3

Roses
Dominic J. Durkin

I.Introduction 69
II.History 69
III.Morphology 70
IV. Cultivar Development 71
V. Vegetative Propagation 73
A. Cuttings 75
B. Budded Plants 75
C. Grafted Plants 76
D. In Vitro Plants 76
VI. Plant Culture 76
A. Soil 77
B. Planting 77
C. Nutrition 78
D. Temperature 79
E. Ventilation 80
F. Light 81
G. Plant Growth Management 81
H. Harvesting 82
I. Crop Planning 83
J. Pruning 84
VII. Insects, Related Pests, and Diseases 84
A. Insects and Related Pests 85
B. Diseases 86
VIII. Physiological Disorders 87
A. Bullheads 87
B. Blind Shoots 87

Introduction to Floriculture, Second Edition

Copyright © 1992 by Academic Press, Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 67
 C. Leaf Drop 8 7
D. Leaf Distortion 8 8
E. Volatiles 8 8
F. Sugar Damage 8 8
IX. Postharvest Handling 88
References 91

68
I. INTRODUCTION

R o s e flower p r o d u c t i o n for the United States market w a s o n c e limited to the

Northeastern United States but i m p r o v e m e n t s in environmental control a n d
transportation have allowed the industry to e x p a n d across the country, a n d into
South a n d Central A m e r i c a . In seeking the best c o m b i n a t i o n of price a n d quality,
rose flower p r o d u c t i o n c a n be f o u n d at both the m o s t primitive a n d the m o s t
a d v a n c e d levels, d e p e n d i n g o n environmental conditions, p r o d u c t i o n costs, a n d
distance to m a r k e t s . The cut rose is easy to transport, a n d its high value is u s e d
increasingly by d e v e l o p i n g countries to provide hard currencies.
There are plantings in South A m e r i c a under plastic with no s u p p l e m e n t a l heat
where c r o p time m a y be m o r e than 70 d a y s at any time of the year while c r o p time
m a y b e as short as 35 to 40 d a y s in the United States, C a n a d a , a n d Holland at
w a r m e r t e m p e r a t u r e under s u p p l e m e n t a l lighting a n d a d d e d c a r b o n dioxide. Other
t e c h n o l o g i e s s u c h as rockwool culture c a n b e f o u n d in areas with poor soils or,
m o r e c o m m o n l y , in areas of l o n g - s t a n d i n g p r o d u c t i o n w h e r e soil-borne diseases
a n d salinity m a k e soil an unprofitable m e d i u m . The main c o m p e t i t i o n o c c u r s
between areas having g o o d rose climate, low w a g e s , a n d a large labor s u p p l y a n d
areas of high environmental a n d labor costs, but with proximity to m a r k e t s that
m a k e s for easier flower quality m a i n t e n a n c e . This c o m p e t i t i o n will continue for the
foreseeable future, permitting a m o r e e c o n o m i c a l p r o d u c t to b e m a r k e t e d but
requiring c o n t i n u e d f o c u s o n i m p r o v e d p r o d u c t i o n efficiency a n d m o r e effective
quality m a i n t e n a n c e .

II. HISTORY
Cut rose p r o d u c t i o n w a s d e v e l o p e d t o b r i n g the g a r d e n to the residents of large
u r b a n centers. Production sites w e r e restricted primarily by the transportation
system available; in the United States, they were f o u n d a l o n g the Atlantic Coast,
along the railroad lines serving the country, a n d in the Great Lakes area. After
W o r l d War II a n d the g r o w t h of the airline industry, cut rose p r o d u c t i o n s p r e a d
rapidly to areas of the c o u n t r y with superior climates, featuring bright winter sun
a n d night t e m p e r a t u r e s of a b o u t 60°F.
The rose is the strongest c o m p o n e n t of d o m e s t i c cut flower p r o d u c t i o n , in-
creasing f r o m $ 5 4 million in 1970 to $181 million in 1988. During the s a m e p e r i o d ,
the n u m b e r of p r o d u c e r s d e c l i n e d in nearly all states but California, a n d the
average p r o d u c t i o n value per grower increased a b o u t five times f r o m $157,000 to
$700,000, b a s e d mainly o n increased return per flower. I m p o r t e d roses, as a
p r o p o r t i o n of total sales, increased f r o m 0 . 2 % in 1970 to 4 2 % in 1988. Plantings in
Kenya, Mexico, M o r o c c o , Spain, a n d Z a m b i a s u g g e s t that this trend will continue.
The red rose remains the t o p color c h o i c e in the United States a n d J a p a n , but in
Europe red roses constitute less than 4 0 % of total sales. There is increased interest

69
70 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

in lavender a n d bicolored flowers, a n d serious efforts are being m a d e to increase

rose flower fragrance.

III. MORPHOLOGY

Flowers are evident in the tip of rose shoots approximately 2 w e e k s after axillary
b u d growth begins, w h e n the shoot is less than 2 inches long. Not all flower b u d s
d e v e l o p to maturity, for there is an intense c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g the g r o w i n g organs

Fig. 1 Blind shoots. (A) Entire blind shoot. (B) Close up of blind shoot. (C) Point of shoot
tip abortion.
3 ROSES 71

for p r o d u c t s of photosynthesis a n d the root s y s t e m , s u c h as water, nutrients, a n d

h o r m o n e s . A s a result, blind shoot p r o d u c t i o n is c o m m o n , particularly under
r e d u c e d light (Fig. 1). W h e n t w o b u d s d e v e l o p after a cut, a blind shoot f r o m the
s e c o n d b u d b e l o w the cut is m o r e often the rule than the exception. O n e of the
major benefits of s u p p l e m e n t a l lighting is the increase of m a r k e t a b l e flowers f r o m
the s e c o n d b u d s .
Flowers might b e solitary, as in the h y b r i d tea, or they might b e multiple, as in
the floribunda, but, d e p e n d i n g o n s e a s o n a n d plant vigor, it is not unusual
for the hybrid tea rose s t e m to have several short axillary flowering shoots at
maturity.
The m o r p h o l o g y of the rose shoot is interesting; there is a clear variation in leaf
shape, in the s h a p e of the axillary b u d s , a n d in the rate at w h i c h the axillary b u d
g r o w s (Fig. 2). The rose shoot at maturity has f r o m 12 to 20 n o d e s , including t h o s e
with scales a n d leaves. Following f r o m the point of origin o n the parent shoot, there
are o n e to four or five s t r a p - s h a p e d scales, part of the original axillary b u d . The next
o n e to t w o n o d e s m a y have three leaflet c o m p o u n d leaves, the next four to ten
leaves will have five leaflets a n d occasionally seven leaflets o n vigorous s h o o t s ;
there will b e o n e or t w o 3-leaflet leaves, a scale-like leaf or t w o o n s o m e varieties,
a n d finally the flower b u d . F r o m o n e t o six of the b u d s immediately b e l o w the flower
will p r o d u c e side shoots, short flowering s h o o t s of limited value that m u s t b e
r e m o v e d in the g r e e n h o u s e or in the g r a d i n g area (Fig. 3). Axillary b u d s under this
z o n e will b e p o i n t e d while b u d s close to the s t e m b a s e will b e m o r e r o u n d e d . B u d s
near the t o p of the five-leaflet leaf range are quicker to d e v e l o p , there is greater
likelihood that b u d s will d e v e l o p at the s e c o n d n o d e b e l o w the cut, a n d it is m o r e
likely that the s e c o n d b u d will p r o d u c e a flower than w h e n a cut is m a d e closer to
the s t e m base. However, flowers will generally b e cut to a lower a n d thus slower
b u d to obtain the long s t e m length that b r i n g s a p r e m i u m price. W h e n roses are
p i n c h e d to increase shoot n u m b e r s or to time the c r o p for a specific market, a
pinch to the fourth or fifth 5-leaflet leaf f r o m the s t e m b a s e will b e u s e d to p r o d u c e
a faster c r o p with m o r e d o u b l e breaks (Fig. 4).

IV. CULTIVAR DEVELOPMENT

There are m a n y rose b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s a r o u n d the w o r l d . Objectives include

resistance to diseases s u c h as p o w d e r y m i l d e w a n d Botrytis flower m o l d , plant
productivity, ease of t i m i n g for market planning, increased flower size a n d s t e m
length, flower a r o m a , a n d longer vase life. C r o s s e s are m a d e in the s p r i n g a n d rose
"hips" are harvested w h e n the color c h a n g e s to red or o r a n g e . The hip contains an
average of six a c h e n e s , e a c h c o m p r i s e d of a very hard p e r i c a r p a n d the true s e e d .
After harvest, the a c h e n e is scarified t o e n h a n c e water entrance a n d is usually
stratified in flats containing moist s p h a g n u m peat m o s s for 2 w e e k s at 68°F before
transfer to 39°F for at least 3 to 4 w e e k s . W h e n s o m e s e e d s g e r m i n a t e , the flat is
transferred to a t e m p e r a t u r e of 60° to 70°F for g e r m i n a t i o n of the remaining s e e d s .
72 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

Fig. 2. Rose shoot morphology. (A) Shoot with flower. W, three leaflet leaf; X, five and
seven leaflet leaves. (B) Axillary bud shape, midshoot. (C) Axillary bud shape, upper shoot.
3 ROSES 73

Fig. 3. Side shoot growth. A, terminal flower bud; S, side shoots. Note that lower side
shoots are longer than upper shoots. Terminal flower bud will be larger when side shoots
are removed early in development.

Seedlings are transplanted to a well-aerated mix for the first flowering. Selected
seedlings are increased by b u d d i n g for tests in m a n y p r o d u c t i o n areas. It is the rare
seedling that p r o g r e s s e s f r o m this stage to n a m i n g a n d release in less than 6 years;
f r o m a seedling p o p u l a t i o n of 150,000, three or four might b e n a m e d a n d p a t e n t e d .
The patent protects the breeder rights to a cultivar under an international c o n v e n -
tion in effect since 1 9 6 1 . Usually, the grower pays a royalty o n e a c h p a t e n t e d
cultivar for the life of the plant. In effect, the p r o d u c e r rents the plants for the
duration of productive life a n d in this way, the rights of the breeder c a r r y over to
any s p o r t p r o d u c e d .

V. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
To preserve the specific characteristics of a rose cultivar, it is necessary to
increase n u m b e r s by vegetative m e a n s , usually by b u d d i n g . Grafting is still d o n e ,
a n d for r o c k w o o l culture, r o o t e d cuttings are often as g o o d as grafted or b u d d e d
plants.
Fig. 4. Hard and soft pinches. (A) Hard pinch made after stem matured. Note branch
angle and double breaks. (B) Soft pinch was made while the stem was immature. This pinch
generally produces one break but the diameter of the stem is usually larger than the parent
stem. Note leaf form. Leaves developed from bud scales.
3 ROSES 75

A. Cuttings
Cuttings are m a d e at any time of the year; shoots are allowed to mature for 7
to 10 days after the usual harvest s t a g e to increase f o o d storage a n d rooting
response. The cutting c a n be o n e , t w o , or three n o d e s but only the t o p leaf is
retained to delay g r o w t h of the upper axillary b u d until rooting is well a d v a n c e d a n d
to provide f o o d for the d e v e l o p i n g shoot. The b a s e of the cutting is lightly d u s t e d
with a rooting c o m p o u n d a n d cuttings c a n be stuck at a s p a c i n g of 1§ inches in the
row a n d 3 inches b e t w e e n rows. The m e d i u m s h o u l d have g o o d water retention
a n d excellent aeration; a mix c o m p r i s e d of an equal v o l u m e of peat m o s s a n d
horticultural g r a d e vermiculite exhibits these characteristics. Rooting in 3-, 4-, or
5-inch pots facilitates handling a n d planting. Rooting o c c u r s quickly at a m e d i a
temperature of 70° to 75°F, a n d misting s h o u l d b e u s e d to r e d u c e water loss. The
mix s h o u l d contain fertilizer b e c a u s e s o m e g r o w t h will o c c u r before planting; this
c o u l d include limestone a n d e p s o m salts, a minor element mix, a n d low levels of
5 - 1 0 - 5 fertilizer a n d p o t a s s i u m nitrate. A high nitrate soluble fertilizer at the rate of
2 p o u n d s per 100 gallons c a n b e u s e d after rooting. Decrease in misting frequency
s h o u l d begin w h e n roots are o b s e r v e d , in 11 to 14 d a y s , to harden the plants for
planting. The entire p r o c e s s s h o u l d b e c o m p l e t e in 4 to 5 w e e k s at the a b o v e
m e d i u m temperature.

B. Budded Plants
B u d d e d plants are still the m o s t popular. They are larger a n d c a n p r o d u c e
quality flowers in a relatively short time. There is variation in the rootstock, with
Rosa manetti b e i n g m o s t important in the United States, while R. canina a n d R.
indica (called R. odorata in the United States) are m o r e important in Europe a n d
Israel. B u d d i n g in the United States is d o n e in California, Arizona, a n d Texas,
while m u c h b u d d i n g is also d o n e in Spain a n d Israel. It is important to find an area
of low rainfall d u r i n g the harvest s e a s o n to harden the plants for harvest a n d
storage. After the field is leveled a n d f u r r o w e d for irrigation to a d e p t h of 18 to 27
inches, it is f u m i g a t e d 3 to 5 w e e k s later with methyl b r o m i d e a n d chloropicrin for
control of Verticillium wilt, soil pests, a n d w e e d s . By O c t o b e r 1, the soil is f u r r o w e d
for irrigation. The field is treated with herbicide by the e n d of O c t o b e r a n d if
n e e d e d , a preplant 1 0 - 3 4 - 0 fertilizer is p l a c e d to the side. Rootstock f r o m virus-
free b l o c k s are cut b a c k to 30 inches, b u n c h e s of 50 c a n e s are collected a n d
p l a c e d in 0.5% s o d i u m hypochlorite solution for 15 minutes for c r o w n gall control.
Canes are s a w e d into 9-inch lengths a n d d e b u d d e d of all but the t o p t w o b u d s ;
the stem bases are d i p p e d in indolebutyric a c i d (IBA) to p r o m o t e rooting, a n d
cuttings are planted f r o m late O c t o b e r to m i d - D e c e m b e r . Cuttings are w a t e r e d
after planting, all are rooted by early February, a n d b u d d i n g takes place about 8
w e e k s later.
Shoots of the desired variety are allowed to mature o n the plant after flowering,
leaves are r e m o v e d but petioles m a y b e left for ease of handling the b u d s . The
76 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

" b u d s t i c k s " are s o a k e d in a fungicide preparation, w r a p p e d , a n d stored at 36°F.

The b u d is cut from a budstick, inserted into a Τ cut m a d e in the bark below the
growing rootstock shoot, a n d the union is w r a p p e d with a rubber b a n d . In 3 w e e k s ,
the rootstock shoot is cut t h r o u g h one-third of the way, a b o u t 1 inch a b o v e the b u d .
Six w e e k s after that, w h e n the grafted b u d has p r o d u c e d a flower, the rootstock
shoot is r e m o v e d completely.
Plant d i g g i n g begins in m i d - D e c e m b e r after the t o p s are p r u n e d to 9 inches.
Plants are c l e a n e d of soft g r o w t h a n d g r a d e d by the size of the understock, canes,
a n d extent of the root s y s t e m . O n c e c l e a n e d a n d g r a d e d , they are p a c k e d in
plastic-lined c o r r u g a t e d c a r d b o a r d boxes for storage at 31° to 32°F.

C. Grafted Plants
Plant reproduction by grafting is a minor part of p r o p a g a t i o n today. Costs for
g r e e n h o u s e s p a c e are high, plant care is expensive, labor is not available for plant
maintenance, a n d grafted plants require a long g r o w i n g p e r i o d before quality
flowers are p r o d u c e d . Grafting still is a significant p r o p a g a t i o n m e t h o d in G e r m a n y
a n d Holland where winter light conditions are unfavorable for flower p r o d u c t i o n .
K n o w n as winter grafting, the t e c h n i q u e consists of grafting a s o f t w o o d scion with
one leaf on a bare-root d o r m a n t seedling understock, normally R. canina inermis.
More than 1 million plants w e r e p r o d u c e d in Holland in 1988 by a t e c h n i q u e called
"stenting." This consists of a graft of a s o f t w o o d scion with a single leaf o n a
s o f t w o o d understock cutting. Placed under mist, the graft union a n d rooting o c c u r
concurrently, in approximately 3 w e e k s p r o d u c i n g plants with potential for earlier
a n d larger basal shoots, a n d greater flower p r o d u c t i o n . Temperatures of 75°F
hasten the grafting process, but misting must b e u s e d to prevent desiccation.
W h e n the graft union is c o m p l e t e , temperature a n d humidity are r e d u c e d over a
p e r i o d of 7 t o 10 days to acclimatize the plants to g r e e n h o u s e conditions.

D. In Vitro Plants
Plant p r o d u c t i o n f r o m in vitro culture has s o m e potential for improving the rose
business. Thus far using this t e c h n i q u e has b e e n expensive, the plants have a high
p r o p o r t i o n of mutations, a n d t h o u g h vigorous, they p r o d u c e main b r a n c h e s of a
smaller diameter a n d shorter s t e m s than t h o s e plants p r o d u c e d by b u d d i n g or by
"stenting."

VI. PLANT CULTURE

The g r e e n h o u s e rose is a perennial c r o p with a potential productive life of 8 to
10 years. Decisions m a d e before planting will have c o n s e q u e n c e s for m a n y years.
Cultivar selection a n d soil preparation are f u n d a m e n t a l decisions b e c a u s e they
are not correctable d u r i n g c r o p life. The aim is to start with a g o o d , productive soil,
3 ROSES 77

a n d t h r o u g h positive cultural practices, delay the inevitable loss in soil quality

brought o n by c o m p a c t i o n , s u b s i d e n c e , salinity, n e m a t o d e s , a n d soil-borne dis-
eases.

A. Soil
In the traditional rose g r e e n h o u s e , plants w e r e g r o w n in a b e n c h containing 5
to 6 inches of soil. Shallow soils t e n d to retain m o r e water than d e e p e r soils of the
s a m e structure. Roots have a high n e e d for o x y g e n , a n d b e c a u s e o x y g e n a n d
water c o m p e t e for the s a m e p o r e s p a c e , retention of m o r e water results in a lower
soil o x y g e n level. Plants in s u c h soils will b e less vigorous, m o r e p r o n e to chlorosis,
a n d slower to r e b o u n d f r o m heavy p r u n i n g or c r o p p i n g . In short, they will n e e d
careful attention t o cultural practices s u c h as m u l c h i n g , irrigation frequency, salinity
control, a n d the control of soil pests a n d diseases.
Soil preparation for p r o d u c t i o n in b e n c h e s begins w e e k s before replanting to
ensure that salinity levels are low, that nutrients are at the proper levels, a n d that
the soil p H is b e t w e e n 5.5 a n d 6.3. In addition to p r o b l e m s of chlorosis, poor root
g r o w t h a n d short s t e m s indicate p r o b l e m s in soil c o m p a c t i o n a n d limited aeration.
Plans s h o u l d b e m a d e to a d d materials to f o r m channels of large pores for q u i c k
restoration of soil air after irrigation. A m e n d m e n t s u s e d for this p u r p o s e include
c o a r s e s a n d , s p h a g n u m peat m o s s , haydite, scoria, a n d a variety of organic
residues, s u c h as various s e e d hulls, w o o d c h i p s , sawdust, manure, a n d straw. In
m o s t c a s e s , a m e n d m e n t s equal to 40 to 5 0 % of soil v o l u m e s h o u l d b e u s e d ,
particularly in heavy clay soil, but in practice, materials are m o r e c o m m o n l y a d d e d
in smaller a m o u n t s after several plantings, a c c e p t i n g the m o d e s t i m p r o v e m e n t in
plant g r o w t h for the lesser cost a n d effort. For these soils, use of a m u l c h provides
a gradual s u p p l y of organic materials that, if not contributing to i m p r o v e d soil
structure, at least minimizes the loss in structure over time. S t e a m pasteurization
of shallow soils is highly r e c o m m e n d e d to control soil insects, n e m a t o d e s , dis-
eases, a n d w e e d s .
Soil preparation in g r o u n d b e d s of g o o d agricultural soil is less d e m a n d i n g . After
restoring nutrient levels a n d c o r r e c t i n g salinity a n d p H , organic levels m a y b e
increased by addition of s o m e of the materials m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . The soil m a y be
pasteurized with s t e a m or treated with methyl b r o m i d e a n d chloropicrin, or it m a y
b e replanted after tilling.

B. Planting
Planting c a n b e d o n e at any time of year, but plant availability a n d the flower
market are usually decisive. A c o m m o n s c h e m e in the United States is to plant
after o n e of the holiday p e r i o d s , C h r i s t m a s , Valentine's Day, Easter, or Mother's
Day. This provides planting t i m e s of a b o u t J a n u a r y 1, February 20, April 10, or
May 15. The early planting will allow flowering for Easter, a n d the next for Mother's
Day.
78 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

S p a c i n g is approximately o n e plant per square foot with three rows in a b e d .

Particularly for early planting, plants s h o u l d be p l a c e d in the g r e e n h o u s e for 2 to
3 days to initiate root g r o w t h in a p r o c e s s called "sweating out." Boxes are o p e n e d
a n d plants are periodically m i s t e d to maintain a w a r m , h u m i d a t m o s p h e r e . Planting
is d o n e w h e n root g r o w t h is o b s e r v e d . Special care is taken to see that roots are
s p r e a d a n d that the plants are no d e e p e r than they were in the field. Many cultivars
p r o d u c e roots f r o m the scion w h e n planted with the b u d union under the soil. This
allows " o w n root" d e v e l o p m e n t within a year, with the loss of rootstock benefits. For
plants in heavy soil, d e e p planting also reduces air supply to the roots, w h i c h
reduces plant take-off a n d vigor.
It is c o m m o n for newly planted roses to receive t w o or three irrigations, 1 day
apart, before the n o r m a l irrigation s c h e d u l e is started to ensure that the soil is wet
a n d that salts a n d c h e m i c a l residues are leached f r o m the soil.
Stored rose plants m a y have s o m e d e v e l o p e d shoots at planting. A s this o c c u r s
more often after lengthy storage, such as late in the s p r i n g w h e n stress conditions
are intense, it m a y b e wiser to r e m o v e shoots at planting to preserve plant moisture.
Shoot growth will be slower as it d e p e n d s o n d e v e l o p m e n t of less mature b u d s , but
the risk is greater of excess water loss before roots are established. After planting
at any s e a s o n , high humidity s h o u l d b e maintained a r o u n d the plants. This c a n be
d o n e by h a n d misting, but it is expensive a n d difficult to p e r f o r m o n s c h e d u l e . High
pressure mist a n d f o g s are better a n d b e c a u s e humidity is so important in the
production of quality roses, s o m e automatic humidification s h o u l d b e included in
the p r o d u c t i o n system. Irrigation s c h e d u l e s s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n plant growth
status a n d solar radiation. Rose s t e m length a n d flower size are very sensitive to
soil moisture; with all things c o n s i d e r e d , it is better to irrigate w h e n the soil still
retains m o d e r a t e a m o u n t s of water as j u d g e d by feel or by tensiometer readings
of 100 to 300 c m tension.
The rose shoot must be held in an upright position d u r i n g g r o w t h , otherwise the
stem will b e n d a n d the long s t e m rose will b e cut to a lower g r a d e . S u p p o r t has
traditionally b e e n by string to a central metal stake but this labor intensive operation
has given w a y to the use of plastic or metal m e s h , 3 to 7 inches on a side. The first
network is installed 16 to 20 inches a b o v e the soil a n d additional layers will be 12
to 14 inches apart. Shoots are periodically g u i d e d to an upright position.

C. Nutrition
Most roses are g r o w n using a liquid fertilization s c h e d u l e b a s e d o n soil tests,
especially of p H a n d salinity, a n d an occasional foliar analysis. Α p H range of 5.5
to 6.3 allows m o d e r a t e solubility of the micronutrients. Salinity or soluble salts
should b e low at planting to allow for the increases following soil pasteurization, but
o n c e plants are established, aggressive nutrition practices should k e e p salts at a
level a b o u t intermediate b e t w e e n n o r m a l a n d excessive. Within the flowering cycle,
lower salinity at c r o p p i n g will reduce root loss n o r m a l in this p e r i o d . Following b u d
3 ROSES 79

break, salinity levels c a n b e increased. In s o m e p r o g r a m s , it is c o m m o n to m a k e

a d r y fertilizer application at this time, often with c a l c i u m or p o t a s s i u m nitrate at 1.75
p o u n d s per 100 square feet.
Soil p H is a result of m a n y interacting influences but for the rose p r o d u c e r the
m o s t important are the alkalinity of the water, the nature of the mineral soil, a n d the
c o m p o s i t i o n of the fertilizer solution. Water s o u r c e s with high levels of c a l c i u m a n d
m a g n e s i u m (called "hard water") also contain high levels of the b i c a r b o n a t e ion.
Consequently, they have a d o u b l e alkalizing effect. S u c h waters react with the a c i d
in the soil solution until m u c h of the b i c a r b o n a t e is c o n v e r t e d to c a r b o n i c a c i d a n d
then to c a r b o n dioxide a n d water. This p r o c e s s drives soil p H u p w a r d , a n d the
a c c u m u l a t i o n of c a l c i u m a n d m a g n e s i u m extends this p r o c e s s further. Use of a c i d
residue fertilizers c a n retard this p r o c e s s but m o r e g r o w e r s n o w use acids, m o s t
c o m m o n l y p h o s p h o r i c or nitric a c i d , injected directly into the water at a rate
calculated to offset the alkalizing effect of the b i c a r b o n a t e ion.
Rose fertilizer solutions contain nitrogen, p o t a s s i u m , m a g n e s i u m , a n d iron as
regular constituents, a n d periodically, a micronutrient s u p p l e m e n t of b o r o n , c o p -
per, m a n g a n e s e , m o l y b d e n u m , a n d zinc will b e a d d e d . Base levels of nitrogen are
in the range of 160 to 2 0 0 p p m (11 to 14 milliequivalents per liter) with a milli-
equivalent ratio of nitrate to a m m o n i u m nitrogen of 5 - 1 to 1 0 - 1 . Base levels of
p o t a s s i u m are a b o u t 150 p p m (4 milliequivalents per liter). There is e v i d e n c e that
p r o d u c t i o n under s u p p l e m e n t a l lighting requires increased nitrogen to approxi-
mately 300 p p m . Potassium nitrate is a c o m m o n s o u r c e of both nutrients while
other nitrogen sources are a m m o n i u m nitrate, c a l c i u m nitrate, a n d a m m o n i u m
sulfate. Liquid s y s t e m s using any sulfate or p h o s p h o r u s s o u r c e with c a l c i u m will
n e e d a d o u b l e - h e a d e d injector as the c o m b i n a t i o n s p r o d u c e c a l c i u m sulfate or
c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e , both nearly insoluble salts. Regular use of a m m o n i u m fertil-
izers will d e c r e a s e soil p H , while regular use of nitrate fertilizers will have the
o p p o s i t e effect. L o n g - t e r m p H control is also m a n a g e d with periodic d r y a p p l i c a -
tions of limestone or dolomitic limestone w h e r e s u p p l e m e n t s of m a g n e s i u m are
n e e d e d . Besides p o t a s s i u m nitrate, p o t a s s i u m m a y b e a d d e d as the chloride or
the sulfate salt. Potassium sulfate is preferred as the potential for salinity a n d
toxicity are m u c h less w h e n c o m p a r e d to p o t a s s i u m chloride. Salinity control is
also m a n a g e d by careful selection of fertilizer sources, the use of a p p r o p r i a t e
fertilizer concentrations, a n d p e r i o d i c applications of water alone.

D. Temperature
Growth rate of the rose is very responsive to t e m p e r a t u r e ; as temperature is
increased, g r o w t h rate increases. Flower quality is affected in the o p p o s i t e direc-
tion; as t e m p e r a t u r e is increased, petal n u m b e r a n d flower b u d size decreases.
Generally, roses are g r o w n at 62°F night t e m p e r a t u r e with a day temperature of
70°F under low light c o n d i t i o n s a n d 80°F under high light. Flowers will take a b o u t
40 to 48 d a y s to d e v e l o p at these t e m p e r a t u r e s . Selection of d a y a n d night
80 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

temperatures represents a c o m p r o m i s e between n u m b e r s of flowers harvested

a n d flower quality. Where the g r o w i n g environment is better, higher temperatures
may p r o d u c e m o r e flowers of a better quality, w h e r e a s in poorer conditions, higher
temperatures will p r o d u c e s o m e increase in flowers with poorer quality a n d in-
creased blindness. Night temperatures for roses are considerably lower in m a n y
parts of the w o r l d , frequently near 44°F. Roses p r o d u c e d at these temperatures will
take approximately 75 d a y s to flower f r o m a previous harvest if day temperatures
are also low, but with d a y temperatures of 81° to 86°F, flowering m a y take only 55
to 60 days. Flower size will b e large a n d s t e m length c a n b e very long under c o o l
night conditions.
Where roses are c r o p p e d so that all flowers are harvested in a short p e r i o d , b u d
break c a n b e accelerated by high temperatures, u p to 81 °F for the first 3 w e e k s as
long as humidity is maintained at a level of 6 0 % or a b o v e . After the 3-week p e r i o d ,
temperatures s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d to n o r m a l to provide for flower quality. There has
been m u c h interest in manipulating night temperatures to allow fuel saving without
loss of g r o w t h rate but no recipe has consistently p r o d u c e d the energy savings
without a delay in flowering.

E. Ventilation
Greenhouses m u s t have air replacement for a n u m b e r of reasons. First, in m o s t
environments, sunlight p r o d u c e s a temperature rise in the g r e e n h o u s e that c a n
exceed the desired day temperature. Excess heat is dissipated with the exit of hot
air from the t o p of the g r e e n h o u s e . Even w h e r e heat a c c u m u l a t i o n is not a serious
p r o b l e m , c a r b o n dioxide levels are r e d u c e d by photosynthesis a n d m u s t b e replen-
ished by ventilation. C a r b o n dioxide c a n also b e a d d e d to the g r e e n h o u s e air,
either by b u r n i n g p r o p a n e or by use of liquid c a r b o n dioxide. O p t i m u m c a r b o n
dioxide levels in the 9 0 0 to 1000 p p m range increase g r o w t h rates a n d flower
quality.
Air replacement is also u s e d to m a n a g e g r e e n h o u s e humidity as a general
a p p r o a c h to control p o w d e r y a n d d o w n y m i l d e w s a n d Botrytis. Relative humidity
of the air is an important factor in the d e v e l o p m e n t of fungal spores. If the g r e e n -
house is c l o s e d to c o n s e r v e heat, the relative humidity of the air increases as the
temperature falls. In m o s t environments, the air b e c o m e s saturated, water will
c o n d e n s e on the leaves a n d flowers providing exceptional conditions for rose
diseases. In m o s t seasons, this c a n b e a v o i d e d by providing a d e q u a t e ventilation
as the temperature falls to allow e x c h a n g e of the h u m i d g r e e n h o u s e air for the drier
outside air. During s e a s o n s w h e n the outside temperature is near the night t e m p e -
rature, it m a y be necessary to c o m b i n e periodic heating with ventilation to d e -
crease the likelihood of saturated air. There is s o m e evidence that air m o v e m e n t
of 30 feet per minute m a r k e d l y reduces p r o b l e m s of Botrytis. W h e n this is p r o v i d e d
by the horizontal air flow s y s t e m , it also provides uniform g r e e n h o u s e temperature
a n d ease of distributing g r e e n h o u s e fumigants.
3 ROSES 81

F. Light
The light requirement of the rose is c o m p l i c a t e d by the effect of light o n trans-
piration a n d the effect of transpiration o n plant g r o w t h a n d quality. Generally, rose
g r o w t h a n d quality increase with increasing light to a b o u t 1200 μηηοΙ s e c - 1
nrr2

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). This is a b o u t 6000 f o o t - c a n d l e s (fc) a n d

is close to the m a x i m u m winter light in m o s t of the United States. It m u s t b e r e m e m -
b e r e d that increased PAR will b e a c c o m p a n i e d by an increase in all solar radiation
to p r o d u c e higher g r e e n h o u s e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d d e c r e a s e d relative humidity. High
pressure mist a n d f o g g i n g s y s t e m s are an essential part of humidity m a n a g e m e n t
to allow use of the available light in s p r i n g , s u m m e r , a n d fall. Daytime humidity of 60
to 8 0 % is o p t i m u m for rose p r o d u c t i o n . G r e e n h o u s e s h a d e is required in the s u m -
mer a n d for p e r i o d s in s p r i n g a n d fall, d e p e n d i n g o n location a n d light levels.
In the m o r e northerly parts of the w o r l d , w h e r e winter light is of low intensity a n d
short duration, there is w i d e s p r e a d use of lighting for the rose c r o p . High-pressure
s o d i u m (HPS) lights are u s e d to p r o d u c e 50 to 100 μηηοΙ s e c n r r PAR (250 to
- 1 2

500 fc). With night t e m p e r a t u r e s u p to 68°F, g r o w t h is m o r e rapid, the n u m b e r of

flowers is increased, a n d plant vigor is excellent. A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, nutritional
a n d irrigation requirements are increased, but c a r b o n dioxide addition is not
n e e d e d at this light intensity.

G. Plant Growth Management

Regardless of the plant type, it is n e c e s s a r y to delay flowering to increase the
a m o u n t s of foliage a n d roots s o that high quality flowers c a n be p r o d u c e d . There
are t w o m e t h o d s , d e p e n d i n g mainly o n the s e a s o n a n d t i m i n g requirements for the
next g o o d market. In the first case, after the new plants are t r i m m e d of d a m a g e d
w o o d a n d w e a k s h o o t s , shoots are allowed to g r o w until the flower b u d is a p p a r e n t
in the shoot tip. Shoots are p i n c h e d to the u p p e r m o s t five-leaflet leaf. Not all shoots
will r e s u m e g r o w t h , as there is c o m p e t i t i o n for water a n d nutrients, but p e r h a p s half
the s h o o t s o n a vigorous plant will g r o w ; the other s h o o t s will b e s h a d e d out by the
d e v e l o p i n g c a n o p y a n d die within the year. High quality flowers f r o m the s e c o n d
g r o w t h flush will be m a r k e t e d , a n d usually flowers will be cut b e l o w the point of
origin o n the parent shoot to provide longer s t e m s . The s e c o n d m e t h o d , u s e d
w h e n the market is poor, is to allow the s h o o t s to g r o w until pea-size flowers are
p r o d u c e d . Stems are p i n c h e d to the u p p e r five-leaflet leaf a n d axillary shoots are
r e m o v e d in a practice called " d e s h o o t i n g . " W h e n d o n e regularly o n a 2- to 3-day
s c h e d u l e , the root s y s t e m b e c o m e s very extensive, the f o o d f r o m photosynthesis
a c c u m u l a t e s , a n d the n u m b e r of renewal c a n e s ( b o t t o m breaks) increases s u b -
stantially. Shoot vigor, particularly at the b a s e of the plant, is important b e c a u s e
s t e m length a n d g r o w t h rate are a s s o c i a t e d with thick s t e m s . B e c a u s e the p r o d u -
cing plant for the next year will originate f r o m these vigorous s h o o t s , there is s o m e
assurance of high quality flower p r o d u c t i o n .
82 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

H. Harvesting
Roses are cut t w o times per d a y d u r i n g m u c h of the year a n d three times in the
s u m m e r w h e n d e v e l o p m e n t rates a n d m a r k e t s warrant. The stage at cutting varies
with cultivar, s e a s o n , a n d distance to market, but generally the rose is cut at the
tightest stage at w h i c h the flower will o p e n in plain water (Fig. 5). Tight roses will
often o p e n in preservative solution but b e c a u s e preservative use is still not w i d e -
s p r e a d , it is better to m a k e the test in water with roses c o m p a r a b l e to those being
s h i p p e d . For the nearby market, the m o r e o p e n rose will d e v e l o p better a n d m a k e
a better presentation. There is the belief a m o n g retail florists that m o r e o p e n roses
d o not last, but the o p p o s i t e is m o r e often true.
The position of the cut o n the shoot will vary with market n e e d s for s t e m length
a n d on the height of the plants, the s e a s o n , a n d the leafiness of the plants. A s a
general rule, the cut will be m a d e to the first 5-leaflet leaf a b o v e the point of origin
of the flowering s t e m , but it will b e higher at the time of a holiday pinch or if the
plants have suffered a heavy leaf d r o p . In d e e p winter conditions without s u p p l e -
mental lighting, the cut will b e m a d e at the s e c o n d 5-leaflet leaf. Following a pinch
to the third to fifth 5-leaflet leaf, the cut will b e m a d e under the pinch to the next leaf
in the event of a single break a n d in the event of a d o u b l e break, the cut will be
m a d e to just below the first flower a n d w h e n the s e c o n d flower d e v e l o p s (a few
days to a w e e k later), it will b e undercut to the next five-leaflet leaf. During the s p r i n g
season w h e n plants are vigorous, flowering s h o o t s m a y be cut to the "knuckle," just
above the n o d e of origin, to gain additional s t e m length. Usually, t w o or three
shoots will d e v e l o p f r o m this cut, originating f r o m b u d s in the axils of the original
b u d scales (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Flower stages. Left to right: a, too tight; b, for distant market; c, for local market;
d, better for local market; e, open too far.
3 ROSES 83

Fig. 6. Knuckle cut on a flower from a soft pinch. A, node at which pinch was made; B,
point of cut; C, shoots originating from axillary buds of the original bud scales.

The rose is cut with a s h a r p knife or with shears. S o m e shears are c o n s t r u c t e d

to hold the rose while it is b e i n g m o v e d to the a r m s or to a basket. It w a s c o m m o n
for roses to b e cut a n d held in the a r m until a circuit of a b e d w a s m a d e , but for
roses g r o w n in long b e d s , c r o p p i n g s y s t e m s w h e r e an entire b e d m a y b e cut in 7
days, a n d long s t e m flowers, d a m a g e to flowers c a n be serious. N o w m o s t cut
roses are p l a c e d in a basket for protection. O n c e a b u n d l e is cut, it is w r a p p e d in
plastic sheeting or in plastic netting to protect the flowers d u r i n g handling. The
b u n d l e m a y b e p l a c e d in a hydrating solution in the g r e e n h o u s e to offset the loss
of water f r o m the foliage, or it m a y b e m o v e d directly to the storage area. There is
an a d v a n t a g e to put the rose into solution as s o o n after harvest as possible but in
m o s t g r e e n h o u s e s , bucket sanitation is primitive a n d the gain in s o m e small
a m o u n t of water uptake is m o r e than offset by the inoculation of the clean roses
with bacteria that will r e d u c e v a s e life (see Section IX).

I. Crop Planning
A n efficient business must not only p r o d u c e excellent flowers at a saleable price,
but it must also m a n a g e the p r o d u c t i o n to satisfy the m a r k e t t h r o u g h o u t the year.
84 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

This takes t h o r o u g h planning, a k n o w l e d g e of the cultivar characteristics, anticipa-

tion of seasonal effects, a n d s o m e g o o d fortune. The planning will involve p r o d u c -
tion timing for key holidays, seasons, a n d special sales. It also involves an aware-
ness of growth rates by cultivar a n d s e a s o n to allow proper timing a n d an
awareness of how m a n y pinches are n e e d e d to meet a p r o d u c t i o n goal. Several
questions arise in s c h e d u l i n g rose p r o d u c t i o n . H o w long d o e s it take for the cultivar
to flower again after a previous c r o p ? If o n e m a d e 100 pinches o n O c t o b e r 27, how
m a n y shoots w o u l d p r o d u c e marketable flowers for Christmas? What w o u l d be the
range in flowering time? What p r o p o r t i o n of the C h r i s t m a s c r o p might return to
flower for Valentine's Day? H o w m u c h variation c a n o n e find f r o m year to year? It
should b e apparent that a keen m i n d , g o o d records, a n d an awareness of weather
patterns are important for this planning effort.

J. Pruning
If flower harvest is always m a d e a b o v e the origin of the flowering s t e m , the
plants will g r o w t o o tall. There are t w o w a y s to r e d u c e plant height. First, as a flower
is cut, rather than cutting it at the first 5-leaflet leaf, the s t e m o n w h i c h the flower
is g r o w i n g is cut to 24 inches a b o v e the soil after the first year of growth a n d to 6
inches higher after e a c h s u c c e e d i n g year. The a d v a n t a g e s of this system are there
is a continuous supply of flowers a n d these plants will p r o d u c e t w o to three m o r e
flowers per plant a n d the plant root system will remain in better condition with the
s u p p o r t i n g foliage. The d i s a d v a n t a g e s are that the harvest is slower, the g r e e n -
house is left in disarray b e c a u s e the lower s t e m is p r u n e d into the walkway, a n d
the decisions of where to m a k e the cut require c o n s i d e r a b l e experience.
In the s e c o n d p r u n i n g s y s t e m , the plants are p r u n e d with h e d g e cutters at the
24 inch level. Because a major loss of roots c a n b e e x p e c t e d following s u c h a
foliage loss, salinity s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d to the low to m e d i u m levels before p r u n i n g .
Additionally, to limit xylem s a p flow from the cut c a n e s a n d prevent stem dieback,
it is useful to p r u n e near the e n d of the watering cycle. The soil c a n be further d r i e d
to prevent s a p flow but this hardens the plant a n d delays b u d break. After p r u n i n g ,
all d e a d a n d w e a k w o o d is r e m o v e d , a n d it is a g o o d time to spray for spider mites.
B u d break c a n be accelerated by w a r m temperature a n d high humidity.
Where s u m m e r markets are limited, the flush of g r o w t h is sheared periodically
to increase n u m b e r s of g r o w i n g shoots a n d to stimulate d e v e l o p m e n t of basal
shoots for plant renewal.

VII. INSECTS, RELATED PESTS, AND DISEASES

There are a host of insects a n d related pests attacking g r e e n h o u s e roses. The
rose grower has to be a c q u a i n t e d not only with the pests a n d their control, but with
the host of regulations that have d e v e l o p e d to m a k e pesticides safer for the
operator a n d others. A g o o d control p r o g r a m starts with the e m p l o y e e s , b e c a u s e
3 ROSES 85

they have so m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s to inspect the plants e a c h day. Early detection not

only lessens the c h a n c e of the pest s p r e a d i n g t h r o u g h o u t the g r e e n h o u s e , but at
low populations the pests are easier to control a n d are less likely to d e v e l o p
resistance to pesticides.
The s e c o n d g o a l of a g o o d pest control p r o g r a m is to k n o w the life cycle of the
pest, the g r o w t h stages w h e n control by spraying is not possible, the array of
available control m e a s u r e s , a n d the c h e m i c a l families s o that rotation of materials
c a n b e practiced to minimize d e v e l o p m e n t of resistance.
The third part of the pest control p r o g r a m is to acquaint e m p l o y e e s with the
health a n d safety p r o b l e m s of the pesticides. They s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d that effective
a n d careful application m a y b e the best a p p r o a c h to pesticide health a n d safety by
reducing application frequency. Pesticide r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s c a n b e o b t a i n e d
t h r o u g h the Cooperative Extension Service a n d t h r o u g h professional rose o r g a n i -
zations.

A. Insects and Related Pests

1. Spider Mites

The t w o - s p o t t e d spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) remains the m o s t important

pest o n g r e e n h o u s e roses. Its life cycle consists of eight stages f r o m e g g to adult,
including three quiescent stages of insensitivity to miticide. At day temperatures of
75° to 80°F a n d night t e m p e r a t u r e of 65°F, it m a y p a s s t h r o u g h all stages in less
than 13 days. F e e d i n g principally o n the u n d e r s i d e of the leaf, mites leave pinpoint
chlorotic s p o t s that turn the leaf bronze w h e n the p o p u l a t i o n is high. Mites are m o s t
easily d e t e c t e d a l o n g the south side of the g r e e n h o u s e a n d at the e n d of b e d s
w h e r e t e m p e r a t u r e s are high. They c a n easily b e distributed t h r o u g h o u t a rose
planting d u r i n g o n e flower harvest. Control is m o r e difficult than for other pests
b e c a u s e of the large populations involved a n d also b e c a u s e of their ability to
d e v e l o p resistance t o pesticides. The pest f e e d s mostly o n the underside of the
leaf, a n d the e g g s are laid there, so it is crucial that miticide c o v e r a g e b e a d e q u a t e
there. Special spray nozzles have b e e n d e s i g n e d for mite control. Even m o d e r a t e
mite infestations r e d u c e foliage size, c a u s e leaf d r o p , a n d restrict s t e m elongation.

2. Aphids

There are at least three s p e c i e s of light to d a r k g r e e n a p h i d s that f e e d o n s t e m s ,

leaves, a n d flowers. A p h i d s are easier to detect f r o m the cast skins a n d the black
sooty f u n g u s that g r o w s o n the " h o n e y d e w " than by direct observation. In the
g r e e n h o u s e , all a p h i d s are females. They give birth to live y o u n g , w h i c h c a n then
begin r e p r o d u c i n g in 7 to 8 d a y s .

3. Thrips

T w o s p e c i e s of thrips are f o u n d in g r e e n h o u s e s , the Eastern thrips (Frankliniella

tritici) a n d the W e s t e r n thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis). In the general life cycle,
86 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

e g g s are laid in the flower b u d a n d g o t h r o u g h four n y m p h stages to maturity.

During d e v e l o p m e n t , n y m p h s d r o p off the plant onto the soil two times before
maturing. The entire life cycle takes a b o u t 2 0 d a y s . Adults are w i n g e d a n d very
mobile. Control is difficult b e c a u s e of the protection afforded by the flower a n d the
fact that the n y m p h s s p e n d t w o p e r i o d s in the soil.

4. Whiteflies

The g r e e n h o u s e whitefly {Trialeurodes vaporariorum) is b e c o m i n g a serious pest

of the g r e e n h o u s e rose. E g g s laid on the underside of the leaf hatch in 10 days,
a n d remain on the leaf for the next 10 to 15 days. Control is difficult b e c a u s e the
pest is naturally resistant to pesticides at m a n y of the immature stages. W e e d
c l e a n u p in a n d a r o u n d the g r e e n h o u s e will help in control, as will the exclusion of
t o m a t o , pepper, a n d other annual plants f r o m the vicinity of the greenhouse. There
is considerable interest in use of screens to exclude whiteflies a n d thrips f r o m the
greenhouse.

B. Diseases
1. Powdery Mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae)

The m o s t c o m m o n disease of roses in g r e e n h o u s e s , p o w d e r y mildew, attacks

leaves, stems, a n d flowers. Spores are w i n d - b o r n e from fruiting b o d i e s to new
leaves a n d can g e r m i n a t e in 3 hours. Following penetration of the tissue, the
fungus d e v e l o p s along the outside of the tissue. Ultimately, fruiting b o d i e s d e v e l o p
t o c o m p l e t e the cycle.
Like m a n y fungi, the d e v e l o p m e n t of m i l d e w is related to optimal temperature
a n d humidity. Nighttime conditions of low temperature (60°F) a n d high humidity (90
to 99%) favor s p o r e g e r m i n a t i o n , infection, a n d s p o r e p r o d u c t i o n . High temper-
atures (80°F) a n d low humidity (35 t o 70%) favor s p o r e maturation a n d release. T o
s o m e extent then, control c a n b e m a n a g e d with careful control of heating a n d
ventilation at the e n d of the day, w h e n humidity increases as temperatures d r o p ,
a n d in the m o r n i n g w h e n a slow temperature rise will delay s p o r e release. C o n -
current use of heat a n d ventilation c a n allow replacement of h u m i d inside air with
drier outside air. There is also s o m e evidence that in m o s t greenhouses, night
temperature fluctuations can result in cyclic leaf wetting thereby providing c o n d i -
tions for spore g e r m i n a t i o n . Devices to measure c o n d e n s a t i o n events provide
g u i d a n c e for w h e n g r e e n h o u s e heating is required. Additional control is p r o v i d e d
by s u b l i m a t e d sulfur a n d by spraying with a p p r o p r i a t e fungicides.

2. Downy Mildew (Peronospora sparsa)

A disease e n h a n c e d by cool temperature a n d high relative humidity, d o w n y

m i l d e w is f o u n d in rainy p e r i o d s w h e n relative humidity e x c e e d s 85%. After s p o r e
germination, the f u n g u s g r o w s within the leaf (in contrast to the surface g r o w t h of
p o w d e r y mildew) a n d , d e p e n d i n g o n the humidity, s p o r e s m a y be seen o n the
3 ROSES 87

underside of the leaf. In usual conditions, s p o r e s are not seen, but the leaves on
the current shoot m a y s h o w d a r k irregularly s h a p e d s p o t s ; leaf d r o p m a y b e heavy
a n d m a y include leaves f r o m the current g r o w t h . Heat a n d ventilation will aid in
control but in s e a s o n s w h e n the outside a n d inside temperatures are similar,
spraying will also b e required.

3. Botrytis Blight (Botrytis cinerea)

Botrytis or gray m o l d is a c o m m o n disease of stored plants a n d flowers a n d ,

under cool a n d h u m i d conditions, is a serious p r o b l e m of roses in transit. Spore
g e r m i n a t i o n requires u p to 12 hours of c o n t i n u o u s freestanding water o n plant
surfaces. Proper heat a n d ventilation are important control m e a s u r e s in the g r e e n -
house a n d research s h o w s that s p o r e g e r m i n a t i o n is inhibited by air m o v e m e n t of
30 feet per minute. Conditions s u c h as the frequent m o v e m e n t of flowers f r o m c o l d
storage to a w a r m g r a d i n g area or f r o m c o l d storage to p o o r l y refrigerated trucks
are the m o s t c o m m o n w a y s to obtain the l o n g - t e r m wet surface n e e d e d for
infection.

VIM. PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

A. Bullheads
Bullheads are distorted flowers characterized by shorter petals that give the
rose a flattened a p p e a r a n c e . C o m m o n in s o m e cultivars g r o w n at c o o l t e m p e -
ratures, it is also seen in flowers d i s t o r t e d by thrips, by excess s t e m vigor as in the
case of renewal shoots, a n d in s o m e cultivars that have a t e n d e n c y to p r o d u c e
bullheads.

B. Blind Shoots
Rose shoots initiate flowers at an early s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t , but blind shoots
abort m o s t flower b u d s s o o n thereafter. Blind shoots increase in p e r i o d s of low
light, but the absolute n u m b e r of blinds m a y b e highest after p r u n i n g . More blinds
are p r o d u c e d f r o m the lower b u d s o n a s t e m , a n d it is c o m m o n to see a high
p r o p o r t i o n of blinds near the e n d of a c r o p . Increased c a r b o n dioxide a n d light
levels help to minimize n u m b e r s of blinds d u r i n g the winter p e r i o d .

C. Leaf Drop
Leaf d r o p is not u n c o m m o n in the rose. S o m e c o m m o n c a u s e s are s h a d i n g
f r o m foliage a b o v e , inconsistent irrigation a n d nutritional practices, plant a g e , a n d ,
occasionally, a reaction to a pesticide application. Additionally, heavy infestation of
mites a n d p o w d e r y m i l d e w will accelerate leaf a g i n g a n d c a u s e leaf d r o p .
88 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

D. Leaf Distortion
Rose leaves g r o w to maturity in 10 to 12 d a y s f r o m the e m b r y o n i c size in the
b u d . Spray applications d u r i n g this p e r i o d c a n d a m a g e the leaf a n d prevent
normal g r o w t h , p r o d u c i n g distortions. Water stress, usually c a u s e d by high light
intensity a n d low humidity, c a u s e s a tissue b u r n . In s o m e of the new, very tight
g r e e n h o u s e structures d u r i n g the winter, g r e e n h o u s e temperatures d o not require
the use of venting. It is not unusual to see, o n a single s t e m , a s u c c e s s i o n of normal
leaves followed by o n e to four small distorted leaves, a n d then a return to normal
size leaves. This p r o b l e m is t h o u g h t to result f r o m t e m p o r a r y limitation in the uptake
of micronutrients d u r i n g p e r i o d s of low transpiration.

E. Volatiles
The rose is sensitive to a large n u m b e r of chemicals, f r o m m e r c u r y metal
to mercuric c o m p o u n d s in paints a n d fungicides, to ethylene gas, a m m o n i a ,
Treflan herbicide, sulfur dioxide, a n d m a n y of the phenoxy-type herbicides. As a
general rule, if a c h e m i c a l has not been s h o w n to be safe on roses, a s s u m e that
it is not!

F. Sugar Damage
Roses p r o d u c e d under s u p p l e m e n t a l high density d i s c h a r g e (HID) lighting a n d
c a r b o n dioxide additions have b e e n s h o w n to transpire excessively, a fact that
might help in s o m e p r o b l e m s (see Section VIII,D) but that c a u s e s p r o b l e m s in the
handling of the cut flower. A l t h o u g h it is r e c o g n i z e d that roses require preservatives
if the potential vase life is to b e attained, use of sugar-containing preservatives has
c a u s e d considerable sugar b u r n o n these roses. It s e e m s that the rate of water
entry into the leaf cells is fast c o m p a r e d to the rate of sugar entry. With rapid water
loss from the leaves, the sugar concentrates outside the cell until cell d e a t h by
dehydration o c c u r s . Similar p r o b l e m s c a n b e o b s e r v e d in rose handling for roses
p r o d u c e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s of vigorous growth as in the s p r i n g s e a s o n .

IX. POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Flower life varies with the cultivar a n d the s e a s o n ; life of the flower o n the plant
is p e r h a p s the best index of potential vase life. There are t w o principal differences
between the cut rose a n d the rose o n the plant; the rose o n the plant has a s e c u r e d
water s o u r c e limited only by negligence in soil irrigation. The rose d e v e l o p i n g o n
the plant also has the benefit of a continual f o o d supply, either directly from its o w n
leaves or f r o m storage areas in the roots or stems. Death of the rose flower o n the
plant is almost always by petal d r o p .
3 ROSES 89

Problems for the cut rose begin at harvest; if cut t o o early, the rose m a y contain
little stored f o o d . The correct harvest stages are difficult to define as cultivars vary
greatly, but in general, the rose s h o u l d be cut at the s t a g e at w h i c h the flowers will
continue to d e v e l o p for the final c o n s u m e r .
There are t w o s h o r t - t e r m p r o b l e m s of the cut rose; water loss increases at
harvest, a n d as water m o v e s into the leaves f r o m the s t e m , air enters the s t e m
base. The first p r o b l e m c a u s e s wilting of the flower while the s e c o n d limits the rate
of uptake w h e n flowers are p l a c e d in water. Hydration of the cut flowers in d e e p ,
acidified water usually solves the harvest water p r o b l e m s . T w o c o m m o n acidifiers
are citric a c i d at 350 p p m a n d a l u m i n u m sulfate at 200 to 600 p p m . The f o r m e r is
a faster hydrating agent, but sanitation is easier to maintain with a l u m i n u m sulfate
solutions.
O n c e hydrated, the l o n g - t e r m p e r f o r m a n c e of the cut rose d e p e n d s o n m i c r o b e
control. The m o s t c o m m o n p r o b l e m involves bacteria in the water, but there are
p r o b l e m s with yeast a n d fungi as well. Control starts with the use of clean c o n -
tainers a n d either use of l o n g - t e r m sanitation m e a s u r e s like slow release chlorine
c o m p o u n d s or with frequent r e p l a c e m e n t of the water. Use of sugar containing
preservatives is not r e c o m m e n d e d at the p r o d u c t i o n level; storage temperatures
are t o o low for significant uptake, a n d sugar c a n m a k e the m i c r o b e control p r o b l e m
m o r e difficult. In contrast, preservatives are r e c o m m e n d e d whenever storage t e m -
peratures e x c e e d 38° to 40°F, usually at the retail level a n d always at the c o n s u m e r
level. A s water quality is variable, tests s h o u l d b e run to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h of the
available preservatives is m o s t effective.
Roses are g r a d e d by length, d e p e n d i n g o n market preferences starting at a b o u t
9 inches a n d running to 30 inches. G r a d i n g is frequently d o n e by m a c h i n e after
initial screening for m a l f o r m e d or c r o o k e d flowers (Fig. 7). Roses are p a c k e d in
b u n c h e s of 25 in the United States a n d 20 in Europe. Care m u s t be taken to avoid
tight w r a p s as the flowers will swell with c o n t i n u e d hydration, a n d they will bruise.
All s t e m s s h o u l d b e cut after w r a p p i n g so that at later m a r k e t i n g stages, approx-
imately 1 to 2 inches of s t e m c a n be r e m o v e d f r o m e a c h flower without u n w r a p p i n g
the b u n c h . Flowers that receive little or no recutting will b e slow to hydrate, a n d their
p e r f o r m a n c e in the vase is uncertain. For l o n g - s t e m roses, it is c o m m o n to w r a p
the s t e m bases with string or r u b b e r b a n d s . This w r a p s h o u l d b e p l a c e d at least
4 inches f r o m the s t e m b a s e to allow for easy recutting.
The flower box m u s t be large e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e 400 to 600 flowers, rigid
e n o u g h to protect the flowers, a n d insulated well e n o u g h to k e e p out the s u b -
freezing temperatures of winter a n d to limit heat gain d u r i n g the rest of the year.
C a r d b o a r d boxes, often w a x e d to limit water loss a n d occasionally s p r a y e d with
Polyurethane to limit heat gain, are u s e d . Other insulators in use are newspaper,
fiberglass liners, or Styrofoam sheets. Flower b u n c h e s m u s t be i m m o b i l i z e d ,
s o m e t i m e s with w o o d e n slats cleated to the outside of the box or with rubber
b a n d s that are held by plastic pieces that fit t h r o u g h the sides of the boxes.
B u n c h e s are c o m m o n l y iced for additional heat control but w h e r e Botrytis flower
90 DOMINIC J. DURKIN

Fig. 7. Peduncle form. A, normal, straight peduncle; B, short, crooked peduncle often
resulting from excessive plant vigor.

m o l d is a p r o b l e m , s o m e shippers use sealed ice or o n e of the m a n y t h e r m a l gels.

Temperature control is easier if the flowers are completely c o l d at p a c k i n g but w h e n
that is not feasible, f o r c e d air c o o l i n g systems are available to cool p a c k e d flowers
before s h i p p i n g .
In the usual c a s e , roses are s h i p p e d to market as s o o n as the g r a d i n g process
is c o m p l e t e d but s o m e t i m e s s u p p l y gets a h e a d of d e m a n d . If the n e e d is for a
1 to 2 day storage p e r i o d , flowers m a y be held in p a c k e d boxes by the grower
or by the wholesaler. For longer holding, flowers m a y b e p l a c e d into d r y storage
immediately after harvest. B e c a u s e these flowers will be d r y at the start of stor-
age, conservation of tissue water is paramount. The flowers are p l a c e d flat d o w n
in a plastic-lined box, the box is sealed, a n d stored at 31° to 32°F. It m a y
take several hours for the flowers to c o o l to 31 °F, a n d it is not u n c o m m o n for
the h e a d s of s o m e cultivars to turn u p w a r d , p r o d u c i n g c r o o k e d roses of lesser
value. In an alternative m e t h o d , roses c a n b e stored in plastic-lined d r u m s with
s t e m s in an upright position. In either case, the results are m o r e satisfactory if
the c o o l i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d quickly. There is less water loss a n d fewer hydra-
tion p r o b l e m s later, less time for reaction to the inevitable ethylene a c c u m u l a t i o n
from closely p a c k e d flowers, a n d greater conservation of stored f o o d . T h o u g h
there is no apparent c h a n g e in the stored flowers, flower p e r f o r m a n c e in the
vase is significantly r e d u c e d by d r y storage of m o r e than 5 days. Moreover, even
w h e n flower life is not d i m i n i s h e d by d r y storage, flower f o r m m a y b e seriously
affected. Flowers of s o m e cultivars m a y exhibit full o p e n i n g in as little as 4 hours
3 ROSES 91

after 7 days of d r y storage. Conversely, flowers of other cultivars d o not o p e n .

T h o u g h the variety of p r o b l e m s is frustrating, they all s e e m related to ethylene
sensitivity.
Dry stored roses will b e m o r e difficult to hydrate. S t e m s s h o u l d be cut, pref-
erably under water with removal of 1 to 2 inches of the o l d s t e m base. If s t e m s
are cut in air, they s h o u l d be p l a c e d in 10 to 12 inches of w a r m (105°F) water
containing citric a c i d . Leaves a n d flowers s h o u l d b e c r i s p in 30 to 6 0 minutes a n d
the roses c a n b e g r a d e d a n d p a c k e d .

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