UNIT-

UNIT-v
The family unit – principally a man and a woman living together in
harmony and peace – is and always will be the basic social organization
or unit of any society. This relationship alone provides stability in a
sexual, emotional, intellectual and social way as no other can.

This statement may seem prejudiced or biased against other forms of

social organization, but it has proven true over hundreds and even
thousands of years.

Other forms of social organization include most people remaining single

or unattached, or various forms of collective living arrangements that
are called free love societies, communes, kibbutz living in some cases,
and others. Yet none of these have worked out on a large scale nearly
as well as what is called a monogamous man-woman relationship in terms
of stability and happiness for the couple, and for the society as a whole.

When the families are strong, society is strong, as a rule. When families
are weak, societies begin to break down. This is the important concept of
sociology.

Social class is the group of people within a society who possess the same
socioeconomic status. The term was first widely used in the early 19th
century, following the industrial and political revolutions of the late
18th century. The most influential early theory of class was that
of Karl Marx, who focused on how one class controls and directs the
process of production while other classes are the direct producers and
the providers of services to the dominant class. The relations between
the classes were thus seen as antagonistic (showing or feeling active
opposition). Max Weber emphasized the importance of political power
and social status or prestige in maintaining class distinctions. Despite
controversies over the theory of class, there is general agreement on
the characteristics of the classes in modern capitalist societies. In many
cases the upper class has been distinguished by the possession of
largely inherited wealth, while the working class has consisted mostly
of manual labourers and semiskilled or unskilled workers, often in
service industries, which earn moderate or low wages and have little
access to inherited wealth. The middle class includes the middle and
upper levels of clerical workers, those engaged in technical and
professional occupations, supervisors and managers, and such self-
employed workers as small-scale shopkeepers, businesspeople, and
farmers. There is also often an urban substratum of permanently jobless
and underemployed workers termed the underclass.

Society provides the cultural basis for design and interpretation.

Culture within a given society is often not a simply categorized element,
being entwined (interlinked) on differing levels through many social
instances. The practice of architectural design captures the cultural
and social influences relative to the specific design problem and
translates these influences into a structure which embodies the culture.
The sociological position of architectural design deals not only with
society as a whole but also with society at the level of the individual.
Design relative to individuals must provide for their basic needs as well
as respond with a language that they may accept as defining their place
within society. This idea of place carries meaning on two levels; place as
a built entity, and place as a component of social order. It is at the level
of the individual that people will seek out housing to suit their needs
(local and social order) and will choose to work in locations which
reflect their ideals of social position.

Individuals bear a great deal of influence on architectural design in the

manner by which they interact, behave, occupy and control space or
ignore it.

Safety and security are related to personal feelings that can be

affected by the space that the individual inhabits. The feeling of security,
or the perception of danger, will be affected by the built environment,
and thus will affect the individual in that location. These feelings carry
a great deal of influence in how an architectural design solution is
viewed relative to its surrounding society.

UNIT-
UNIT-vi
Social interactions are the acts, actions, or practices of two or more
people mutually oriented towards each other's selves, that is, any
behaviour that tries to affect or take account of each other's subjective
experiences or intentions. This means that the parties to the social
interaction must be aware of each other--have each other's self in mind.
This does not mean being in sight of or directly behaving towards each
other. Friends writing letters are socially interacting, as are enemy
generals preparing opposing war plans.

Social isolation is the lack of social interaction, contact, or

communication with other people. Those who socially isolate have an
abscence of relationships with family and friends, or other forms of
social networks. Social isolation may be expressed through physical
separation with others, social barriers, or psychological mechanisms.

A person may isolate for many reasons. Physical conditions, such as a

disability, may make it difficult to leave the house. Other physical issues
may cause shame or embarrassment and reduce the likelihood that an
individual engages in social interactions.

Individuals who are socially isolated are more susceptible to overall

health problems. To understand the severity of the consequences
associated with social isolation, one need only think about how inmates
respond to sustained solitary confinement.

Social access is a concept of the delivery of public services, facilities

and amenities to intended user groups. Limited access may be due to their
high cost, the lack of appropriate infrastructure or due to prejudices
within the society that restrict use. Urban policy makers plan for
universal access to potable water, sewerage disposal, solid waste
disposal, medical aid and education. Policies may assume that the private
sector delivers some or a part of these requirements. The actual “reach”
of these systems is usually far less than required. This is particularly a
concern in emerging, rapidly urbanizing societies.

Often a city has large sources of raw water, adequate purification

facilities, extensive trunk infrastructure bringing potable water into
wards of the urban area, but appropriate user end infrastructure like
public taps, w.c’s, and bathing places do not exist. The smallest
residential plot allowed by urban planning standards may be too
expensive, when priced by current market rates, for intended low income
users to purchase. The building regulations may necessitate
unaffordable standards of construction. The urban development control
rules may add to the expenses which price shelter out of the reach of
large urban markets. Social restrictions may act as barriers to ethnic
groups, genders and minority communities. Social access is a concern
to poverty alleviation and enhancing the living conditions of the urban
poor.

Social access is central to the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism that

espouse social and economic opportunity as one of their basic axioms.

Social conflict theory is a macro-oriented paradigm in sociology that

views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social
change. Key elements in this perspective are that society is structured in
ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority, and factors such as
race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. To a social
conflict theorist, it is all about dominant group vs. minority group
relations. Karl Marx is considered the 'father' of social conflict theory.

Marx offered a theory of capitalism based on his idea that human beings
are basically productive - in order to survive, people have to work. He
also believed that people have two relationships to the means of
production: you either own the productive property or you work for
someone who does.

The clash between the owners and workers is at the heart of Marx's
thinking. In an industrial, wealthy, society, how can so many people be
poor? At the heart of Marx's thinking is social conflict,
conflict which is the
struggle between groups in society over scarce resources. Marx primary
concern, however, was class conflict,
conflict which arises from the way society
produces material goods.
Marx further believed that capitalism would lead to feelings of
alienation for the workers. Alienation is the experience of isolation and
misery that results from feelings of powerlessness. The only way to
avoid this is to reorganize society. He imagined a system of economic
production that could provide the needs of all members of society. In
his view, socialism was the answer to the failings of a capitalist system.

Planning for all age groups is an inviolable principle; in practice,

however, planners have been unduly preoccupied with certain age groups.
Like the post-war housing boom, the approach to community development
and planning has been child- or family-centred. Most significant
advances in school and recreation planning, in subdivision design, and
even in neighbourhood planning, sprang originally from a conception of
the needs of the young family with children.

The impact of this pronounced shift in age composition on community

services, on urban form and on economic activity is beginning to be
realized. For the community planner, sooner or later, it will necessitate
some reshuffling — discarding some outmoded theories, recasting some
tenuous theories, and originating some new theories.

Traditionally, planners relegated older persons a few cursory

sentences in the comprehensive plan report; the number and possibly per
cent of older persons was mentioned, but rarely did subsequent
proposals and plans reflect this analysis. Only now is there evidence
that the elderly are coming in for more searching appraisal.

SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY
A dichotomy (division) characterizes our attitude towards the elderly.
on the one hand, due in part to industrialization and the breakup of the
extended family, the family is no longer willing to assume sole
responsibility for the care of the elderly. on the other hand, however,
it realizes, by its very abnegation, that some other remedy must be
found. the result: family belongingness is being replaced by community
belongingness, the motivation for this stemming almost from a "guilt"
feeling that, instead of the family, social action must be initiated to
help the older generation. one expert, in summing up current thinking,
says that it "stresses societal responsibility to take care of the elderly
with the same energy and responsibility as is exhibited in caring for
infants and young children"
Following is a brief discussion of some major problems commonly
associated with the older generation:

New Trends
From the planner's view, one of the more novel developments in the
housing field is the recent emergence of distinct forms of living
arrangements for the elderly. The retirement villages, the proximate
housing developments and the group housing developments are all
predicated on different assumptions as to what the elderly need in the
way of living accommodations. Up to now, there is no reason to believe
that any of these ventures are suffering from deficient market demand.
Retirement Villages:
Villages: Leisure City, Youngtown, Senior Homes, Twilight
Haven, Sun City; these are some of the made-to-order, euphemistic-
sounding names given to the retirement villages springing up in various
sections of the country. Much has been written about these new
developments,4 but only a handful have been finished so far. The
apparent ease of marketing even the semi-completed retirement villages,
however, marks them as popular and probably permanent forms of
development.
In their simplest attire, retirement villages are nothing more than large
subdivisions with anywhere from one hundred to fifteen hundred small,
dispersed single-family homes (sometimes including duplexes and garden
apartments) located in the suburbs.
 UNIT-
NIT- V11
The term "local self-government" originated when the British regime ruled
our country. With the enactment of the Constitution (73rd Amendment)
Act, 1992 and the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992, local self-
governments, both rural and urban, have been given constitutional
recognition in our country and it is the third stratum of government, the
first two being the Central and the State governments

In the pre-Independence period, Indian villages were organised in a way

that enabled them to maintain social order through Panchayats. The
informal institution of Panchayatraj was responsible for maintaining and
governing village society in accordance with the socio-political norms of
their times. During the British period, the Montague-Chelmsford report in
1919 made local self-government a "transferred subject" under the
scheme of dyarchy. During this period, establishment of the village
panchayat in a number of provinces was the major achievement. When
India got Independence, the main question which came up was whether
panchayat should have a place in the new Constitution or not? Indian
Constitution didn't mention the Panchayats of the Gandhian model. The
Constituent Assembly didn't accept the Gandhian proposal and stressed
that stability, unity and economic progress demanded a more centralized
government. But, with the heralding of a new era, India's commitment
towards local self-govt and grass-root democracy stood upright. In
fact, it was the inner urge to ensure all round development of India's
political leadership that committed the government to implement the
decentralization process through the Panchayati Raj framework.
Ideologically the initiation of the panchayati raj system drew its
inspiration from Gandhiji's firm conviction that independence must begin
at the grass-root level and thus panchayati raj was synonyms with
swaraj or self-rule to Gandhi.

Thus, the new Constitution enforced on January 26, 1950 gave

Constitution al importance to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) including
them in Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) under Article-40 of
the Constitution. But it abstained from giving constitutional status to it.

After independence, the country adopted the five year plan for the
economic growth and prosperity of rural India. To ensure growth and
prosperity in rural India, the Community Development Project was
launched in 1952, which was the biggest rural reconstruction scheme to
fight against rural poverty, hunger, disease and ignorance. The First Five
Year plan envisaged the establishment of 500 community centres.

In 1953, the National Extension Service was also launched, but the
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) found that people's participation was
not there and the village panchayats were not even involved. The
committee therefore, recommended the devolution of development and
decentralization of machinery of administration with adequate delegation
of power to the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The committee recommended
three-tier system of rural local government namely, the Village
Panchayat at the local level i.e. village, the Panchayat Samiti at the
Block level and Zila Parishad at the District level. Rajasthan was the
first State to introduce the three-tier Panchayats framework. The other
States of the Indian union also gradually launched the system. This
heralded a new phase in India's federal democratic policy. The Panchayati
Raj Institutions particularly, the gram Panchayats known as tiny-
legislatures worked very well till the mid sixties. However, in the wake of
many problems confronting the PRIs including absence of adequate
financial autonomy and holding of irregular elections.

To fine tune the working of these PRIs, the government appointed various
committee from time to time. First to come was the Sadiq Ali Committee in
1964 to oversee the progress in decentralization and grass-root
democracy in Rajasthan. The next major committee constituted was Ashok
Mehta Committee (1978) appointed by the Janata government in 1977 to
assign meaningful role to Panchayati Raj Institutions and revitalized
them. The committee recommended two tier system of panchayati raj
system viz, the Mandal Panchayats and the Zila Parishad. The
recommendations given by the committee evoked mixed response from
different states. Some states were not eager to introduce panchayat
system based on the recommendations made by Ashok Mehta committee,
while States like Kerela, Karnataka, Maharashtra and West Bengal came
forward to establish panchayats at local levels.

In the 1980s due to expansion of anti-poverty programme and creation of

district rural development agency (DRDA) and other organizations for
rural development purposes at lower level, it was required to integrate
panchayati raj system with development programmes. As a result, C.H.
Hanumanth Rao Working Group on district planning was set up in 1983.
There after G.V.K. Rao Committee was setup in 1985 to review the existing
administrative arrangements for rural development and poverty
alleviation programmes. The committee recommended the need of regular
elections to the PRIs and strengthening of Zila Parishad.

Another committee under the chairmanship of distinguished Jurist L.M.

Singhvi was set up in 1986 to deal with the financial aspects of these
bodies. The committee recommended the reorganization of the villages to
make village panchayats more viable. The committee recommended that the
panchayat should be made financially viable by combining 2-3 villages in
one panchayat. Similarly, the Sarkaria Commission on Centre-State
Relations in 1988 too observed that most of the local self-governing
bodies were not functioning efficiently and effectively. The Thungan
Committee also made exhaustive recommendations on this account. The
committee strongly ecommended that Panchayati Raj Institutions should
be constitutionally recognized and timely and regular elections to these
bodies be ensured.

During the time of Rajiv Gandhi government, attempts were made to

reconstruct local governments, both rural and urban. Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi took the initiative to amend the Constitution of India. In the
year 1987and 1988, the Prime Minister held a series of conferences and
workshops where district collectors were summoned and the theme was
on "Responsive Administration". These conferences decided to
decentralize functions powers and authority to local government so that
it might become strong and vibrant. Rajiv Gandhi introduced 64th
Constitutional amendment Bill in 1989. But the Bill did not come into
effect because of the fall of his Ministry. Finally the P.V.Narasimha Rao
government introduced Panchayati Raj system in India through the
Constitution(73rd Amendment)Act in 1992.On on 24th April 1993 the
Constitution(73rd Amendment)Act, 1992 came into force. It was a red-
letter day for the Panchayati Raj system of our country. It gave
constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj Institutions by inserting Part
IX and adding the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution. Under this Act,
a Panchayat has been defined as an institution of self government
constituted under Article 243B of the Constitution for the rural areas.
It provides that there shall be constituted in every State, panchayats at
the village level, intermediate and district levels. However, panchayats
at the intermediate level may not be constituted in a State having a
population not exceeding 20 lakh. Accordingly, a three-tier structure of
Panchayati Raj Institutions was put in place. It aims to strengthen the
democratic base of the country as it provided constitutional status to
Gram Sabha, a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral
rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of panchayat at the
village level. The Gram Sabha may exercise such powers and perform
such functions at the village level as the legislature of a state may by
law provide. The Act provides for regular elections to PRIs every five
years; proportional seat reservation for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and reservation of not less than 33% seats for women.
Under the 1993 Act a Gram Sabha means a body consisting of persons
registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within
the area of panchayat at the village level. The Gram Sabha may exercise
such powers and perform such functions at the village level as the
legislature of a state may by law provide.

The National Democratic Alliance(NDA) Government headed by Prime

Minister A.B.Vajpayee convened a two day long conference of all heads
of panchayats of the country in Delhi form April 5-6, 2002 to have a
firsthand information about the problems of Panchayati Raj Institutions
in India. He underlined the need for strengthening the grass-root level
institutions by giving more power to PRIs.

The Panchayati Raj Act constitutes a major milestone in the history of

rural local self government as it provides political and administrative
decentralization and devolution of resources and powers to local
people.
STRUCTURE OF DECISION MAKING PROCESSES RELATED TO BUILDING
PROJECTS AT VARIOUS GOVERNMENTS:
GOVERNMENTS:

The Central PWD is the agency of the Central Government operating

throughout the country for:

(i) Planning, construction, maintenance and repairs of all works and

buildings financed from Civil Works Budget. These do not include works
pertaining to certain departments and Ministries who have their own
engineering wing, or who have been granted special exemption, such as
the Atomic Energy Department, Central Water Commission, Department of
Posts, All India Radio, Department of Space, and Railway. The
Department executes the works of Ministries of Defence, External Affairs
(for works outside India), Shipping and Surface Transport (Roads Wing),
as and when asked for.

(ii) Estimate work at places where the Directorate of Estimates does not
have its offices.

(iii) Valuation of properties/assets under Income Tax Act as and when

requested by Income Tax Department.

(iv) Assessment of rent for hiring of properties and assessment of value

of properties for purchase by Various Ministries/Department of Govt. of
India.

(v) Advising Govt. of India on various Technical matters relating to public

works.

1.2 Procedures for Execution of works by various departments/Ministries

shall be in accordance with Provisions of GFR-2005 (Annexure)

1.3 Classification of works

The works undertaken by CPWD are classified as follows:

1.3.1 Original Works

These shall mean:

(i) All new constructions,

(ii) All types of additions, alterations and/or special repairs to newly

acquired assets, abandoned or damaged assets that are required to make
them workable.

(iii) Major replacements or remodelling of a portion of an existing

structure or installation or other Works, which results in a genuine
increase in the life and value of the property.

1.3.2 Repairs and maintenance works

These cover operations undertaken to maintain the assets in a proper

condition and include

Maintenance and operation of all services. The “Repairs” are further

classified into two categories as Follows:
(i) Annual repairs: These cover the routine as well as yearly operation
and maintenance works.

(ii) Special repairs: These cover major repair or replacement or

remodelling of a portion of an existing

Structure or installation or other works due to major breakdowns, or

deterioration, or periodic

Renewal, which do not result in a genuine increase in the value of the

property.

1.4 Classification as per funding of works

(1) The funding of any work falls under one of the following
categories:2 SECTION 1

1.4.1 Budgeted works: These are works that are undertaken under an
outlay that is provided wholly from the financial estimates and accounts
of the Union of India that are laid before and voted by both the Houses
of Parliament.

1.4.2 Deposit works: These works are undertaken at the discretion of the
department. Outlay for these works is either provided from Government
grants to autonomous or semi-autonomous bodies or institutions through
their Administrative Ministries, or is financed from non-Government
sources wholly or in part from:
STRUCTURE OF DECISION MAKING PROCESSES RELATED TO BUILDING PROJECTS AT
VARIOUS PRIVATE:

The expression public-private partnership is a widely used concept world over but is
often not clearly defined. There is no single accepted international definition of what
a PPP is (World Bank, 2006). The PPP is defined as “the transfer to the private sector
of investment projects that traditionally have been executed or financed by the public
sector” (IMF, 2004). Any arrangement made between a state authority and a private
partner to perform functions within the mandate of the state authority, and involving
different combinations of design, construction, operations and finance is termed as
Ireland’s PPP model. In UK’s Private Finance Initiative (PFI), where the public sector
purchases services from the private sector under long-term contracts is called as PPP
program. However, there are other forms of PPP used in the UK, including where the
private sector is introduced as a strategic partner into a state-owned business that
provides a public service.

The PPP is sometimes referred to as a joint venture in which a government service or

private business venture is funded and operated through a partnership of government
and one or more private sector companies. Typically, a private sector consortium forms
a special company called a special purpose vehicle (SPV) to build and maintain the
asset. The consortium is usually set up with a contractor, a maintenance company and a
lender. It is the SPV that signs the contract with the government and with
subcontractors to build the facility and then maintain it.

Infrastructure Projects under PPP Model

Since most of the infrastructure services are rendered by the Government, commercial
approach towards cost recovery has not been adopted, and with the limited resources
at Government’s disposal, PPP has been encouraged to fill the infrastructure gap. To
support the PPP model projects, a Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee
(PPPAC) was constituted in January 2006. The PPPAC has been adding value by
shortening the approval process within the Government, reducing the transaction costs
and acting as a central focal point for identifying and disseminating best practices in
rolling out PPP across sectors and Ministries of the Government. Since its
constitution, it has granted approval to 65 projects, with an estimated project cost of
Rs.53.136 crore.

When we look at the overall developments of infrastructure under PPP model, only
147 projects in the roads, ports, civil aviation and urban infrastructure have been
materialised under the Government of India scheme. Investment in these projects is
expected to be around Rs.59,793 crore. However, only about 33 projects have been
completed and the remaining projects are in progress. Majority of the PPP projects
are pertaining to the road sector under BOT or BOOT basis. Government has entered
into concession agreement with the private partners for a period of 10 to 30 years in
these road sector projects for construction, maintenance and revenue sharing
arrangements.