22% 9% 15% 11%
dough
Moisture in 1-2% 1-2% 2-3% 2-3% 3+%
biscuits
Temperature 30-38 0C 40-42 0C 200C 210C 210C
of dough
Critical Flour Flour Fat Fat & Fat &
ingredients sugar sugar
Baking time 3 min 5.5 min 15-25 min 7 min 12+
min
Oven pan Wire Wire Steel Steel Steel
type

The baking industry is very much craft based on the inventive

skills of engineers is not at much in evidence in terms of biscuit types.
Wafer biscuits represent a special type of baked product because
they are formed between a pair of hot plates and not on a baking bond
wire as are most other types the recipe is similar, low in enrichment with
fat and sugar, and is mixed to a fluid, pumpable batter. Baked wafers are
UN interesting to eat on their own but form useful, rigid, carriers for other
more favours some mixture like sugar cream, caramel toffee and
marshmallow.
 11. Ingredients used for breads and buns principles involved in
its preparation of different types of bread and buns

Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually

by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the
world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, having been of importance
since the dawn of agriculture.

There are many different formulas for bread and yeast-raised

products. Some of these formulas contain little or no enriching ingredients
(eggs, fat and sugar) and would be called “lean”. Others have high
percentage of these enriching ingredients and are referred to as “rich”. There
are many formulas between these two extremes

Proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely, as do

modes of preparation. As a result, types, shapes, sizes, and textures of
breads differ around the world. Bread may be leavened by processes such as
reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially
produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Some bread is cooked before it
can leaven, including for traditional or religious reasons. Non-cereal
ingredients such as fruits, nuts and fats may be included. Commercial
bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf
life, nutrition, and ease of manufacturing.

Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day. It is eaten
as a snack, and used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such
as sandwiches, and fried items coated in bread crumbs to prevent sticking.
It forms the bland main component of bread pudding, as well as
of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip
out.

Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance

as nourishment. It plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular
culture. Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language, where it appears
in proverbs, colloquial expressions ("He stole the bread from my mouth"), in
prayer ("Give us this day our daily bread") and in the etymology of words,
such as "companion" (from Latincom "with" + panis "bread").

Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North

Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in
the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa, in contrast to parts of South
and East Asia where rice or noodle is the staple. Bread is usually made from
a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally
baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets
commonly found in bread. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the
dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most
common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest
single contribution to the world's food supply of any food.

Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species

(including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut). Non-wheat cereals
including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been
used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination
with wheat flour as they have less gluten.[16]

Gluten-free breads have been created for people affected by gluten-

related disorders such as celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity,
who may benefit from a gluten-free diet. Gluten-free bread is made with
ground flours from a variety of materials such as almonds, rice, sorghum,
corn, or legumes such as beans, but since these flours lack gluten they may
not hold their shape as they rise and their crumb may be dense with little
aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxyl propyl
methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the
lack of gluten.

Optimum Temperature Ranges-

The optimum temperature ranges for the ingredients and the

different phases of the dough are as follows:
1. Flour storage, 750F
2. Ingredient ice water, 400F
 3. Bread doughs, 780 to 820F
4. Mixing room, 750 to 800F
5. Fermentation room or cabinet, 800F, 74 percent to 77 percent
relative humidity
6. Proof boxes or cabinets, 950 to 1000F, relative humidity 83
percent to 88 percent;
7. Bread slicing and wrapping temperatures 950 to 1050F;
8. Inside temperature of a loaf of bread out of oven, 208 0 to
2100F;
9. Pan temperature at time of panning, 800 to 1100F;
10.Wax and cellophane wrapping paper storage, 55 0 to 850F,
relative humidity 45 to 65 percent.
Mixing Stages
 Early mixing stage
Rough, lumpy, wet, sticky (no trace of dough development).
 Minutes later:
Dough becomes smooth, semi-elastic, pliable, starts to dry, (start of
development).
 Further mixing:
Dough attains the cleanup stage and becomes dry, elastic; does
not stick to back or sides of mixing bowl (dough development).
 After cleanup
Dough softens becomes wet, sticky and breaks short as mixing is
continued (over development of breakdown).

The art of bread baking relies on twelve fundamental steps.

Baking steps:

1. Scaling of ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Straight dough method modified sponge straight method
 4. Bulk or primary fermentation – 4 hours
5. Punching, degassing or folding
6. Dividing (or) scaling
7. Reshaping (or) rounding – 1 hour
8. Benching (or) bench lest
9. Makeup and panning
10. Proofing (or) final fermentation – 3 hour
11. Baking Oven springs
Coagulation of proteins and gelatinization of starches
Formation and browning of the crust
12. Cooling and storage

Methods of mixing:

 Straight dough method

 Modified straight method
 Sponge method

Ingredients:

Ingredients generally used for bread making are floour, sugar, yeast, water,
dalda, vanilla powder and milk powder.

Straight Dough method (Direct method):

All ingredients

Placed into a bowl

Mixed at one time

 Not undergone any previous mixing of fermentation

 Used for quality production of bread products.
 It may lack quality flavour and texture compared to other mixing
methods.
 Commonly used in commercial bread products
This method is referred as “every body in the pool” direct method.

Modified straight dough

Flour

Fat, Sugar, salt, Milk solids and Flavorings

Blending all the ingredients

Slow addition of eggs

Addition of eggs

Addition of flavor and yeast

Made in dough

 It is a typically used for rich sweet dough to ensure distribution of fat

and sugar

Sponge method:

 Preparation of pre ferment dough in advance.

 Added to final dough during mixing
 Preferment dough (or) sponge add and flavor texture and volume to
the bread.
 It also known as indirect method.
 It is primary used in artisan breads.
 12. Preparation of Pastry – short crust pastry – puff pastry, flaky
pastry, filo pastry

Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening (solid fats,

including butter) that may be savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are
often described as bakers' confectionery. The word "pastries" suggests many
kinds of baked products made from ingredients such
as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs.
Small tarts and other sweet baked products are called pastries. The French
word pâtisserie is also used in English (with or without the accent) for the
same foods. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

Pastry can also refer to the pastry dough, from which such baked

products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for
baked products.

Pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content,

which contributes to a flaky or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and
airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the weight of the filling. When
making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and flour
thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the flour granules
are adequately coated with fat and less likely to develop gluten. On the other
hand, overmixing results in long gluten strands that toughen the pastry. In
other types of pastry such as Danish pastry and croissants, the
characteristic flaky texture is achieved by repeatedly rolling out a dough
similar to that for yeastbread, spreading it with butter, and folding it to
produce many thin layers.

Shortcrust pastry 

Shortcrust pastry is the simplest and most common pastry. It is made

with flour, fat, butter, salt, and water to bind the dough. This is used mainly
in tarts. It is also the pastry that is used most often in making a quiche. The
process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and flour, adding water,
and rolling out the paste. The fat is mixed with the flour first, generally by
rubbing with fingers or a pastry blender, which inhibits gluten formation by
coating the gluten strands in fat and results in a short (as in crumbly; hence
the term shortcrust), tender pastry. A related type is the
sweetened sweetcrust pastry, also known as pâte sucrée, in which sugar
and egg yolks have been added (rather than water) to bind the pastry.

Flaky pastry

Flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to the
number of layers. It bakes into a crisp, buttery pastry. The "puff" is obtained
by the shard-like layers of fat, most often butter or shortening, creating
layers which expand in the heat of the oven when baked.

Puff pastry 

Puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or "puff" when
baked. Puff pastry is made using flour, butter, salt, and water. The pastry
rises up due to the water and fats expanding as they turn into steam upon
heating. Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender.

Choux pastry 

Choux pastry is a very light pastry that is often filled with cream.

Unlike other types of pastry, choux is in fact closer to a dough before being
cooked which gives it the ability to be piped into various shapes such as
the éclair and profiterole. Its name originates from the French choux,
meaning cabbage, owing to its rough cabbage-like shape after cooking.

Choux begins as a mixture of milk or water and butter which are

heated together until the butter melts, to which flour is added to form a
dough. Eggs are then beaten into the dough to further enrich it. This high
percentage of water causes the pastry to expand into a light, hollow pastry.
Initially, the water in the dough turns to steam in the oven and causes the
pastry to rise; then the starch in the flour gelatinizes, thereby solidifying the
pastry. Once the choux dough has expanded, it is taken out of the oven; a
hole is made in it to let the steam out. The pastry is then placed back in the
oven to dry out and become crisp. The pastry is filled with various flavors of
cream and is often topped with chocolate. Choux pastries can also be filled
with ingredients such as cheese, tuna, or chicken to be used as appetizers.

Phyllo (Filo)

Phyllo is a paper-thin pastry dough that is used in many layers. The

phyllo is generally wrapped around a filling and brushed with butter before
baking. These pastries are very delicate and flaky.

Hot water crust pastry

Hot water crust pastry is used for savoury pies, such as pork

pies, game pies and, more rarely, steak and kidney pies. Hot water crust is
traditionally used for making hand-raised pies. The usual ingredients are
hot water, lard and flour, the pastry is made by heating water, melting the
fat in this, bringing to the boil, and finally mixing with the flour. This can be
done by beating the flour into the mixture in the pan, or by kneading on
a pastry board. Either way, the result is a hot and rather sticky paste that
can be used for hand-raising: shaping by hand, sometimes using a dish or
bowl as an inner mould. As the crust cools, its shape is largely retained, and
it is filled and covered with a crust, ready for baking. Hand-raised hot water
crust pastry does not produce a neat and uniform finish, as there will be
sagging during the cooking of the filled pie, which is generally accepted as
the mark of a hand-made pie.

Glossary on pastry

Pastry: A type of food used in dishes such as pies or strudel.

Pastry bag or piping bag: An often cone-shaped bag that is used to make an

even stream of dough, frosting, or flavored substance to form a structure,
decorate a baked item, or fill a pastry with a custard, cream, jelly, or other
filling.
Pastry board: A square or oblong board, preferably marble but usually
wood, on which pastry is rolled out.

Pastry brake: Opposed and counter-rotating rollers with a variable gap

through which pastry can be worked and reduced in thickness for
commercial production. A small version is used domestically
for pasta production.

Pastry case: An uncooked or blind baked pastry container used to hold

savory or sweet mixtures.

Pastry cream: Confectioner's custard. An egg- and flour-thickened custard

made with sweetened milk flavored with vanilla. Used as a filling for flans,
cakes, pastries, tarts, etc. The flour prevents the egg from curdling.

Pastry cutters: Various metal or plastic outlines of shapes, e.g. circles,

fluted circles, diamonds, gingerbread men, etc., sharpened on one edge and
used to cut out corresponding shapes from biscuit, scone, pastry, or cake
mixtures.

Pastry blender: A kitchen implement used to properly combine the fat and
flour. Usually constructed of wire or plastic, with multiple wires or small
blades connected to a handle.

Viennoiserie: French term for "Viennese pastry," which, although it

technically should be yeast raised, is now commonly used as a term for
many laminated and puff- and choux-based pastries,
including croissants, brioche, and pain au chocolat.
13. Preparation of Pastry –Danish pastry - preparation of different crust
pastries and pie

Danish pastry is a sweet pastry which has become a specialty of

Denmark and the neighboring Scandinavia countries and is popular
throughout the industrialized world. The form it takes can significantly
different from country to country suitable filling can be done.

A Danish pastry or just Danish (especially in American English) is a

multilayered, laminated sweet pastry in the viennoiserie tradition. The
concept was brought to Denmark by Austrian bakers and has since
developed into a Danish specialty. Like other viennoiserie pastries, such
as croissants, it is a variant of puff pastry made of laminated yeast-
leavened dough that creates a layered texture.

Danish pastries were brought with immigrants to the United States,

and are now popular around the world.

Composition: Danish pastry is made of yeast-leavened dough of

wheat flour, milk, eggs, sugar, and large amounts of butter or margarine.

A yeast dough is rolled out thinly, covered with thin slices of butter
between the layers of dough, and then the dough is folded and rolled several
times, creating 27 layers. If necessary, the dough is chilled between folding
to ease handling. The process of rolling, buttering, folding, and chilling is
repeated multiple times to create multilayered dough that becomes airy and
crispy on the outside, but also rich and buttery.

Butter is the traditional fat used in Danish pastry, but in industrial

production, less expensive fats are often used, such
as hydrogenated sunflower oil.

Variety

 In Sweden, Danish pastry is typically made in the Spandauer-style,

often with vanilla custard.

 In the UK, various ingredients such

as jam, custard, apricots, cherries, raisins, flaked almonds, pecans,
 or caramelized toffee are placed on or within sections of divided
dough, which is then baked. Cardamom is often added to increase the
aromatic sense of sweetness.

 In the US, Danishes are typically given a topping of fruit or sweet

baker's cheese prior to baking. Danishes with nuts on them are also
popular there and in Sweden, where chocolate spritzing and powdered
sugar are also often added.

 In Argentina, they are usually filled with dulce de leche or dulce de

membrillo.

The ingredients used for preparation of Danish pastry are maida flour,
sugar, salt, yeast, milk, eggs and butter.

Method

 Combine all the ingredients in machine bowl and knead it on speed

for 20 minutes.
 Keep the dough for proving for 2 hours.
 Roll the clough into ¼ inch thickness.
Spread the soft and smooth butter on the top.
 Give three empty rolling after interval of 10-15 minutes.
 Rost the dough for overnight and roll it out about 1/6 inch thickness.
 Cut the sheet of 50-60 g and shape it
 Bake at 200°c for 20-25 minutes.

N.B.

 Do not overroll the dough

 Choose the filling which is not spread
 Handling of the dough should be prompt.
Choux pastry
The ingredients used for choux pastry are water, butter, maida flour and
eggs.
Method:

 Sift the flour with salt.

 Take and water and butter in a pan and bring to a good boil.
 Combine flour with step one: blend cook until the mixture is smooth
and colls from side of pdot. Remove from heat.
 Place mixture in a machine bowl and add eggs slowly until medium
stiff paste is obtained. Blend well after each addition of eggs.
 Pipe as required shape.
 Paper may be used on pans or they many be lightly gleased.
 Bake at 220°c for 20-25 minutes.

Pie

A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing

that covers or completely contains a filling of
various sweet or savoury ingredients.

Pies are defined by their crusts. A filled pie (also single-

crust or bottom-crust), has pastry lining the baking dish, and the filling is
placed on top of the pastry but left open. A top-crust pie has the filling in the
bottom of the dish and is covered with a pastry or other covering before
baking. A two-crust pie has the filling completely enclosed in the pastry
shell. Shortcrust pastry is a typical kind of pastry used for pie crusts, but
many things can be used, including baking powder biscuits, mashed
potatoes, and crumbs.

Pies can be a variety of sizes, ranging from bite-size to ones designed

for multiple servings.

Regional variations

Meat pies with fillings such as steak, cheese, steak and kidney, minced beef,

or chicken and mushroom are popular in the United Kingdom,
Australia, South Africa and New Zealand as take-away snacks. They are
also served with chips as an alternative to fish and chips at British chip
shops.

Pot pies with a flaky crust and bottom are also a popular American dish,
typically with a filling of meat (particularly beef, chicken, or turkey), gravy,
and mixed vegetables (potatoes, carrots, and peas). Frozen pot pies are often
sold in individual serving size.

Fruit pies may be served with a scoop of ice cream, a style known in North
America as pie à la mode. Many sweet pies are served this way. Apple pie is
a traditional choice, though any pie with sweet fillings may be served à la
mode. This combination, and possibly the name as well, is thought to have
been popularized in the mid-1890s in the United States. Apple pie can be
done with a variety of apples: Golden Delicious, Pink Lady, Granny Smith,
and Rome Beauty.

Types of pie

Two types of pies includes savoury and sweet pies

Sweet pies

Some of these pies are pies in name only, such as the Boston cream
pie, which is a cake. Many fruit and berry pies are very similar, varying only
the fruit used in filling. Fillings for sweet or fruity are often mixed, such
as strawberry rhubarb pie.

Savory pies Sweet pies

 Bacon and egg pie  Apple pie
 Butter pie  Banoffee pie
 Chicken and mushroom pie  Blackberry pie
 Corned beef pie  Black bottom pie
 Cottage pie (or shepherds' pie)  Blueberry pie
 Game pie  Buko pie
 Fish pie  Bundevara
 Frito pie  Cherry pie
 Homity pie  Chess pie
 Meat pie  Chiffon pie
 Pasty  Cream pie
 Pizza  Custard pie
 Pork pie  Fried pie
 Pot pie  Key lime pie
 Quiche  Lemon pie
 Scotch pie  Lemon meringue pie
 Curry pie  Mince pie
 Stargazy pie  Pecan pie
 Steak pie  Pumpkin pie
 Steak and kidney pie  Rhubarb pie
 Tourtière  Shoofly pie — a pie filled
with molasses
 Strawberry pie
 Sugar pie
 Sweet potato pie
 14. Identification of faults and remedial measures in cakes and
cookies

Faults and remedies in cakes

S. Faults Causes and Remedies

No.
1. The crust is too There was an excessive quantity of sugar added.
dark The heat of the oven was too high.
2. The crust is soggy  The cake was under baked
 The cake was cooked while still in the baking pan
or without proper ventilation
 The cake was wrapped in plastic wrap before it
was completely cooked.
3. The crust bust or  There was an excessive quantity of flour added to
cracked on top the batter.
 A flour high in gluten was used in the
preparation of the batter
 There was an in sufficient quantity of liquid
added to the batter.
 The batter was not properly mixed.
 The temperature of the oven was too hot.
4. The crust is too  There is an insufficient quantity of sugar added
light to the batter
 The temperature of the oven was too cool.
5. The flavor is poor  Inferior ingredients were used in the production
in quality of the cake
 Incorrect storage of the cake. Improper sanitary
conditions in the bake shop
 The formula is unbalanced.
6. The texture is  An insufficient quantity of leavening in the batter
coarse or irregular.  There is an inadequate amount of egg product for
the quantity of batter
 The batter has not been mixed properly.
7. The texture is  An insufficient quantity of leavening was used in
 dense or Heavy the production of the batter
 There was an excessive quantity of liquid and
shortening used in the production of the batter.
 The temperature of the oven was too cool.
8. The texture is  There is an excessive quantity of shortening (fat)
crumbly and leavening in the batter
 There is an excessive quantity of sugar in the
batter.
 The incorrect type of flour was utilized in the
make up of the batter.
 The batter was not mixed correctly.
9. The texture is  An inadequate amount of sugar fat was usedin
tough the make up of the batter.
 The flour had a high amount of gluen content
10. The cake exhibits  An excessive amount of liquid was used in the
poor volume make up of the batter
 An inadequate amount of flour was used in the
make up of the batter
 The temperature of the oven was too hot.
11. The cake exhibits  The cake pans were baked on uneven racks or
an uneven shape even decks.
 The oven that the cake was baked in had uneven
heat distribution
 The distribution of the batter in the cake paris
was uneven.
 The batter was not mixed correctly
 The cake pans are warped or misshapen.
12. The egg foam cake  Too much air was incorporated into egg foam
collapse during the make up of the batter.
 Too little air was incorporated into the egg foam.
13. The cake exhibits  An excessive amount of liquid was used in the
poor volume make up of the batter
 An inadequate amount of flour was used in the
makeup of the batter
  The temperature of the oven was too not.
14. The cake exhibits  The cake pans were baked on uneven racks or
an uneven shape even decks
 The oven that the cake was baked in had uneven
heat distribution
 The distribution of the batter in the cake pans
was uneven.
 The batter was not mixed correctly
 The cake pans are warped or misshapen
15. The egg foam cake  Too much air was incorporated into egg farm
collapse during the makeup of the batter.
 Too little air was incorporated into the egg farm.
Faults and remedies in cookies

S. Faults Causes and remedies

No.
1. The Cookies are  The temperature of the oven was too high
too brown  There was an excessive amount of sugar used in
the cookie dough.
 The cookies were over baked
2. The Cookies are  The temperature of the oven was too low.
not brown enough  There was an inadequate amount of sugar used
in the cookie dough
 The cookies were under baked
3. The Cookie is too  There was an inadequate amount of shortening
dry in nature (fat) or liquid incorporated into the cookie dough
 There was an excessive amount of flour
incorporated into the cookie dough
 The cookies were over baked
 The temperature of the oven was too low

4. The Cookies are  There was an excessive amount of fat, leavening

too crumbly in and sugar used in the cookie dough.
texture  There was an inadequate amount of eggs used in
the cookie dough
  The dough was improperly mixed
5. The cookies are too  There was an excessive amount of flour used in
hard in texture the cookie dough
 The gluten content of the flour was too night
 The cookies were over baked
 The oven temperature was too low.

6. The cookie exhibits  There was an excessive amount of sugar used in

an undesirable the dough.
sugary curst  The dough was improperly mixed

7. The cookie exhibits  There was an insufficient amount of flour used in

too much spread the cookie dough
during the baking  The oven temperature was too low.
process  The baking pans were over greased.

8. The cookies are  The baking pans were under greased.

sticks to the pan  There was an excessive amount of the sugar
used in dough

9. The finished  Excessive amount of flour used in the

product is too preparation of the cookie dough
tough  The gluten content of the flour was too strong.
 There was an inadequate amount of fat and
sugar used in the dough.
 The dough was over mixed
 15. Identification of faults and remedial measures in bread, pastries

Faults and remedies in bread

S. Faults Causes

No.
1. The finished Poor choice of flour oven was too hot, which
exhibits poor allowed the bread to form a curst too quickly.
volume Insufficient liquid was used in mixing process.
Yeast was not activated. The proportion of yeast
 was insufficient quantity of dough. The dough
has been under or over mixed.
2. The finished bread The dough has been over mixed. The dough
exhibits split or was not sufficiently fermented. Poor shaping
burst curst. seam not on bottom Lock of Scoring. The Oven
was too not which allowed the steam from the
dough to split the newly formed curst. There
was an insufficient steam when the bread was
first placed into the oven.
3. The finished bread The proportion of salt was in sufficient for the
product exhibits quantity of dough. High often flour was not
poor shape. used. Incorrect shaping or make up of dough
Fermentation or proofing was incorrectly
performed. Too much steam was introduced
into the oven during baking.
4. The finished bread The proportion of salt was too much for the
products exhibits quantity of dough. Insufficient liquid was used
steeaker outer in the mixing process. The proportion of yeast
clumb was insufficient for the quantity of dough. The
dough was not sufficiently proofed. The dough
was not sufficiently fermented.
5. The finished bread  Too much yeast was used in the formula.
product is too  As excessive amount of liquid was used for
coase. the quantity of dough
 The dough was mixed for an in correct time
period.
 The dough was not sufficiently fermented.
 The pan that the bread product was too large
for the quantity of dough.
6. The finished bread The fermentation time was too lengthy
product exhibits The fermentation temperature was too not.
gray crumb.
7. The finished bread The fermentation time was too lengthy
product exhibits The fermentation temperature was too not.
 gray crumb
8. The finished The temperature of oven was too not.
product is too The baking time was too long.
dark.

Puff Pastry Faults And Their Causes

S. Faults Causes
No.
1. Shrinkage during Dough not relaxed before baking
baking
2. Poor lift or rising Too little or too much fat used
Dough rolled out too thin or given too many
turns
Oven too hot or too cold
3. Uneven lift or irregular Improper rolling-in procedure
Uneven distribution of fat before rolling
shapes
Dough not relaxed before baking
Uneven heat in oven
4. Fat running out during Too much fat used
baking (Note: Not enough turns given
Some fat running out Oven too cool
is normal, but it
should not be
excessive.)
16. Production, Standards and Packaging of bakery products

The better the quality, the greater the cost. Under this policy
insufficient attention is paid to the earlier parts of the process out of
specification materials are used correct operating procedures are not
followed, production operations are unaware of the standards they should
be working to and therefore unaware of the process running ‘out of
control’ at the end of the manufacturing line reject product is stored from
that which by chance complies with the quality standards, and significant
quantities of scrap are produced at appreciable cost to the company.
The answer to the problem is to adopt the correct approach to the
quality control, that of prevention rather than cure, of controlling the
whole manufacturing operation from raw materials through to dispatch of
finished product, the policy of getting of it right first time.
The bakery/confectionery industry involves selling taste, texture
and appearance, and quality efforts must be aimed at as ensuring that
these three parameters up to standard. By these means scrap is reduced
and manufacturing efficiency increased, thus improving profitability; the
initial supposition is then seen to be fallacious and the opposite is, in
fact, shown to be the case the better the quality, the lower the cost.
Quality management systems
Quality management systems are elaborate management systems
that can be used by any organization to develop and achieve its quality
objectives. Quality management systems include quality planning and
improvement activities, in addition to quality control and assurance
activities. These systems are intended to provide a company with the
capability to meet all quality requirements. The best example of quality
management system is the ISO 9001:2000 Quality management system-
requirements standard. In the past, the terms total quality control and
company wide quality control were occasionally used in the same context
as quality management systems.
Total quality management
During the mid-1980s, the term total quality management (TQM)
was introduced in North America. The term was associated with the
management approach to quality improvement used in Japan for
achieving long-term success. The TQM approach embodies both
management principles and quality concepts, including customer focus,
empowerment of people, leadership, strategic planning, improvement and
process management. Of these contributions, the most widely recognized
are the 14 points for quality management proposed by W.Edwards
Deming. During the 1980s and 1990s many North American businesses
adopted the TQM approach and developed the framework for its use in
their Quality management systems, with the objective of achieving
competitive advantage in the global marketplace.
Quality system standards
A quality system standard is a document that describes the
requirements of a quality system. The ISO 9001:2000 quality management
system standard is the recognized international quality system standard.
Many countries have formally adopted this international standard as their
national quality system standard. Prior to the adoption of the
international quality system standard, some countries had developed
their own national quality system standards. In addition, some industry
sectors have developed sector-specific quality system standards. In some
instances, these sector-specific quality system standards are based on the
ISO 9000 quality standard; an example is the QS 9000 standard of the
North American automotive industry.
The ISO 9000 quality system standards
The ISO 9000 quality system standards were developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for use by any
organization that needs to develop, implement and operate with a quality
management system. The ISO 9000 quality system standards have had
considerable impact on the evolution of quality activities on a global scale
since the first set of standards were issued in 1987. Estimates indicate
that the ISO 9000 quality system standards are used by more than half a
million organizations world wide.

ISO 9000:2000 quality management systems – fundamentals and

vocabulary
The information in the ISO 9000-2000 standard is extremely
important for an understanding of the basics of quality management
systems. The standard introduces a set of eight quality management
principles and describes a set of 12 fundamentals, which serve as the
basis for the ISO quality management systems. The quality management
principles are embodied in the quality management system fundamentals.
The standard also provides definitions of technical terms.

Packaging of bakery products

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting

products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the
process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be
described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport,
warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects,
preserves, transports, informs, and sells. In many countries it is fully
integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal
use.

Biscuits are amongst the lowest cost processed food in the country
when compared to other Indian sweets and salted snacks. Biscuits are easy
to use during travel or at home because of its availability in variety of pack
sizes. They also offer substantial energy. Thus biscuits have an important
role to play as a diet supplement for both adults and children. It is no longer
viewed as a luxury tea-time snack but essential daily food component for an
average Indian household. The packaging of bakery products is closely
interlinked with production, preservation, storage, transportation and
marketing. The importance of packaging can further be gauged from the fact
that packaging constitutes a fair portion (10 to 25%) of the entire cost of the
pack.

The packaging material must possess moderately effective moisture

barrier properties. The inner portion of bread has equilibrium humidity in
the range of 90%, hence it tends to dry out rapidly and becomes harder. The
crust however, has low equilibrium humidity and it tends to become soggy
under moist conditions. Too good a moisture barrier, has effect of promoting
mold growth on the bread and allows the bread to become soft. If a poor
barrier film is used, the bread will tend to dry out and stale. Staling of bread
starts within 3-4 days of manufacturing. This is an inherent property of the
type of flour, method of baking and storage conditions. It is caused by the
migration of water from the starch to the protein portion of the interior; the
starch then becomes dry and looses texture. Since this activity is
independent of the moisture content of the inner portion of the bread, an
effective packaging material must protect the bread until staling occurs. The
ideal bread packaging material must be attractive, strong and inexpensive. It
must have adequate moisture barrier properties to improve the shelf-life,
able to run on automatic machinery and lastly should protect the shape of
the product. Hence the packaging material selected must conserve the
moisture content, prevent staling and keep the bread in a fresh condition as
long as possible.

The ideal bread packaging material must:

• be attractive
• maintain adequate shelf-life
• run on automatic machinery
• be strong
• be inexpensive
• be an adequate moisture barrier, and
• protect the shape of the product

Since most of the bakery products are packed on automatic form-fill-

machine which run at fairly high speeds, the packaging material selected
must be capable of running efficiently on these machines.

Packaging Materials for Biscuits

A wide range of packaging materials is used to pack biscuits. Since

paper cartons, tins have lost out to flexible packaging materials as the
packaging medium, focus is now on the latter. A variety of flexible packaging
materials are used for packing biscuits due to advantages such as
functionality, lower cost, printability, light weight, savings in freight and
other such factors.

Flexible Packaging Materials: These are used as wrappers, pre-formed

pouches or form-fill pouches. The oldest flexible film to be used was
cellophane because of its excellent gas barrier properties and heat
sealability.

MST, MSAT, Coated Cellophane (MXXT) offer excellent moisture barrier, heat
sealability and gloss. Cellophane became less popular when it became too
expensive and with the introduction of new materials with better properties.

Another material, which is widely used is Biaxially Oriented

Polypropylene film commonly known as OPP. For less demanding
applications OPP monofilm is used while for higher quality products, duplex
OPP or OPP combinations (pearlised or metallised ) such as OPP/PE,
OPP/PET etc. are used. Today most of the biscuits are packed in flexible
laminates of composite structures, where every component fulfills a specific
function. These laminates have desirable properties such as moisture
barrier, gas barrier heat sealability, printability characteristics, high
production and overall economy. The different types of plastic films and its
uses are tabulated below.

Plastic Films Uses Low density polyethylene (LDPE) Preformed

pouches Polypropylene (PP) Preformed pouches Biaxially Oriented Plain or
pearlised films as overwraps preformed Polypropylene (BOPP) pouches,
pillow pouches on FFS machines Polyester/LDPE laminates Preformed
pouches or FFS pillow packs Metallised polyester / poly FFS pillow packs
Paper/Foil/Poly FFS pillow packs Packages for Biscuits 79

Thermoformed Plastic Trays: Thermoformed plastic trays of polyestyrene or

PVC with multiple cavities are used to pack assorted biscuits, pastries,
cookies etc. They are closed with a snap-on lid or overwrapped or shrink-
wrapped or sealed with a lidding material. The products rest nicely in the
compartments and make a good presentation. Use of active packaging with
oxygen absorbent and antimicrobial properties for bakery products helps to
significantly increase the shelf-life and maintain the original quality of the
product. PVDC coated nylon, polyester, LDPE, PP, ethylene vinyl alcohol,
polystyrene are examples of flexible packaging material used with active
sachet.

Bread

Traditionally, bread in India was packed in waxed paper wrappers.

The search for lower cost over wrapping materials led to the use of
polyethylene film and nearly 80% of all bread is now packed in plastics films
such as LDPE, LLDPE-LDPE and PP. Also, auto bagging machines require
high slip PE resin i.e. pouches with good openability. LLDPE/ LDPE bags of
1 to 1.5 mm thickness secured by plastic clip or twisted wire ties are
normally used.

Cakes, Pastries, Doughnuts These products are available in various sizes,

shapes and forms. Since these products contain high moisture content they
are prone to mould growth and hence the packaging material selected
should not encourage mould growth. The packaging material used is
Polypropylene (PP), Cast Polypropylene (CPP), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) etc.,
while the choice of the film depends upon the machinability and economics
required.

Packages of Sliced Bread

The Packaging Styles There are several popular wrapping styles, which are
applied widely to a variety of biscuits (of all shapes and sizes). Biscuits
packed using the following two wrapping styles must be of common size and
shape with a certain consistency and rather narrow tolerances in their
dimensions. Standard wrapping machines can be used.

Endfold Wrapping This wrapping style is the classic, traditional biscuit

wrapper. A portion of biscuits standing on edge is roll – wrapped or fold
wrapped into a heat sealable film. The longitudinal packet seal is sealed
tightly in a fin seal style. The packet ends are folded neatly and heat-sealed.
Due to the neat and tight surrounding of the film, this packet gives utmost
mechanical protection and acceptable barrier properties for hard and semi
-hard biscuits and many other cracker types. Enfold wrapping is considered
the most effective in terms of presentation by many marketing specialists -
not only due to neat and impeccable shape, but also due to its ability to
clearly distinguish the product amongst the host of pillow pack items on the
retail shelves.

Pillow Pack Wrapping This is the standard wrapping style for smaller biscuit
packs (snack packs/single serve packs) containing one or more piles of
biscuits. In addition, pillow pack wrapping is used for bigger packets with
products standing on edge (Slug wrapping) as well. In this configuration, it
often serves as a primary wrapper, to be over-wrapped by a carton to
improve presentation and acceptance. The main advantage of pillow packs
on edge, is its flexibility with regard to the slug length. For instance, it
allows the machine to automatically adjust the length during wrapping by
means of tendency controlled check weighers. This feature ensures the
highest weight accuracy. Additionally, the pillow packs typical fin seal style
sealing is somewhat tighter than the enfold wrap. This disadvantage of
pillow pack slug wrapping is its limited mechanical product protection due
to its rather loose packing.

Further, the presentation of products packed using the pillow pack

style is considered by most to be less attractive than enfold packets.

Packing for Odd-sized Biscuits Besides enfold wrapping and pillow pack
wrapping, which by the way cover about 85-90% of all biscuit products,
there are some speciality biscuits with their own unique wrapping needs.
These include an assortment of small cocktail crackers filled in bags by
vertical FFS, machines and cookies of uneven sizes whose tolerance do not
allow a standard wrapping. The latter are automatically or manually loaded
into decorated trays and subsequently over-wrapped on pillow pack
machines.

Square/Rectangular Biscuits in Plastic Laminates - Flo Pack 81

Conclusion Bakery products include items of different packaging

requirements, which are met by a range of plastic materials in the form of
films, laminates and thermoformed trays. These materials provide adequate
protection against moisture loss/gain, retain the taste and aroma, and are
hygienic and safe for food contact. Other additional properties such as
machinability, printability and cost effectiveness make them the ideal choice
for a package.

Product Range Bakery products contain high nutritive value and are
manufactured from wheat-flour, sugar, baking powder, condensed milk,
ghee (fat), salt, jelly, dry fruits, various essences and flavouring etc.