chapter 5 Steps in Quantitative Research (2 of 35)

An Overview of Quantitative and

Qualitative Research • The scientific research process
Comparison of Qualitative and – Identify the research problem.
Quantitative Research (1 of 4) – Determine the purpose of the study.
– Formulate the research question.
• Quantitative Research – Review the literature.
– Systematic empirical approach to – Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework.
understanding phenomena – Identify the study assumptions.
– Numeric, observable, and measurable data – Acknowledge the limitations of the study.
– Not completely unbiased, but provides
a level of objectivity Steps in Quantitative Research (3 of 35)
– Based on:
▪ Concepts of manipulation – Formulate the hypothesis.
▪ Control of phenomena – Define study variables and terms.
▪ Verification of results – Select the research design.
– Identify the population.
Comparison of Qualitative and
Quantitative Research (2 of 4) – Select the sample.
– Conduct a pilot study.
• Qualitative Research – Collect the data.
– Focuses on gaining insight into a – Organize the data for analysis.
phenomenon or understanding about
an individual’s perception of events Steps in Quantitative Research (4 of 35)
– Does not rely on manipulation and control
– Focuses on observing and describing – Analyze the data.
things as they naturally occur – Interpret the findings.
– Communicate the findings.
Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative – Utilize the findings.
Research (3 of 4)
Quantitative Qualitative Steps in Quantitative Research (5 of 35)
Objective data Subjective data
Explanation Discovery • Identify the Research Problem
Parts are equal to the Whole is greater than – Research problem
whole the parts ▪ Area where knowledge is needed to
One truth Multiple truths advance practice
Large sample sizes Small sample sizes ▪ Generally broad then narrowed to specific
Random samples Deliberately selected problem
samples ▪ Should be of interest to researcher
Participants or Participants or ▪ Should be significant to nursing
subjects informants Steps in Quantitative Research (6 of 35)
Results presented as Results presented as – Terms goals, objectives, problem
numbers/statistics narrative data area, problem statement, purpose,
Researcher separate Researcher part of the and research question sometimes
from the study study used interchangeably
Comparison of Qualitative and – State problem as a question
Quantitative Research (4 of 4) ▪ Interrogative sentence that asks a
specific question about the topic
• Nature of nursing lends itself well to both of interest
quantitative and qualitative research. Steps in Quantitative Research (7 of 35)
• Determine the Purpose of the Study
• Both research methods share some
– Difference between purpose and problem
commonly accepted steps in the research
▪ Problem tells what is studied.
process.
▪ Purpose tells why study is being done.
– Most quantitative studies follow similar steps.
– Studies may have one or both.
Steps in Quantitative Research (1 of 35)
Steps in Quantitative Research (8 of 35)
• First step: Identification of problem • Formulate the Research Question
– Specific question researcher expects to be
• Final step: Communication and utilization
answered
of research findings
– Specify variables and populations
• Some variation in the steps between, ▪ Variables are attributes that differ
same general progression among persons, objects, events, and
• Number varies from author to author. subjects being studied.
• Authors may combine several steps into one
step.
Steps in Quantitative Research (9 of 35) ▪ Predicts relationships between variables
–Independent
• Review the Literature
–Dependent
– Find out what knowledge exists on the topic.
▪ Predicted answer to research question
– Search a variety of sources
▪ Must be testable or verifiable empirically
▪ Indexes Steps in Quantitative Research (17 of 35)
▪ Abstracts
▪ Computer-assisted research – Types of hypothesis
▪ Directional research
Steps in Quantitative Research (10 of 35) –Contains direction of researcher’s
expectations
– Look at theory and framework Preferred for nursing studies Steps in
– Plan study methods
– Continues until time to collect data has ended Quantitative Research (25 of 35)
– Initial review may actually occur before
identification of problem. – Types of samples
Steps in Quantitative Research (11 of 35) ▪ Probability samples
–Random selection process in
• Develop a Theoretical/Conceptual Framework which each member of
– Research helps test, develop, and refine population has a chance
theories. ▪ Nonprobability samples
– Process assists in selection of study variables. –Researcher has less confidence that
– Directs hypothesis and interpreting findings sample is representative
– Answers the “so what” question(s) – Nursing research is generally conducted
– Adds to our nursing body of knowledge with human beings.
– Research without theory provides a set ▪ Voluntary participation
of isolated facts. Steps in Quantitative Research (26 of 35)

Steps in Quantitative Research (12 of 35) – Conduct a Pilot Study

• Identify the Study Assumptions
– Assumptions
▪ beliefs held to be true, but not necessarily
proven
– Each investigation is based on assumptions.
▪ Should be stated explicitly
▪ Often implicit
Steps in Quantitative Research (13 of 35)
– Three types of study assumptions
▪ Universal assumptions
– Assumed to be true by a large
percentage of society
▪ Assumptions based on theory or research
findings
▪ Commonsense assumptions
Steps in Quantitative Research (14 of 35)
• Acknowledge the Limitations of the Study
– Limitations
▪ Uncontrolled variables
▪ May affect study results
▪ May limit generalization of the findings
Steps in Quantitative Research (15 of 35)
– Extraneous variables
▪ Researcher either has no control, or
chooses not to exercise control
– Explain limitations at end of study
Steps in Quantitative Research (16 of 35)
• Formulate the Hypothesis
– Hypothesis
▪ Pilot study
–Miniature trial version of planned study
–Helps examine issues
• Design
• Sample size
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis approaches
▪ Revisions made for larger study
after pilot is conducted.
▪ Null hypothesis
–Predicts no relationship exists
between variables
Steps in Quantitative Research (18 of 35)
• Define the Study Variables/Terms
– Variables and terms must be clear to
researcher and reader.
▪ Conceptual definition
–Dictionary definition of an abstract idea
▪ Operational definition
–How variable will be observed
–Allows for replication of study
– Population for study should be defined or
narrowed.
Steps in Quantitative Research (19 of 35)
• Select the Research Design
– Plan for how study will be conducted
▪ Type of data collected
▪ Means used to obtain data
 Steps in Quantitative Research (20 of 35)
– Varies with the type of study conducted
▪ Quantitative versus qualitative
▪ Experimental versus nonexperimental
Steps in Quantitative Research (21 of 35)
▪ Experimental
–True experimental
–Quasi-experimental
–Pre-experimental designs
–Investigator has more active role/control.
Steps in Quantitative Research (22 of 35)
▪ Nonexperimental
–No active manipulation of variables
–Sometimes difficult to conduct
experimental research with human
beings
Steps in Quantitative Research (23 of 35)
• Identify the Population
– Population
▪ Complete set of subjects
possessing some common
characteristic of interest
– Target population
▪ Also called the universe
▪ Group of subjects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize
study findings
– Accessible population
▪ Group available for study
– Two populations must be similar for study to
be applicable.
– Generalization
Steps in Quantitative Research (24 of 35)
• Select the Sample
– Sample
▪ Subgroup of population
▪ Represents population
▪ Helps make generalizations
Steps in Quantitative Research (27 of 35)
• Collect the Data
– Data
▪ Pieces of collected information or facts
– Variable or variables must be measured
Steps in Quantitative Research (28 of 35)
– Systematic data collection procedures
▪ Who will collect the data?
▪ When will the data be collected?
▪ Where will the data be collected?
▪ What data will be collected?
▪ How will the data be collected?
Many research projects use more than one data-
collection method.
Steps in Quantitative Research (29 of 35)
• Organize the Data for Analysis
– Should be planned before data collection
▪ Decisions will have to be made
about missing data.
– Consult with statistician.
▪ Determine what data is needed
▪ Appropriate statistical procedures for
analysis
Steps in Quantitative Research (30 of 35)
• Analyze the Data
– The process is easier now.
– Data are placed into computerized
data analysis programs.
– Results are analyzed almost instantaneously.
Steps in Quantitative Research (31 of 35)
• Interpret the Findings
– Does data support research hypothesis?
– Is framework supported?
– Problems encountered should be discussed.
Limitations of study design can influence results.
Steps in Quantitative Research (32 of 35)
– Results of present study compared with
previous studies that investigated same
or similar variables.
– Implications for nursing are indicated.
– Recommended changes to nursing
practice, nursing education, or nursing
administration should be based on
findings.
– Recommendations for future research are
proposed
Steps in Quantitative Research (33 of 35)
• Communicate the Findings
– May be most important step
– Findings have little value without
dissemination.
– Nonsignificant findings have value in
publication.
Steps in Quantitative Research (34 of 35)
– Variety of mediums
▪ Research journals
▪ Clinical journals
▪ Presentations at conferences
▪ Poster presentations
– Less formal
Steps in Quantitative Research (35 of 35)
• Utilize the Findings
– Researcher’s involvement in implementation
▪ Recommendations
▪ Consultant
▪ Disseminating findings

Qualitative Nursing Research (1 of 22)
• Nursing value system is more consistent
with qualitative research.
• Individual’s perspective is very important.
• Important source of knowledge about nursing
Qualitative Nursing Research (2 of 22)
– Problem area of study may remain
general until researcher enters field
setting
– May indicate:
▪ General nature of phenomenon to be
studied
▪ Group or community that will be studied
Qualitative Nursing Research (9 of 22)
• State the Purpose
– One-sentence statement of purpose

• Types of Qualitative Research Qualitative Nursing Research (10 of 22)

– Action research
▪ Case study • Select the Research Design
▪ Critical social inquiry – Depends on phenomenon that will be studied
▪ Discourse analysis ▪ Phenomenological approach
▪ Ecological psychology ▪ Grounded theory
▪ Ethical inquiry ▪ Action research
Qualitative Nursing Research (3 of 22) ▪ Other options
Qualitative Nursing Research (11 of 22)
– Ethnography
▪ Ethnology • Review the Literature
▪ Ethnomethodology – Researchers debate about timing.
▪ Ethnonursing – Some qualitative research may not start with
review.
▪ Ethnoscience
▪ Few believe review may bias the study
▪ Feminist inquiry
results
Qualitative Nursing Research (4 of 22) –Prefer to review literature at end of
study
– Grounded theory –Tells how results fit with the body of
knowledge
▪ Hermeneutics
▪ Historical
Qualitative Nursing Research (12 of 22)
▪ Phenomenology
▪ Philosophical inquiry • Select the Sample
▪ Symbolic interaction – Generally smaller in size
– No set rules about size
Qualitative Nursing Research (5 of 22)
– Quality of data over quantity
– Depending on design chosen, steps may vary. ▪ Data often deeper and richer than in
quantitative studies
– Research process is seldom linear.
– Saturation
▪ Constant comparison
▪ Researcher hears a repetition of themes
or salient points
Qualitative Nursing Research (6 of 22)
▪ Data become redundant.
• Steps in the Qualitative Process Qualitative Nursing Research (13 of 22)
– Identify the problem to study
• Gain Entry to Research Site
– State the purpose
– Research in field or where participants live or
– Select the research design
work
– Review the literature
– IRB approval
– Select the sample ▪ Before approaching potential participants
– Gain entry to the research site ▪ To receive funding
– Protect the rights of participants – Gatekeepers
▪ Key people in area of interest
Qualitative Nursing Research (7 of 22)
▪ Key informants In ethnographic research
– Collect the data
Qualitative Nursing Research (14 of 22)
– Analyze the data
– Interpret the data • Protect the Rights of Participants
– Utilize the study results – Close interaction between researcher and
participants
Qualitative Nursing Research (8 of 22)
– Ethical considerations
• Identify the Problem of the Study – Anonymity versus confidentiality
Demographic information may be omitted
Qualitative Nursing Research (15 of 22)
• Collect the Data
– Interview
▪ Probably most common method
▪ Interviewer obtains responses from a
participant
– Participant observation
▪ Direct observation and recording of
information
Qualitative Nursing Research (16 of 22)
– Time frame not specified
– Focus groups
▪ Small group of individuals meeting
together and being asked questions
Qualitative Nursing Research (17 of 22)
– Rigor
▪ No one way to assess or assure rigor
▪ Rigor in terms of trustworthiness
1) credibility
2) transferability
3) dependability
4) confirmability
Qualitative Nursing Research (18 of 22)
• Analyze the Data
– Analysis begins once data collection begins.
▪ Involves an examination of words
rather than numbers
– Can take months
– Content analysis
▪ Creating categories of data
▪ Developing rules for coding data into
categories
Qualitative Nursing Research (19 of 22)
– Coding is basic data analysis tool.
– Data can be analyzed manually or
through computer software programs.
▪ QDAS
Qualitative Nursing Research (20 of 22)
• Interpret the Data
– Occurs simultaneously with data collection
– Looking for themes and patterns
– Consider how study results can be applied
Qualitative Nursing Research (21 of 22)
• Communicate the Study Results
– Variety of mediums
▪ Peer-reviewed journals
▪ Nursing research journals
▪ Clinical journals
▪ Nursing conferences
▪ Posters
Qualitative Nursing Research (22 of 22)
• Utilize the Study Results
– Findings should be used in nursing practice.
– Implications for nursing practice
– Most physicians, nurses, and assistive
personnel operate as separate
healthcare providers.
▪ Little communication
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
Methods (1 of 2)
• Using mixed methods research is fairly new
practice for nurse researchers
– Variety of methods used in a single study
to answer a question
– Most comprehensive point of view
– Often most efficient and cost-effective
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
Methods (2 of 2)
• Triangulation
– Important concept in mixed methods studies
– Most often indicates use of two or more
different sampling strategies, data
collectors, data-collection procedures, or
theories in one study
– Using more than one means of gaining
understanding about phenomenon
Chapter 6
Identifying Nursing Research Problems
Introduction (1 of 2)
• Clearly identified research problem area is not
typical.
• Mistake to try to examine too much in one
study.
• Number of potential nursing studies is infinite.
Introduction (2 of 2)
• Critical first step
– Delineate study area clearly
– State research problem concisely
• Difficult for beginners
• Expectation of nursing students
– Identify problems appropriate for
nursing research studies
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (1 of
5)
• Personal experiences
• Literature sources
• Existing theories
• Previous research
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (2 of
5)

• Personal experiences
– Important source
– Instances have produced questions.
– A topic for study may be easily identified.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (3 of
5)
• Literature sources
– Recommendations for further studies
▪ Conclusion of published and unpublished
studies
– Contemporary nursing leaders
continually plead for nursing research.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (4 of
5)
• Existing theories
– Desperately needed research
– Research is a process of theory
development and testing.
– Theories may need to be adapted for
individual patients or clients in specific
healthcare settings.
– Generally, an entire theory is not tested.
– Testing of an existing theory, or
deductive research, is definitely needed
in nursing.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (5 of
5)
• Previous research
– Importance of replication studies
– If nursing practice is to be guided by
research, results of studies must be
verified.
– Repeating a study with all essential
elements of original study held intact
▪ Replication of a previous study does
not always imply plagiarism.
– Investigations are also needed that
address shortcomings of previous
research.
Research Problem Considerations (1 of 13)
• Many factors should be considered:
– Ethical issues
– Significance of study for nursing
– Personal motivation of researcher
– Qualifications of researcher
– Feasibility of study
Research Problem Considerations (2 of 13)
• Ethical issues
– Many unethical studies have been
conducted since WWII and continue
today.
– Responsibility of researchers to guarantee
research is conducted in an ethical
manner.
– Ethical guidelines
▪ Federal government
▪ Professional organizations
Research Problem Considerations (3 of 13)
• Significance to Nursing
– Every nursing study should have
significance for nursing.
– Researcher should ask questions:
▪ Will clients benefit from the findings?
▪ Will health care professionals
benefit from the findings?
▪ Will the findings add to our
nursing body of knowledge?
▪ Can nurses use the results?
▪ Is there a gap in knowledge that will be
filled?
Research Problem Considerations (4 of 13)
• Personal Motivation
– Researcher must be interested in the topic.
▪ Nurses should choose research
questions that they “care deeply
about.”
– Research can become
fascinating.
▪ Study becomes a treasure hunt.
Research Problem Considerations (5 of 13)
• Researcher Qualifications
– Advanced educational preparation
– Beginning research skills should be
learned at the undergraduate level.
– Healthy competition may be fostered.
– Collaboration among varying skill levels.
Research Problem Considerations (6 of 13)
• Feasibility of Study
– Many questions need to be answered
▪ How long will the project take?
▪ Are appropriate instruments available?
▪ Can subjects be obtained?
▪ What is the cost?
▪ Does the researcher have support for the
project?
Research Problem Considerations (7 of 13)
• Time
– Always a factor to be considered
– Wise to allow more time than seems to be
needed
▪ Unexpected delays frequently occur.
Research Problem Considerations (8 of 13)
• Cost
– Some studies are much more expensive than
others.
– Financial resources must be considered.
– Many sources of outside funding exist.
Research Problem Considerations (9 of 13)
• Equipment and supplies
– Making an accurate determination of
needed equipment and supplies before
making final decision to conduct a study
is essential.
– Important questions include:
1. What equipment will be needed?
2. Is this equipment available and in
proper working order?
3. Is there a qualified operator of the
equipment?
4. Are the necessary supplies available or
can they be obtained?
Research Problem Considerations (10 of 13)
– Common pieces of equipment are used
in nursing research.
▪ Physiological data-gathering devices
▪ Office equipment
▪ Computers and data analysis programs
Research Problem Considerations (11 of 13)
• Administrative support
– Release time to conduct research
– Ask for funds
– Faculty expectations and support varies
Research Problem Considerations (12 of 13)
• Peer support
– Without support, many research
ideas are not developed.
– Collegial relationship is important.
– Climate of shared interest is essential.
Research Problem Considerations (13 of 13)
• Availability of Subjects
– Subjects are not always available.
▪ May not meet inclusion criteria
▪ Be unwilling
▪ May already be in other studies
Research Question Criteria (1 of 7)
• Interrogative sentence form
• Includes population
• Includes variable(s)
• Empirically testable
Research Question Criteria (2 of 7)
• Written in Interrogative Sentence Form
– Not declarative
– Demands an answer
– Grammatically correct and complete sentence
– Understandable and facilitates response
Research Question Criteria (3 of 7)
• Includes the Population
– Narrow down to main group of interest
– Does not identify specific study population
Research Question Criteria (4 of 7)
• Includes the
Variable(s)
– One-Variable Studies
▪ Exploratory in nature
▪ Univariate or single-variable study
▪ Frequently beginning step in research
project
Research Question Criteria (5 of 7)
– Two-Variable Studies
▪ Research in nursing is frequently
concerned with two variables.
▪ Bivariate study
–Independent variable-cause
–Dependent variable-effect
▪ Correlation studies
–Independent and dependent
variable are not identifiable
–Research variables
Research Question Criteria (6 of 7)
– Multivariate study
▪ More than two variables
▪ Multivariate
▪ Becoming increasingly common
▪ Interaction of the variables
Research Question Criteria (7 of 7)
• Empirically Testable
– Variables that can be measured by researcher
– Data gathered through sense organs
– Ethical and value issues are not appropriate.
– Avoid words like cause and effect.
Research Question Format (1 of 2)
• Correlational and Comparative Research
Questions
– Correlational statement
▪ More than one variable
▪ Seeks relationship between
independent and dependent
variables
– Comparative statement
▪ Descriptive or experimental study
▪ More than one variable
▪ Differences between independent and
dependent variables
Research Question Format (2 of 2)
• Neutral and Nonpredictive
– Several reasons for leaving the research
question neutral or nonpredictive.
– Little knowledge or information at study onset
– Literature review may help in developing
framework.
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research
Questions (1 of 6)
• Reader will need to locate problem
statement, purpose statement, or research
question.
– Information should be presented at
beginning of report.
– Difficult to evaluate study without this
information
Statements, and Research Questions (2
of 6)
• Problem Statement
– Purpose statements and research
questions are easily identifiable.
▪ Problem statements may not be.
▪ Either incomplete or absent
– Designed to get the reader’s attention to the
problem
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research
Questions (3 of 6)
– Four
components
a)Lead-in
b) Declaration of originality
c) Indication of central
focus of the study d)Explanation
of study significance
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research
Questions (4 of 6)
• Purpose Statement
– Is the purpose of the study clearly stated?
– Is the purpose of the study concisely stated?
– Does the purpose of the study logically
flow from the problem?
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research
Questions (5 of 6)
• Research Questions
– Based on the problem statement, purpose
statement, or research question:
1. Is the research problem area clear?
2. Is there a succinct problem
statement, purpose statement, or
research question?
3. Are the study variables and the
population included?
4. Was the study quantitative or qualitative?
Critiquing Problem Statements,
Purpose Statements, and Research
Questions (6 of 6)
5. Were empirical data gathered on
the topic of interest?
6. Was the study ethical?
7. Is the feasibility of the study evident?
8. Is the significance to nursing apparent?
Chapter 7
Review of the Literature
Purposes of the Literature Review
• Determine what is already known about
the topic of interest
– Locate previous studies in that area
– Specify problem to be studied
• Help locate a framework for proposed study
• Help plan study methodology
• Idea for a study may actually be formed during
review.
Literature Sources (1 of 7)
• Types of Information Sources
– Finding tools are used to locate literature
sources.
▪ Resources or search tools
Literature Sources (2 of 7)
– Reference materials
– Books
– Scholarly journals
– Magazines
– News sources
– Statistics
– Reports, research studies, and conference
papers
– Theses and dissertations
– Social media
Literature Sources (3 of 7)
• Primary and Secondary Sources
– Primary sources
▪ Written by original investigator or
researcher
▪ Frequently found in journal articles
▪ Should be read whenever possible
▪ Start by reading abstract or summary
▪ Frequently contain reference citations
Literature Sources (4 of 7)
– Secondary sources
▪ Summary or description of research
study written by someone else
▪ May provide valuable insights
▪ Risk of misinterpretation or omission
Literature Sources (5 of 7)
• Grey Literature
– Gray literature
– Not controlled by commercial publishers
– Not indexed or available in major databases
– Examples
▪ Conference proceedings
▪ Dissertations
▪ Fact sheets
▪ Technical documents
▪ Unpublished research reports
Literature Sources (6 of 7)
– Publication Bias
▪ No significant findings
▪ But findings should not be omitted
– Much designed to make technical
material or research findings more
easily understood by a lay audience
Literature Sources (7 of 7)
– Research institutes produce working
papers and issue briefs.
– Organizations write policy briefs to
summarize findings of a number of
individual research studies.
– Indexes
▪ CINAHL and Scopus Index often provide
access to grey literature.
Search Strategies (1 of 32)
• Develop a Search Strategy
– Planning can make the search easier,
faster, and often yield better results.
Search Strategies (2 of 32)
– Decide on your search question
▪ Question provides framework for literature
review.
▪ Provide a clear focus.
▪ If question is too broad it may
lead in many directions.
Search Strategies (3 of 32)
– Question whether the topic needs to be more
specific
▪ What do certain terms and criteria mean?
▪ What factors might be important?
▪ Changes will be made as you see what
has been studied and those results.
Search Strategies (4 of 32)
– Create a set of search terms or phrases
▪ Use nouns, noun phrases, keywords.
▪ Expand search words with synonyms,
antonyms, other relevant words.
▪ Limit catalog search to specific materials
by adding terms such as reference or
encyclopedia.
▪ In databases, add terms such as study,
research, measurement, statistics,
randomized, validity, and narrative
to retrieve research studies.
▪ Include Medical Subject Headings (MeSH).
Search Strategies (5 of 32)
– Decide if currency is important
▪ May want to limit search to past five or ten
years
▪ Research studies often cover a
significant time period.
Search Strategies (6 of 32)
– Use options and limiters
▪ Vary according to specific resource
▪ Recommend using “advanced
search” when available
▪ Examples of advanced search options and
limiters
–and/or/not/
–as a phrase
–without the word
–date range
–language
Search Strategies (7 of 32)
▪ Examples of advanced search options and
limiters
–includes references
–audience
–URL
–research type
–age
–peer reviewed
Search Strategies (8 of 32)
• Ask a Librarian
– Libraries contain a wealth of information.
– Tour the library and consult the staff.
– Librarians have skills and expertise.
Search Strategies (9 of 32)
– Before beginning research project, make
appointment with librarian
▪ “Research informationists”
▪ Prepared to work with research teams
– Librarians love research.
▪ Knowledgeable and helpful
Search Strategies (10 of 32)
– Evaluate results
▪ Check title, abstract, description, or
keywords for search terms
▪ Source authoritative?
▪ Publication date in line?
Search Strategies (11 of 32)
– Follow instructions for reference
citations in the assigned style.
▪ American Psychological Association (APA)
– “Record references accurately” (RRA)
– Digital object identifier (DOI)
▪ Unique number
Search Strategies (12 of 32)
• Finding Tools
– Other terms for finding tools are indices and
resources.
– Catalogs
– Databases
– CINAHL
– MEDLINE
– Cochrane
Search Strategies (13 of 32)
– Ovid Nursing
– Joanna Briggs EBP
– PsychINFO
– ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis databases
– Science Direct
– Scopus
Search Strategies (14 of 32)
– Catalogs
▪ Index print and electronic holdings
▪ Most are available online.
▪ Give information on how or where
to access sources
Search Strategies (15 of 32)
▪ World Cat
–Listing of library collections
throughout the world
–Nonprofit, membership computer
library service and research
organization
▪ Discovery catalogs
Search Strategies (16 of 32)
– Databases
▪ Index research reports
–Journal articles
–Dissertations
–Research reviews
–Many other sources both
published and unpublished
▪ Some address specific topics.
▪ Others are multidisciplinary.
Search Strategies (17 of 32)
▪ Several index and provide abstracts of
articles from nursing, medicine, and
other health sciences.
▪ Access to many databases through
institution- based subscriptions
–Others are available online at no cost
• PubMed
• Cochrane
Search Strategies (18 of 32)
▪ Many databases will link directly to
full-text sources.
–Might locate source on your library
shelves
–Ask librarian to request source from
another library
Search Strategies (19 of 32)
• Selected Databases for Nursing Students
– CINAHL Databases
▪ Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied
Health Literature
▪ Indexes top nursing and allied health
literature available
▪ Covers a wide range of topics
▪ Provides access to:
–Healthcare books
–Nursing dissertations
–Selected conference proceedings
–Standards of practice
–Audiovisuals and book chapters
Search Strategies (20 of 32)
▪ Provides access to:
–Legal cases
–Clinical innovations
–Critical paths
–Research instruments
–Clinical trials
▪ Available as an institutional based
subscription only
Search Strategies (21 of 32)
– MEDLINE Databases
▪ National Library of Medicine
▪ Provides access to journals in life sciences
▪ Concentration on biomedicine
▪ Includes information from nursing,
dentistry, veterinary medicine, and
pharmacy
Search Strategies (22 of 32)
▪ MEDLINE With Full Text
–Most comprehensive source for full-text
articles
• Coverage from 1949 to present
• Full-text material from 1965 to present
–Institutional subscription only.
Search Strategies (23 of 32)
▪ MEDLINE®Plus
–Free website for consumer health
information
–Covers topics of interest to
healthcare consumers
–Written in plain language
Search Strategies (24 of 32)
▪ PubMed
–Official Database of NIH
–Provides free access to MEDLINE
database
Search Strategies (25 of 32)
– Cochrane Database of Systematic Review
▪ Global independent network
▪ Cochrane Library
–Collection of databases
–Available as an online subscription
database
 –Working toward achieving
universal open access
Search Strategies (26 of 32)
– Ovid Nursing database
▪ Institutional subscription database
▪ Provides content through Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
▪ Also provides access to:
–The Joanna Briggs Institute EBP
Database of Evidence Based
Recommended Practices
–Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Library
website
Search Strategies (27 of 32)
– PsychINFO
▪ Prepared by American Psychological
Association
▪ Literature from psychology and related
disciplines
–Such as nursing
▪ Available as
–Institutional subscription
–Individual pay-per-use access
Search Strategies (28 of 32)
– ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Database
(PQDT)
▪ Comprehensive collection of
dissertations and theses
▪ Available as
–Institutional subscription
–Individual pay-per-use access
Search Strategies (29 of 32)
– ProQuest Nursing & Allied Health database
▪ Abstracting and indexing for
–Nursing journals
–Videos
–Dissertations
–ebooks
–Conference papers
–Other sources in nursing
–Allied health
–Alternative and complementary
medicine
–Other health sciences
Search Strategies (30 of 32)
– Science Direct
▪ Elsevier product
▪ Abstracting and indexing for scientific,
technical, and medical peer-reviewed
journals and books
▪ Database includes nursing, allied health,
and other health science sources.
▪ Available as an institutional subscription
Search Strategies (31 of 32)
– Scopus
▪ Elsevier product
▪ Abstract and citation database of
scientific journals, books, and
conference proceedings
▪ Features smart tools to track,
analyze, and visualize research
▪ Available as an institutional-based
subscription
Search Strategies (32 of 32)
– Search Engines
▪ Finding tools to help find literature sources
online
▪ Biggest challenge is sorting through
information
▪ Google Scholar
▪ Don’t pay for articles that your library
already owns
▪ Information becomes somewhat
outdated almost as soon as it becomes
available
Writing the Literature Review (1 of 9)
• Literature review
– Must include organized information
from sources found through a
comprehensive search
– Purpose is to offer a data-based synthesis
of existing research relevant to a topic.
– After information sources are analyzed,
researcher will combine information and
summarize what was discovered.
Writing the Literature Review (2 of 9)
• Extracting Information from Literature Sources
– Each literature source must be
analyzed and interpreted.
– Findings and conclusions will be used.
– Do not omit important information.
▪ Better to have too much information
Writing the Literature Review (3 of 9)
• Critiquing the Literature Review in a Research
Article
– Difficult to evaluate if you are not
familiar with literature and previous
research for the topic
– If sources appear to be older than 5
years, some recent references may
have been omitted.
– Determine if the researcher is citing
primary sources or secondary sources.
– Some sources listed in the
references may be important.
– Parallel searching
Writing the Literature Review (4 of 9)
• Components of a Literature Review
– Critique Checklist
 1. Is the literature review comprehensive?
2. Is the literature review concise?
3. Does the review flow logically from the
purpose?
4. Are all sources relevant to the study topic?
5. Are sources critically appraised?
Writing the Literature Review (5 of 9)
6. Are both classic and current sources
included?
7. Are paraphrases or direct quotes used most
often?
8. Are both supporting and opposing
theory and research presented?
9. Can a determination be made if
sources are primary or secondary?
10. Are all sources that are cited in
the article on the reference list?
Writing the Literature Review (6 of 9)
11. Does review include an
introduction, analysis, and synthesis of
the literature sources; suggestions for
further research; and a summary of
findings?
12. Are sources cited fully,
offering clear access to evidence?
13. Will reader find the review
interesting and informative?
Writing the Literature Review (7 of 9)
– Most literature reviews include:
▪ Introduction
–An overview of the topic
–Objectives of the review
–Research question and thesis statement
–Description of methods used to locate
sources
–Justification used for inclusion and
exclusion of sources
–Explanation of how sources were
evaluated and categorized
Writing the Literature Review (8 of 9)
▪ Body
–Where you document what is known
about the research topic
–Answer the question, “What is the
evidence?”
–Provide an analysis of how each
source supports or opposes a
particular position or varies from
the other research
Provide conclusions about which materials most
strongly support your arguments
Writing the Literature Review (9 of 9)
▪ Section on suggestions for further research
–Based on your questions resulting
from what you found or didn’t find
in the literature
–Write about aspects of the topic
where further research is needed
• Include new research questions.
▪ Closing summary
–A discussion about highlights in the body
–Illustrate how previous research
correlates to the thesis statement.
Chapter 9
Hypotheses
Hypotheses Overview (1 of 8)
• In scientific research, hypotheses are intelligent
guesses.
• Statement of the predicted relationship
between two or more variables
• Hypothesis of a study
– Expected outcome of the proposed research
question
• Only quantitative studies have hypotheses.
Hypotheses Overview (2 of 8)
• Links the independent and the dependent
variables
• In experimental studies
– Independent variable is referred to as the
cause
– Dependent variable is referred to as the effect
• In nonexperimental studies
– Cause and effect are not appropriate
– Researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable
Hypotheses Overview (3 of 8)
• Should always be written before the study
begins
• Should not be changed after the study
results are examined
Hypotheses Overview (4 of 8)
• Purposes of Hypotheses
– Lend objectivity to investigations
– Test theoretical propositions
– Advance scientific knowledge
– Scientific knowledge gained
– Guide research design
– Dictate statistical analysis used
– Show researcher’s expectations
– Guides evidence-based nursing practice
Hypotheses Overview (5 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Theory
– Literature review of prior studies
– Personal experience
Hypotheses Overview (6 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Most important source of a hypothesis is
the theoretical or conceptual framework.
  Involves deductive reasoning
 Propositional statement
isolated and empirically tested
Hypotheses Overview (7 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Nursing research studies can also be
derived from findings of other studies.
 Test assumptions
 Test hypothesis based on findings
Hypotheses Overview (8 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Even when a study is based on empirical
generalizations from experience, a
literature review should be conducted.
 Determine what is already known on the
topic
– An attempt should then be made to find a
theoretical explanation for the observed
phenomenon.
Classifications of Hypotheses (1 of 13)
• Categorized as simple hypotheses or complex
• Classified as research hypotheses or null
• Research further divided into:
– nondirectional or directional.
– causal or associative.
Classifications of Hypotheses (2 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Simple hypothesis
 Relationship between one
independent and one dependent
variable
 Independent variable: cause
–Reason a phenomenon occurs
–Occurs first in chronological time
 Dependent variable: effect
–Occurrence of phenomenon
Classifications of Hypotheses (3 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Complex hypothesis
 Relationship in which:
–Two or more independent variables, or;
–Two or more dependent variables, or;
–Both
–Are being examined in same study
Classifications of Hypotheses (4 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Caution should be exercised when
using complex hypotheses.
– Divide complex hypothesis into two
or more simple hypotheses
 Avoid "partial support" crisis.
 Hypothesis is either
supported totally, or it is not
supported.
– Interaction effect
 Sometimes complex hypotheses
are necessary.
 Action of two variables in
conjunction with each other
Classifications of Hypotheses (5 of 13)
• Nondirectional and Directional Research
Hypotheses
– Nondirectional research hypotheses
 Researcher predicts relationship
between variables.
 Does not present direction of
relationship
 When a study is not based on a
theory
 When findings of related studies are
contradictory
Classifications of Hypotheses (6 of 13)
• Nondirectional and Directional Research
Hypotheses
– Directional research hypotheses
 Predicts type of relationship that is
expected
 Several advantages:
–Make clear researcher’s expectation
–Allow more precise testing of
theoretical propositions
–Allow use of one-tailed statistical tests
Classifications of Hypotheses (7 of 13)
• Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
– Hypotheses can express:
 Causal relationship between
variables
–Require an experimental research design
 Associative relationship between
variables.
–Require nonexperimental or
correlational research designs
Classifications of Hypotheses (8 of 13)
• Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
– Causal research hypothesis
 Predicts independent variable
will cause something to occur to
dependent variable
 Generally testing an
intervention, and the effect of that
intervention on a specific outcome
– Associative research hypothesis
 Predicts there will be a
relationship between variables
 Awareness of an association or
correlation between two or more
variables can help nurse researchers
design interventions.
Classifications of Hypotheses (9 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Null hypothesis
 H0
 Predicts no relationship exists
between variables
 Subjected to statistical analysis
Classifications of Hypotheses (10 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Research hypothesis
 H1
 Alternative hypothesis
 States expected relationship
between variables
 Other names include:
–Scientific
–Substantive
–Theoretical
Classifications of Hypotheses (11 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Statistical logic requires that a testable
hypothesis state the expectation of:
 No correlation between the
variables.
 No difference between groups or
sets of data on the variable being
measured.
– Research hypothesis has replaced
statistical null hypothesis as preferred
way of expressing the predictions for
studies.
Classifications of Hypotheses (12 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Level of significance for rejecting the
statistical null hypothesis should always
be stated before data are collected.
 Level of significance is usually set at .05.
– Aim of researcher is generally to reject
the null hypothesis because this
provides support for the research
hypothesis.
Classifications of Hypotheses (13 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Occasionally, the null hypothesis and
the research hypothesis are the same.
– Researcher actually expects:
 no correlation between variables.
 no difference between groups
being compared on a certain variable.
– Usually, researcher does expect to find a
difference or a correlation.
 Otherwise, study would not have
been conducted.
Developing Hypotheses (1 of 8)
• A hypothesis should:
1. Be written in a declarative sentence
2. Be written in the present tense
3. Contain the population
4. Contain the variables
5. Reflect the problem statement,
purpose statement, and research
question
6. Be empirically testable
Developing Hypotheses (2 of 8)
• Hypothesis Format
– Research questions that examine more than
one variable are usually written in the form
of a correlational statement or comparative
statement.
– Directional research hypothesis should
contain a predictive term
 less, greater, decrease in, or negative
correlation
Developing Hypotheses (3 of 8)
• Hypotheses in Testing Theories
– Hypothesis usually tests only one
proposition from a theory, not an entire
theory.
– Hypotheses are never proved or disproved.
– If null hypothesis is rejected, research
hypothesis is supported.
– If research hypothesis is supported,
theory is supported.
– If research hypothesis is not supported,
theory is not supported
Developing Hypotheses (4 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– First, evaluator determines if report
contains a hypothesis or hypotheses.
 Optimally, a section heading
clearly labels hypotheses.
– If study contains no hypotheses, a
determination should be made as to
whether or not the study is appropriate
for hypothesis testing.
Developing Hypotheses (5 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions
1. Does the study contain
a hypothesis or hypotheses?
2.Is each hypothesis clearly worded and
concise?
3.Is it written in a declarative sentence?
4. Is each hypothesis directly
tied to the study problem?
Developing Hypotheses (6 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research
Questions
5. Is the study framework
clearly defined with each
hypothesis derived from it?
6. Does each hypothesis contain
the population and at least two
variables?
7. Is each hypothesis stated as
a directional research hypothesis?
If not, is a rationale given for the
type employed?
8. Is it apparent that each
hypothesis can be empirically tested?
9.Does each hypothesis contain only one
prediction?
Developing Hypotheses (7 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Hypotheses
  Should be clear and concise
declarative sentences and written in the
present tense.
 Should reflect problem
statement, purpose statement, or
research question.
 Should be derived from the study
framework if there is a clearly identified
study framework.

Developing Hypotheses (8 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Hypotheses
 Should contain the population and
study variables.
 Should be empirically testable
and contain only one prediction.
 May contain the name of the
specific research instrument(s) that will
be used to measure the study variables.
– If not, the research report should
contain an operational definition of
each of the study variables.