Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

I. OVERVIEW

This module on basic laws of circuit analysis is focused on Kirchhoff’s Laws- Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). Provided along with the
discussion of KCL and KVL are comprehensive examples that illustrates a step-by-step
methodology in tackling circuit problems. As this module assumed that you have reviewed
basic concepts of network topology, series resistors and voltage division, parallel
resistors and current division, and wye-delta transformations, the preparatory
activities will test how far you have learned from those topics.

Also, as you solve the problems in each activities, it will practice you in deriving equations
that describe the behavior between voltage and current for the component in question and
relate equations derived from KVL and KCL for any circuit.

the LEARNING
II. discusses the fundamental differences between a linear and non-linear element,
OBJECTIVES
defines what is a resistance, introduces one of the most important relationship of voltage,
current and resistance of a linear resistor- Ohm’s law and the different sources in a
circuit. All are necessary in the forthcoming discussion of network theorems that were
▪ Analyze electric circuits using only Kirchhoff’s laws and the constitutive equations
developed by engineers to handle the complexity of circuit analysis. Along with these are
of the circuit elements.
points to remember on special cases of independent sources (short circuit and open
circuit) and get some direction with the passive sign convention.
▪ Determine the equivalent resistance of a resistive circuit by combining resistors in
series or parallel and application of voltage division, current division, and delta-to-
wye and wye-to-delta transformations.

III. CONTENT
A. PREPARATORY ACTIVITY

As mentioned in the previous module entitled Circuit Elements, you are assigned to do a review
on the basic network topology, series resistors and voltage division, parallel resistors and current
division and wye-delta transformations. Now, do the following activity to check it yourself how
far you have learned from the review.

ACTIVITY 2.1: Mapping it all out with schematics

Answer the following questions/ problems.

1. How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. 2.1 have? Identify the elements
that are in series and in parallel.

Figure 2.1: For problem 1.

2. For the network graph in Figure 2.2, find the number of nodes, branches, and loops.

Figure 2.2: For problem 2.

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

3. Find the number of branches and nodes in each of the circuits of Figure 2.3.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.3: For problem 3.

ACTIVITY 2.2: Summarize the techniques!

Complete the Table 2.1 to summarize the equivalent resistance and

conductance, current and voltage in a series and parallel circuit. Also,
summarize the formula for transforming a wye to delta network and vice-
versa in Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Equivalent Resistance in a Series and Parallel Connected Circuit

Circuit Variable Series Connected Parallel Connected

Equivalent resistance

Equivalent conductance

Voltage

Current

Power

Table 2.2: Wye-Delta Transformations

Circuit Diagram Wye-Delta Conversion Delta-Wye Conversion

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

ACTIVITY 2.3: Let us apply…

Solve the following problems by applying the techniques in Table 2.1 and 2.2.

1. All resistors in Figure 2.4 are 1Ω each. Find the equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 .

Figure 2.4: For problem 1.

2. Reduce each of the circuits in Figure 2.5 to a single resistor at terminals a-b.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5: For problem 2.

3. For the circuit in Figure 2.6, 𝑖0 = 2 𝐴. Calculate and the total power dissipated by the
circuit.

Figure 2.6: For problem 3.

4. For the circuit in Fig. 2.7, determine 𝑖1 to 𝑖5 .

Figure 2.7: For problem 4.

5. Calculate 𝐼𝑜 in the circuit of Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: For problem 5.

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

B. DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITY

ABSTRACTION

Read the following discussions on Kirchhoff’s two laws- KCL and KVL. These
laws coupled with Ohm’s law are sufficient and powerful tools for analyzing
electric circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

𝑵

∑ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎 𝑬𝒒. 𝟐. 𝟏
𝒏=𝟏

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and is the nth
current entering (or leaving) the node.

Consider the node in Figure 2.9. Applying KCL gives

𝑖1 + (−𝑖2 ) + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + (−𝑖5 ) = 0

Figure 2.9: Currents at a node

since currents 𝑖1 , 𝑖3 and 𝑖4 are entering the node, while currents 𝑖2 and 𝑖5
illustrating KCL
are leaving it. By rearranging the terms, we get

𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖5

Therefore, the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
the node.

A simple application of KCL is combining current sources in parallel. The combined current is the
algebraic sum of the current supplied by the individual sources. For example, the current sources
shown in Figure 2.10 (a) can be combined as in Figure 2.10 (b). The combined or equivalent
current source can be found by applying KCL to node a.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.10: Current sources in parallel: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

Figure 2.10 (a) can be combined as in Figure 2.10 (b). The combined or equivalent current
source can be found by applying KCL to node a.

𝐼𝑇 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼3
or
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
A circuit cannot contain two different currents, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 , in series, unless 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ; otherwise KCL
will be violated.

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 Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path
(or loop) is zero.

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

∑ 𝒗𝒎 = 𝟎 𝑬𝒒. 𝟐. 𝟐
𝒎=𝟏

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and 𝑣𝑚
is the mth voltage.

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Figure 2.11. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of
the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and
go around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start with the voltage
source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would be −𝑣1 , +𝑣2 , +𝑣3 , −𝑣4 and
+𝑣5 , in that order. For example, as we reach branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence,
we have +𝑣3 . For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first; hence, −𝑣4 . Thus, KVL yields

−𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 − 𝑣4 + 𝑣5 = 0

Rearranging terms gives

𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣5 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣4

which may be interpreted as

Figure 2.11: A single-loop 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠

circuit illustrating KVL.

Notice that if we had traveled counterclockwise, the result would have been the same as before
except that the signs are reversed.

When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied to obtain the total voltage.
The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the individual sources. For example,
for the voltage sources shown in Figure 2.12 (a), the combined or equivalent voltage source in
Figure 2.12 (b) is obtained by applying KVL.

−𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
or
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉3

To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot contain two different voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 in parallel unless
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 .

(a) (b)

Figure 2.12: Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

Illustration 2.1: Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

For the circuit in Figure 2.13 (a), find voltages 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 .

Figure 2.13: (a) For illustration 2.1

Solution:

Redraw circuit in Figure 2.13 (a) showing that current 𝑖 flows through the loop.

Figure 2.13: (b) Equivalent circuit of Figure 2.13 (a)

To find 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 , we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

From Ohm’s law,

𝑣1 = 2𝑖, 𝑣2 = −3𝑖 𝐸𝑞. 𝑎

Applying KVL around the loop gives

−20 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑏
Substitute Eq. a to Eq. b

−20 + 2𝑖 − (−3𝑖) = 0
Simplifying,
−20 + 2𝑖 + 3𝑖 = 0

5𝑖 = 20
20
𝑖= = 𝟒𝑨
5
Substitute 𝑖 in Eq. a,

𝑣1 = 2(4) = 8 𝑉, 𝑣2 = −3(4) = −12 𝑉

Answers: 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟖 𝑽
𝒗𝟐 = −𝟏𝟐 𝑽

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

Illustration 2.2: Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Determine 𝑣0 and 𝑖 in the circuit shown in Figure 2.14 (a).

Figure 2.14: (a) For illustration 2.2

Solution:

Redraw circuit in Figure 2.14 (a)

Figure 2.14: (b) Equivalent circuit of Figure 2.14(a)

We apply KVL around the loop as shown in Figure 2.14 (b). The result is

−12 + 4𝑖 + 2𝑣𝑜 − 4 + 6𝑖 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑎

Applying Ohm’s law to the 6Ω resistor gives

𝑣𝑜 = −6𝑖 𝐸𝑞. 𝑏

Substitute Eq. b to Eq. a

−12 + 4𝑖 + 2( −6𝑖) − 4 + 6𝑖 = 0
Simplify
−16 + 10𝑖 − 12𝑖 = 0
−2𝑖 = 16
16
𝑖= = −𝟖 𝑨
−2
Substitute 𝑖 to Eq. b
𝑣𝑜 = −6(−8) = 𝟒𝟖 𝑽

Answers: 𝒊 = −𝟖 𝑨
𝒗𝒐 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑽

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

Illustration 2.3: Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Find current and voltage in the circuit shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: For illustration 2.3

Solution:
Since current directions are already drawn in the cicuit, we proceed to applying KCL to node a

0.5𝑖𝑜 + 3 − 𝑖𝑜 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑎
Simplify
0.5𝑖𝑜 = 3
3
𝑖𝑜 = = 𝟔𝑨
0.5

For the 4Ω resistor, Ohm’s law gives

𝑣𝑜 = 4𝑖𝑜 𝐸𝑞. 𝑏
Substitute 𝑖𝑜 in Eq. b
𝑣𝑜 = 4(6) = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽

Answers: 𝒊𝑶 = 𝟔 𝑨
𝒗𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

Illustration 2.4: Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Law

Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Figure 2.16 (a).

Figure 2.16 (a): For illustration 2.4

Solution:
Redraw circuit in Figure 2.16 (a) showing loop 1 and loop 2.

Figure 2.16: (b) Equivalent circuit of Figure 2.16 (a)

We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,

𝑣1 = 8𝑖1 , 𝑣2 = 3𝑖2 , 𝑣3 = 6𝑖3 𝐸𝑞. 𝑎

At node a, KCL gives

𝑖1 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑏
Applying KVL to loop 1

−30 + 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑐
Applying KVL to loop 2
−𝑣2 + 𝑣3 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑑
or
𝑣2 = 𝑣3

Since the required circuit variables are 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 and 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 , our goal is to create sytems of linear
equations of the current. Then, we will subtitute the derived values of the current to Eq. a to get
the values of voltages.

Substitute Eq. a to Eq. c

−30 + (8𝑖1 ) + (3𝑖2 ) = 0

8𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 = 30 𝐸𝑞. 𝑐. 1
Also, substitute Eq. a to Eq. d
−(3𝑖2 ) + (6𝑖3 ) = 0
−3𝑖2 + 6𝑖3 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑑. 1

Now we have three equations of current 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3

𝑖1 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑏
8𝑖1 + 3𝑖2 = 30 𝐸𝑞. 𝑐. 1
−3𝑖2 + 6𝑖3 = 0 𝐸𝑞. 𝑑. 1

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

We can solve 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 by means of Cramer’s rule. Represent Eqs. b, c.1 and d.1 in terms of a
matrix

1 −1 −1 𝑖1 0
[8 3 0 ] [𝑖2 ] = [30] Cramer’s Rule for Three
0 −3 6 𝑖3 0 Equations in Three Unknowns

The solution to the system

For 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 : 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 = , 𝑖3 = 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
is given by
For determinant D: 𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦 𝐷𝑧
𝑥= , 𝑦= , 𝑧=
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

where
1 −1 −1 0 −1 −1
𝐷 = [8 3 0 ] = 90 𝐷1 = [30 3 0 ] = 270 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝒅𝟏 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝐷 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] 𝐷𝑥 = [𝒅𝟐 𝑏2 𝑐2 ]
0 −3 6 0 −3 6 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝒅𝟑 𝑏3 𝑐3

1 0 −1 1 −1 0 𝑎1 𝒅𝟏 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝒅𝟏
𝐷𝑦 = [𝑎2 𝒅𝟐 𝑐2 ] 𝐷𝑧 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝒅𝟐 ]
𝐷2 = [8 30 0 ] = 180 𝐷1 = [8 3 30] = 90 𝑎3 𝒅𝟑 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝒅𝟑
0 0 6 0 −3 0
Provided that 𝐷 ≠ 0.

Then, 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 are

270 180 90
𝑖1 = = 𝟑 𝑨, 𝑖2 = = 𝟐 𝑨, 𝑖3 = =𝟏𝑨
90 90 90

Substitute 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 to Eq. a

𝑣1 = 8(3) = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽, 𝑣2 = 3(2) = 𝟔 𝑽, 𝑣3 = 6(1) = 𝟔 𝑽

Answers: 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟑 𝑨, 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑨, 𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏 𝑨
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟔 𝑽, 𝒗𝟑 = 𝟔 𝑽

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

C. CLOSURE ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY 2.4: Check your Understanding

Answer following questions.

1. The reciprocal of resistance is:

(a) voltage (b) current (c) conductance (d) coulombs

2. An electric heater draws 10 A from a 120-V line. The resistance of the heater is:

(a) 1200Ω (b) 120Ω (c) 12Ω (d)1.2Ω

3. The voltage drop across a 1.5-kW toaster that draws 12 A of current is:

(a) 18 kV (b) 125 V (c) 120 V (d) 10.42 V

4. The maximum current that a 2W, 80 kΩ resistor can safely conduct is:

(a) 160 kA (b) 40 kA (c) 5 mA (d) 2.5µA

5. A network has 12 branches and 8 independent loops. How many nodes are there in the
network?

(a) 19 (b) 17 (c) 5 (d) 4

6. The current I in the circuit of Figure 2.17 is:

(a) -0.8 A (b) -0.2 A (c) 0.2 A (d) 0.8 A

Figure 2.17: For question no. 6

7. The current 𝐼𝑂 of Fig. 2.18 is:

(a) -4 A (b) -2 A (c) 4 A (d) 16 A

Figure 2.18: For question no. 7

8. In the circuit in Figure 2.19, V is:

(a) 30 V (b) 14 V (c) 10 V (d) 6 V

Figure 2.19: For question no. 8

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

IV. SYNTHESIS

Attacking Circuits with KVL, KCL, and Ohm’s Law

Santiago Jr.(2013) suggested the following procedure which will help you in circuit analysis as
demonstrated in the methodology used in solving problems of Illustrations 2.1 to 2.4.

Bear in mind that in series circuit, the same current flows through all the connected devices. In
a parallel circuit, all the connected devices have the same voltage. Although the circuits differ,
the general procedure in circuit analysis is as follows:

1. Redraw an equivalent circuit.

Label the device terminals with the proper voltage polarities (+ and –)
and voltage variables and draw the loops.

2. Assign the directions of the currents for the given circuit.

Apply the passive sign convention, with current flowing from the + sign
to the – sign.

3. Formulate KVL or KCL connection equations.

4. Apply device equations (such as Ohm’s law for resistors) and then substitute
the device equations into the connection equations.

5. Solve for the voltage and current for any device.

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

V. EVALUATION

ASSESSMENT 2.1

The tests in this section aims to assess if the objectives of the modules are attained;
if you are now able to apply KVL and KCL and the constitutive equations of the circuit
elements in analyzing circuits.

Submission of the electronic copy of answer sheets will be on day 4 of week 4 of the
class. Please note that the output must only be submitted through MS Teams class in
EEP 213 where you are designated. Also, due date was already assigned in this ‘class
assignment in MS Teams, therefore late submission will not be accepted in the said
application.

A. Problem Solving: Kirchhoff’s Laws

Solve the following problems neatly and completely.

1. Calculate 𝑣 and 𝑖𝑥 in the circuit of Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20: For problem 1

2. Find 𝐼 and 𝑉𝑎𝑏 in the circuit of Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21: For problem 2

3. In the circuit shown in Figure 2.22, determine 𝑣𝑥 and the power absorbed by the 12 − Ω
resistor.

Figure 2.22: For problem 3

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

B. Problem Solving: Series and Parallel Resistors, Wye-Delta Transformation

Solve the following problems neatly and completely.

4. Find 𝑖1 through 𝑖4 in the circuit of Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23: For problem 4

5. Find 𝑖 and 𝑣𝑜 in the circuit of Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24: For problem 5

6. Find 𝑅𝑒𝑞 and 𝑖𝑜 in the circuit of Figure 2.25.

Figure 2.25: For problem 6

7. Determine 𝑉 in the circuit of Figure 2.26.

Figure 2.26: For problem 7

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Chapter 2 BASIC LAWS

VI. ASSIGNMENT

Survey the first analytical method/ technique used for more-complex circuit analysis-
Nodal analysis.

VII. REFERENCES

• Alexander, C. K., & Sadiku, M. N. . (2004). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits. McGraw-

Hill.
• Svoboda, J. A., & Dorf, R. C. (2014). Introduction to Electric Circuits. In European Journal
of Engineering Education (9th ed., Vol. 18, Issue 4). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03043799308928170
• Santiago Jr., J. M. (2013). Circuit Analysis for Dummies. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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