THE CLAUSE

CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

Structural Types of Clauses

Considering the structure of clauses, we arrive at three main types. These are

1. Finite clause

2. Non-Finite clause

3. Verbless clause

The Finite Clause

A finite clause is one whose verb element is a finite verb. Do you remember what we said about

finite verbs (refer to module 1). Examples of finite clauses are

i. Aba has visited Accra.

ii. Because he worked hard, he got the award.

iii. When the teacher came in, the students stood up.

iv. Since Mary left for London, her parents have been happy.

You will observe from the above sentences that the verb elements (or Verb Phrase)

has visited

worked

came

left

are finite.

CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

Form four similar sentences for face-to-face discussion.

The Non-Finite Clause

The non-finite clause is one whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase. Do you remember

your study on the non-finite verb phrase in module two? Let us see some examples of the non-

finite clause.

i. Having passed his first examination, the student………..

ii. For Esi to present the parcels on that day, she……………..

iii. Working in the garden, the man discovered a pot of gold.

iv. Hidden under the tree, the pot was

Look at the nature of the verbs used in the structures above. They are non-finite. Form four

similar sentences.

The Verbless Clause

The third structural type of the clause is the verbless clause. Such a clause, as the name implies,

has no verb. However, its verb is recoverable from the context. Examples of the verbless clause

are,

i. Peter, then in Kumasi, decided to…………..

ii. Although always patient, the headmaster………………

iii. Happy to talk, she…………………

Exercise

Identify the type of clauses underlined in the following sentences. (i.e., finite, non-finite, or

verbless)

1. Always tired, John decided to see a doctor.

2. You may choose to go out.

3. Having paid the piper, he called for more music.

4. For him to pass his exam, he decided to study.

 5. The company has made a lot of profit.

THE FINITE CLAUSE

Features of the Finite Clause

The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate. Study the following arid note the

difference between a subject and a predicate.

The Subject

(i) When Mary visited the zoo, was amazed at what she saw.

(ii) He is a manager.

(iii) They work hard.

(iv) He passed the test.

(v) Abena worked diligently so she succeeded.

Can you identify the subject of the above sentences? They arc underlined. The subject is a

necessary part of a finite clause. However, if the clause is a command as in.

Be careful.

Stand up.

Come here.

Catch those creatures.

Catch him.

Look into your books.

Go Out.

the subject can be omitted.

In these clauses, the subject is not present. Do you know why? The subject is implied. In other

words, the listener is supposed to carry Out the instruction. So the clauses will be:
 (i) You, be careful.

(ii) You, come here.

(iii) You, stand up.

(iv) You, go out.

(v) You, catch him.

(vi) You, look into your books.

The Verb Phrase

Another necessary part of the finite clause is that the verb should mark tense. That

is, the verb should indicate present or past. Look at these;

(i) John came late.

The verb came is past.

(ii) He buys fish from Elmina.

The verb buys is present.

(iii) Susan lived in Tamale.

The verb lived is past.

(iv) They worked hard last year.

The verb worked is past.

(v) The director has arrived.

The verb phrase has arrived is present.

Subject and Verb Agreement

Yet another important thing about the finite clause is that the verb should agree with the subject

of the clause. For example;

(i) He does not smoke.

 (ii) Wiafe studies hard.

(iii) They go out every day.

(iv) Because William is the manager, he……….

In the above clauses, the verbs does, studies, go and is agree with their respective subjects.

Would you say the following clauses are finite?

(i) He found the book.

(ii) They were frightened.

(iii) The judge was angry.

(iv) They are training these dogs to sniff out drugs.

(v) She danced all day.

(vi) To see in the dark, one must use alight.

Exercise

(a) Identify the finite clauses in the following sentences:

1. Joe met the man.

2. They left in the morning.

3. It is advisable to carry a lamp.

4. They made her queen.

5. Saka become a lawyer.

6. It is better to hear from you early.

7. The golden goose was found.

8. He gulped his beer.

9. He sold the goods at moderate prices.

10. Coming down from the top floor, he………

 (b) Construct five finite clauses.

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and

• difficulty topics, if any.

THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (I) THE INFINITIVE

Description of the Non-finite Clause

In contrast to the finite clause which we studied in session 3, the non-finite clause can be

constructed without a subject. For example,

i. Having collected his modules, John…………...

ii. Sensing danger, we decided…………………….

iii. Jumping through the window, he……………….

Classes of the Non-finite Clause

There are four classes of the non-finite clause. These are,

i. The infinitive with to

ii. The infinitive without to

iii. The – ing participle

iv. The – ed/en participle

We shall concern ourselves with the first two, the infinitive with to and the infinitive without

to.

The Infinitive with To

The infinitive with to can be constructed without a subject. For example

i. The first thing would be to stop smoking.

ii. To cut down losses, she…………………..

iii. To grow rice in Ghana, one must……………..

iv. To get the job, Mary

It can be constructed with a subject as in

i. The first thing would be for Kofi to stop smoking

 ii. For the trader to cut down losses, she………………

iii. For one to grow rice in Ghana, one…………………

iv. For Mary to get the job, she……………………

Note how “for” is used in introducing the subject.

The Verb Phrase

Another important feature of the non-finite clause is the verb element. The verb phrase in the

infinitive clause is one that is non-finite. There are two infinitives. These are

i. the to infinitive

ii. the bare infinitive (The infinitive without to)

The to infinitives involve the use of to + Infinitive as in

to go

to jump

to cat

to write

to sleep

to dance

to walk

to speak

The hare infinitives involve only the verb without to - For example,

go

travel

jump

see
 eat

work

write

walk

Let us look at some more examples of the to infinitive clause

To Infinitive Without Subject

i. It would be better to tell everyone

ii. To get home early, Ama………………….

iii. The only solution is to stop borrowing

To Infinitive With Subject

i. It would be better for Sika to tell everyone

ii. For Ama to get home early, she

iii. The only solution is for you to stop borrowing.

iv. It is good for the manager to stop collecting bribes.

Now construct four similar clauses.

The Infinitive Without to or the Bare infinitive

The verb element here is without to. For example,

Without Subject

i. All the policeman did was arrest the criminal

ii. What she did was console the man.

iii. Bury all our differences is what is required.

iv. Travel throughout the night is the only way out.

With Subject
 i. Rather than Mawuli do it, I’d prefer…………..

ii. Rather than Esi go, the friend……………

iii. It is better you say nothing.

The use of for to Introduce the Subject

You would observe that in introducing the subject in the infinitive clause for is sometimes used.

For example,

i. For her to pass the examination, she

ii. For the nation to progress, we need to work hard.

iii. It is necessary for the teacher to accept posting to any school.

In this session we introduced the non-finite clause. We observed that the non- finite clause,

unlike the finite clause, can be constructed with or without the subject. There are four classes of

this type of clause depending on the verb phrase. These are,

a. The infinitive with to or bare infinitive

b. The non- infinitive without to

c. The ing participle

d. The ed/en participle

We studied the infinitive with to and the infinitive without to. In the next session we shall

consider the remaining two classes of the non-finite clause.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.4

Identify the infinitive clauses in the following sentences.

1. It would be safe to camp here.

2. It is an offence to drop litter here.

 3. It would be a crime to cut down any more trees.

4. For Dede to compromise, we have to persuade her.

5. To Lean out of the window, one would have to be cautious.

6. Cry was all she could do.

7. What the little girl could do was shout the name of her kidnapper.

THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (II) - THE PARTICIPLES

Features of the -ing Participle Non-finite Clause

Subject

The -ing participle non-finite clause can be constructed with or without subject. For example,

With Subject

i. Francis being a Jesuit surprises me.

ii. Edna making that mistake is…………………..

iii. Her husband building a new house depends on her.

iv. I’m surprised at Ama leaving so early.

Without Subject

i. Being a Jesuit appears to be an achievement.

ii. Building a new house depends on money.

iii. Reconciling the nation is a big task.

iv. They were busy collecting stamps.

v. Mary is tired being treated as a child.

The Verb Phrase

The -ing participle non-finite clause contains an -ing participle as its verb phrase. Examples of

the -ing participle are,

 going

leaving

walking

Examples of the -ing participle clause include,

With Subject

i. The landlord increasing his rent is disturbing.

ii. Him being a Jesuit was a great surprise.

iii. They hate him becoming so wicked.

iv. She admires farmers working hard.

Without Subject

i. Living in a glass house puts one in………………….

ii. Sleeping late increases ones………………

iii. Walking on the Street at night is………………..

iv. Enjoying the food at the expense of others is bad.

Features of the -ed/en Participle Non-finite Clause

Subject

Like the -ing participle clause, the -ed/en participle clause can be constructed with or without

subject. For example

With Subject

i. John worried over the events, found out why he failed.

ii. Grisler broken in spirit, returned with nothing.

iii. The teacher surprised at her students’ performance, organized a party for them.

iv. The workers disturbed by their low income, held a meeting.

Without Subject

i. Worried over the events, he………………

ii. Broken in spirit, Grisler returned with nothing.

iii. Surprised at her students’ performance, the teacher……………..

iv. Disturbed by their low income, the workers……………

v. Boiled with beans, rice…………………

vi. Given enough time, the boy…………………..

The Verb Phrase

The –ed/en participle clause has an –ed/en verb as its verb phrase Such ed/en verbs include.

danced

broken

jumped

dreamt/dreamed

stolen

walked

sung

defeated

Let us consider some ed/en participle clauses

With Subject

i. John, worried over the events, decided to…………..

ii. The eggs, boiled for a short time, tasted……………

iii. The driver, (having) drunk the whole day, realized his mistake when he
Without Subject

i. Worried over the events, he decided………….

ii. Boiled for a short time, the eggs……………..

iii. (Having) drunk the whole day. the driver

However, when the subject of an adverbial participial clause is expressed. it is normally

introduced by with. For example,

i. With the driver realizing his fault, he…………

ii. With the examination coming closer, the students……….

iii. With the tree growing tall, we……………..

iv. With the flowers now grown. we………….

Some Structural Deficiencies of the Non-finite Clauses

Since the non-finite clauses are constructed without a finite verb, it means that they have no

distinction of person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons) number (singular or plural) or modal auxiliary. The

use of the non-finite verb together with the frequent absence of a subject suggests that the non-

finite clauses are compressed. However such a compression may be a source of ambiguity. For

example.

THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (II) - THE PARTICIPLES

We met Kofi leaving the room.

The above utterance may be elaborated as

We met Kofi when he was leaving the room.

Or

We met Kofi when we were leaving the room,

To avoid the ambiguity, an indefinite subject i.e. somebody, or something may be inferred

otherwise, the I of the speaker is to be relied on. For example,

i. To be an administrator is to have the worst job in the world.

This can be

For a person to be an administrator

For Somebody to be an administrator…………….

ii. The job is not good, to be honest

This can be

If I am to be honest

Exercise

Underline the participial clauses in the following sentences:

1. Sitting is the bus he paid the conductor.

2. He became tired of waiting for his meal.

3. Disturbed by the events of the day, the driver render…………….

4. The police officer left worried over the wrong arrest made.

THE VERBLESS CLAUSE

What is the Verbless Clause?

As the name implies, the verbless clause is one that is constructed without a verb. Would you say

this is possible? Let us consider some examples;

i. A lot of people protested, several of them women.

ii. Two cars in one small garage causes problems.

iii. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.

iv. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided……..

Can you identify any verb in the above underlined utterances? One cannot see any verb in them.

That is why they are referred to as verbless clauses.

The Verbless Clause has a Covert Verb

Even though we said the verbless clause has no verb, we can usually infer ellipsis of the verb

BE. For example,

i. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to…………

This can be said as,

ii. Being hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to……………

Thus the verb ‘4bcing” is implied in the utterance. Look at the following and mention the

implied verb in each case:

i. Wall-to-wall carpet in every room an expensive venture.

ii. A lot of people protested, several of them women.

iii. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.

That is good.

The Subject of the Verbless Clause

Like the implied verb in the verbless clause, the subject, when omitted can be treated as

recoverable from the context. for example

i. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.

ii. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to leave the camp.

iii. Too tired to write, John left the examination hall.

iv. Happy, Mary sang a beautiful song.

Do you note any subjects in the above clauses. The clauses can imply the following:

i. When these mangoes are ripe, they will taste sweet.

 ii. The captain, being hungry and thirsty, decided to leave the camp.

iii. John, being too tired to write, left the examination hall.

iv. Mary being happy, sang a beautiful song.

The subjects provided in the above were implied.

Verbless Clauses and Non-finite Clauses

Verbless clauses can on occasions he treated as reductions of non-finite clauses.

For example

i. Too nervous to reply, he stared on the floor.

This can be said as,

Being too nervous to reply, he…………

ii. Too tired to write, John left…………..

This can be said as

John, being too tired to write, left

You can observe in (i) that the verbless clause itself contains a non-finite clause, to reply. In (ii)

to write is a non-finite clause.

As with participle clauses, the subject of the verbless clause often introduced by with. Consider

these:

i. With the building now old, we must…………

ii. With the tree now grown tall, we get more shade.

iii. With our democracy stabilizing, we are likely to have peace.

The verbless clause, however, is limited in its variations in terms of structure. The following are

among possible combinations:

i. They marched briskly up the slope, the guns on their shoulder

 ii. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.

iii. He walked towards his opponent. Determined

Exercise

1. Construct four verbless clauses.

2. Identify the implied verbs in the clauses you constructed

3. If you constructed them without subjects recover the subject in each case

THE NOMINAL CLAUSES

THE NOUN, THE NOUN PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE

The Noun

In module I, we defined the noun as the name of a person, place, thing or concept.

For example,

Mary

Kofi
Person
Raphael

Baidoo

Tamale

Accra
Place
Akosonibo

Wenchi

Mosquito

Table

book Thing

basket
 democracy

service
Concep
t
activity

honour

A noun normally functions as subject, object and complement.

1.1 The Noun Phrase

In Module 2 unit 4 we studied the phrase as a unit in grammar. Remember we said

it is any structure (simple or complex) that can function as

a. Subject

b. Verb

c. Object

d. Complement

e. Adjunct

The noun phrase then is one that has a noun a head, and functions in noun like positions that is as

subject, object and complement.

i. All the boys (the head is boys)

ii. Such a girl (the head is girl)

iii. The lady below (the head is lady)

Can you identify the head of the following noun phrases?

i. The country

ii. The new house

iii. A week
 iv. Both boys

v. Man

Good, You have done well.

1.2 The Noun Clause

Normally the noun phrase functions as subject, object, and Complement. When a clause

functions in such positions, which are normally occupied by a noun or noun phrase, such a clause

is referred to as a noun clause or simply a nominal clause. For example

I know the man

The position of the man (that is a noun phrase) can be taken by the clause.

What he said

This becomes

I know what he said

Therefore,

What he said - can be referred to as a nominal clause.

Exercise

Identify the nouns, noun phrases and noun clauses in the following structures.

1. I met the hunter.

2. The people decided to ask for help.

3. The pupils praised their teacher.

4. The net was sold to the best fishermen.

5. The drivers knew that it was wrong to drink.

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

  issues that are note clear; and

 difficult topics, if any

THE THAT FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSE

The Structure of the That Nominal Clause

The that nominal clause is a finite clause. What does this mean to you? Remember what we said

about finite clauses. It implies that the clause has subject and predicate. The that clause is

normally introduced with the word “that”. For example,

i. That he is hardworking is true.

ii. He said that he would come.

iii. That he has paid his fees is certain.

iv. The truth is that he hates mosquitoes.

v. I know that our answers are correct.

vi. He remembered that he had a meeting to attend

You can see from the above clauses chat each begins with the word that. That why the clause is referred

to as a that clause. Note that, after the word that, subject of the clause comes and it is followed by the

finite verb phrase.

Construct five such clauses. Then complete the following clauses

i. He said that……………

ii. The chairman decided that…………..

iii. That the question…………..

2.2 Difference between the That Nominal Clause and the Relative Clause

You must not confuse the that nominal clause with the relative clause. Look at the following

sentences:

i. That he will come is good.

ii. The building that my father put up is good. Do you note any differences between the

two sentences? Each of the clauses starts with that hut in sentence I, there is no noun

before that. This is a nominal clause. In sentence 2, however there is a noun house

before that. You will then note that the clause in sentence building 2 is saying

something about the building (its antecedent). This is the relative clause. Let us look

at another example.

1. Do you know that he L wrong? (Nominal Clause).

2. Do you know the student that is wrong? (Relative Clause)

What observations do you make? Look at the words that conic immediately before that in both

sentences. In (1) the word is know (a verb) and in 2 the word is student (a noun). You will learn

more about Relative Clauses in Unit 3.

2.3. Functions of the That Nominal Clause

a. As Subject

The that -clause can occur as subject of a sentence. For example,

i. That the rains came late is disturbing.

ii. That a good student passes easily is true.

iii. That she is still alive is a consolation.

iv. That drug abuse is on the increase is surprising.

b. As Direct Object
Also, the that clause can function as direct object. Look at these:

i. We know that he will come.

ii. The teacher told him, that he was wrong.

iii. He said that we should pay the money.

iv. He noted that it was good to abstain.

v. They observed that they were being deceived.

c. As Complement

The that clause can occur as subject complement

i. The assumption is that things will improve.

ii. The accusation was that he stole the money.

iii. His decision is that all fresh students should take the course.

iv. The penalty was that he should pay a million cedis

d. As Appositive

Another function of the that -clause is as an appositive. Let us consider some examples:

i. Your assumption, that things will improve, is unfounded

ii. The penalty, that he should pay a fine, was unacceptable.

iii. The decision, that he should take the course gain, did not please him.

iv. The accusation that he stole the money, shocked everyone.

v. The plan, that an examination hall should be built, is laudable.

e. As a Complement to an Adjective

The that -clause can function as an adjectival complement. Look at these

i. I’m sure that things will improve.

ii. He is certain that we shall pay him.

 iii. They are happy that we have come.

iv. It is good that you have another chance.

v. The man is hopeful that he will get a job.

Other things to note about the that -clause. It should be noted that the that -clause cannot occur as

prepositional complement or as an object complement. Also, when the that clause is object or

complement (or a delayed subject), the conjunction that is normally omitted in informal use. In

this case it is referred to as a “zero” that--clause. For example.

i. I know (that) he was wrong.

ii. They told him (that) he was wrong.

iii. He said (that) he would come.

iv. The assumption is (that) things will improve.

When the clause is functioning as subject and not extraposed, the conjunction that cannot be

omitted. It is rather expanded to the fact that, except informal use. For example.

i. (The fact) that she is still alive consoles me.

ii. (The fact) that he should pay a fine is shocking.

iii. (That fact) that he is to take that course again hurts him.

Exercise
Identify the that -clauses in the following sentences and stale their functions:

1. The accusation, that we closed early, is baseless

2. They demanded that we helped them

3. That we shall harvest maize soon is certain.

4. The rumour, that we shall start a new programme, is interesting.

5. The world is happy that a saviour is born.

6. I’m glad that you have come.

 7. The agreement was that we report at 6:00 am

THE WH INTERROGATIVE FINITE CLAUSE

Features of the WH Finite Nominal Clause

The WH - clause is another finite clause apart from the that -clause studied. What do we imply

by saying that it is finite? It means it is a clause that contains a subject and predicate, or it is a

clause that contains a finite verb (Refer to Unit I session 4).

The WH Interrogative Finite Nominal Clause is normally introduced by a WH word or an

interrogative word. Examples are

What

Who

Why

How (this is regarded as a WH word)

Where

When

What

Whose

Whom

That is why the clause is referred to as a WH Nominal Clause. Let us see some examples:

i. How he got the book was strange.

ii. I know what he wants to say.

iii. What Ama did surprised everyone.

iv. He hates what people do sometimes.

 v. What he paid for was not given to him.

vi. I can’t tell why he did it.

You will observe that all d1 above clauses begin with WH words.

Can you construct similar clauses? Try it using the following preambles:

1. Where they……………..

2. When he……………

3. forgot what……………..

4. The student knew how…………..

5. How he………………..

6. They got what……………..

3.2 Functions of the WH -Interrogative Nominal Clause The WH -interrogative clause occurs in

the whole range of functions available to the that -clause, and in addition can act as

prepositional complement. Let us examine these functions.

a. As Subject

i. What he did was strange.

ii. Where he went was good for him.

iii. How the book will sell depends on the author.

b. As Direct Object

i. I know why he came.

ii. He said what he believed in.

iii. Ama realized what made her fail.

iv. He took what belonged to him.

c. As Subject Complement
 i. The question is how he got into the room.

ii. That was why he came.

iii. It became what he really needed.

d. As Appositive

i. Our first question, why he took the exam, was not answered.

ii. The issue, what we should do now, is disturbing.

iii. The problem, how we can get water, is not solved.

iv. The first question, how he managed to pass, still bothers me.

e. As Adjective Complement

i. I am not sure where he bought that book.

ii. The teacher was certain where they saw the answer.

iii. Kofi was not sure whose house believed in.

iv. It was clear why he came.

f. As Prepositional Complement

i. It all depends on when we will start the party.

ii. No one was consulted on who should have the prize.

iii. The whole plan hinges on who should lead the group.

iv. Our success depends on what effort we put in.

Sometimes the preposition is optional.

As regards meaning, you will observe that these clauses resemble WH questions in that they

leave a gap of unknown information. The gap is represented by the WH element.

Look at these;

I am not sure who is coming (WH Clause)

This implies,

Do you know who is coming? (WH Clause) or

Who is coming? (WH question)

Exercise

Identify the WH Interrogative clauses in the following sentences and state their functions.

1. I know why you have come.

2. That is how it all happened.

3. What he prepared for supper was delicious.

4. He does not know who is coming in first.

5. How he got the house surprised everyone.

6. Well, that is why you must study hard.

7. Jane found what she was looking for.

THE TO INFINITIVE NON-FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSE

Features of the Non-finite Nominal Clause

The To -infinitive nominal clause is a non-finite one. What does this imply? You remember

that in unit 1, we studied the features of the non-finite clause. Their verb phrases are non-

finite in nature. In this case they can be constructed with or without a subject.

The To - infinitive nominal clause begins with a To + infinitive as for example:

i. To work hard is the key to success.

ii. To sleep early is impossible at times.

iii. John is to hand in his paper.

iv. For Esi to pass, is easy.

v. He was to pay for the light.

Complete the following sentences with To -infinitive non-finite clauses.

1. They were to…………………………………

2. The student was to………………………….

3. To ………………….. is a big task.

4. To …………………. is a joy in Life.

5. His decision was to………………………….

You have done well.

THE TO INFINITIVE NON-FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSE

4.2 Functions of the To-infinitive Non-finite Clause

The To-infinitive non-finite nominal clause can function as subject, direct object, subject

complement, appositive and adjectival complement. Look at these examples

a. As Subject

i. To study hard leads to success.

ii. To go hunting at night is terrible.

iii. To pay your light bill ensures good supply.

iv. To deceive people is a bad habit.

b. As Direct Object

i. He decided to know about the problem.

ii. They planned to pay their bills early.

iii. He wanted to collect his money.

c. As Subject Complement

i. The idea is for us to meet on Thursday.

ii. His plan was to play tennis everyday.

 iii. The issue is to draw a good budget.

iv. He was to report early.

v. Aba’s wish is to become a queen.

d. As Appositive

i. His decision, to pay his bills, surprised us all.

ii. The issue, to draw a good budget, is a key one.

iii. The idea, to meet on Thursday, is good.

iv. His ambition, to become a comedian, surprised his friends.

e. As Adjectival Complement

i. He was eager to pay for the book.

ii. They are anxious to do the course.

iii. She is afraid to travel at night.

iv. John is happy to visit the centre.

v. Mary is glad to help her mistress.

It would be noted that the To - infinitive non-finite clause resembles the that clause in that it does

not function as a complement to a preposition.

Exercise

(a) Identify the To infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clauses in the following sentences.

(b) State their function.

1. To err is human.

2. For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.

3. Her wish is to be a pilot.

4. His ambition, to be a lawyer, was never fulfilled.

 5. They are glad to work here.

6. To tell lies is a bad habit.

7. For the teachers to meet on Thursday is a good idea.

8. To work hard was his aim.

THE PARTICIPIAL NON-FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSE

Features of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

The participial nominal clause is another non-finite clause. What does this mean t you? It can be

constructed with or without a subject. The verb phrase is non-finite. Remember, we identified

some participles in the construction of the participial clause. Which are they? They are.

i. ing participle.

ii. ed/en participle.

The participial non-finite nominal clause is introduced by the ing participle. Let us look at some

examples.

i. Walking on the lawn is prohibited

ii. Paying bills early has advantages.

iii. He likes enjoying his apples in the afternoon.

iv. I am surprised at John making that mistake.

v. Collecting stamps is an interesting hobby.

In fact the commonest type of participial clause is that which has no subject, as in ii and iii

above. When the subject is required, there is sometimes a choice as follows:

i. I am surprised at his making that mistake.

or
 iii. I am surprised at John’s making that mistake.

Note here that the subject of the -ing clause is a genitive. Sometimes the objective case of the

personal pronouns or nouns are used. For example,

i. I am surprised at him making that mistake.

or

ii. I am surprised at John making that mistake.

According to Quirk (1973), it is commonly claimed that the genitive form is the only “correct”

form, but in fact, it frequently has a stilted effect.

5.1 Functions of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

The participial non-finite nominal clause occurs as subject, direct object, subject complement,

appositive, prepositional complement and adjectival complement.

Let’s look at these:

a. As Subject

i. Speaking the truth is good.

ii. Joining credit unions has become a laudable venture.

iii. Criticizing people unnecessarily destroys society.

iv. Paying your tax enables government to provide social amenities.

b. As Direct Object

i. No one enjoys deceiving his family.

ii. He hates telling lies.

iii. The people like building castles in the air.

iv. They dislike sharing rooms with other people.

c. As Subject Complement
 i. his favourite pastime is playing cards.

ii. What he hates is telling lies.

iii. Her best academic work is calculating ratios.

iv. Kofi’s greatest pleasure is listening to classical music.

d. As Appositive

i. His hobby, collecting stamps, absorbed him.

ii. Mary’s greatest pleasure, swimming in the pool, had to be abandoned.

iii. Their value, showing kindness to people, makes them successful.

iv. Esi’s problem, driving on the highway, is affecting her.

e. As Prepositional Complement

i. Susan is tired of being treated like a child.

ii. Some people are fond of promising what they cannot provide.

iii. He thinks of praying for his enemies and friends.

f. As Adjectival Complement

i. They are busy writing their papers.

ii. It is joyful sitting in a limousine.

iii. Ama is happy celebrating her twenty-second birthday.

iv. It is easy studying grammar.

Exercise

(a) Underline the ing participial nominal clauses in the following sentences:

1. It is foolish disobeying authorities.

2. Seeing is believing.

3. Paying bills is uninteresting.

 4. He considered it good giving things to the poor.

5. She is interested in celebrating Christmas.

6. Understanding such a lesson is easy.

(b) Identify the functions of the ing clauses.

OTHER STRUCTURES WITH NOMINAL FUNCTIONS

The Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause

The bare infinitive nominal clause is one that uses the infinitive form of the verb without to. For

example

See

do

come

go etc.

Let us look at some bare infinitive nominal clauses.

i. All he did was turn off the gas.

ii. What Dela did was supply the school with books.

iii. Pay his bill was his problem.

iv. Kill was all he did.

6.1 Function

The bare infinitive nominal clause can occur as subject and as subject complement. Look at these

a. As Subject

i. Turn off the gas was all he did.

ii. Shoot was what the captain commanded.

 iii. Close from work is what I have to do.

iv. Study hard is the only way out.

b. As Subject Complement

i. All he said was study.

ii. What he did was pay his bill.

iii. All he expects is we come.

6.3. The Verbless Clause

The verbless clause is another structure that performs nominal functions. As we saw in unit 1

session 6, the verbless clause is one that has no overt verb. For example; Wall-to-wall carpets in

every room is expensive.

We observed that even though the clause has no overt verb, its verb can be recovered from

context. Thus, the clause above can be rephrased as Having wall-to-wall carpets in every room

is expensive.

6.2 Functions

The verbless clause can function as subject. For example

As Subject

i. Wall to wall carpets in every room is expensive.

ii. Fast cars in cities is a problem.

Exercise

1. Construct four sentences with bare infinitive clauses and verbless clauses.

2. Underline the bare infinitive clauses and the verbless clauses in the sentences you have

formed.

3. State their functions.

RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

RELATIVE CLAUSES-AN INTRODUCTION

What are Relative Clauses?

Relative Clauses, unlike nominal clauses in Unit 2 above, are clauses introduced NOT by

subordinate conjunctions, but by pronouns. Can you give examples of both simple subordinate

conjunctions and compound subordinate conjunctions? What then are they? Like nominal

clauses, relative clauses have their own subjects and finite verbs, but form part of sentences.

1.1 Relative Pronouns

English, as you have rightly recalled has six (6) relative pronouns. They always

introduce the relative clause. Can you identify the relative pronouns in the sentences below?

1a. The man who brought the house has moved in.

2a. The car that was stolen belongs to Mr. Acquah.

3a. John picked the book which I left on the table.

4a. John picked the book I left on the table.

5a. This is the house whose owner was given a prize.

6a. The girl whom I spoke to is my sister.

Have you picked

1a. who

2a. that

3a. which

4a. zero

5a. whose

6a. whom?
Now pick out the relative clauses from 1. a - 6. a: have you got the clauses underlined in 1. b – 6.

b below;

lb. The man who bought, the house has moved in.

2b. The car that was stolen belongs to Mr. Acquah.

3b. John picked the book which I left on the table.

4b. John picked the book I left on the table.

5b. This is the house whose owner was given a prize.

6b. The girl whom I spoke to is my sister.

1.2 The Function of Relative Clauses

What functions do the relative clauses above perform? Yes, they always post modify the nouns

they immediately follow. These nouns are technically called Antecedents.

Antecedents, as you may recall, see module 2, page 83 are the heads of the noun phrases that the

relative clauses post-modify. (Can you pick the antecedents in sentences lc-6c. To do this, first,

identify the noun phrase, and then locate the head. The underlined are the antecedents of the

noun phrases in the Sentences

1c. The man

2c. The car

3c. The book

4c. The book

5c. The house

6c. The girl

Exercises

1. (a) Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences;

 (b) identify the antecedents; and

(c) Copy out the relative pronoun in each case.

i. The bird that rises early catches the worm.

ii. The police have re-arrested the prisoner who escaped yesterday.

iii. The houses that were destroyed in the storm arc to be rebuilt.

iv. The farmer whose son has won the scholarship is full of joy.

v. Can you tell the number that has won the lottery?

vi. Anyone who works hard can win a prize.

vii. Can you recall the answer Kofi gave?

viii. The teacher whom I admire most has been my P1 teacher.

2. (a) Use each of the six (6) relative pronouns in a sentence.

(b) Underline the finite verb in the relative clause.

3. In what context can you use a zero relative pronoun?

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS I THE

ANTECEDENT

The Choice of Relative Pronouns

Can you recall the six relative pronouns we studied in the last session? Of course, they are who,

whom, whose, which, that and the zero relative pronouns. We are sure you can tell the function

of the relative pronoun in the relative clause: it introduces the relative clause. Observe that

though they introduce the relative clause, they are not conjunctions that introduce nominal

clauses as we have seen in Unit 2 above. Can you guess the reason? Yes, unlike conjunctions,

relative pronouns do not perform connective functions. They are pronouns, so they function as
other nouns in acting as subjects, objects, complements, etc, of sentences. However, the choice

of a relative pronoun in a particular relative clause is governed by a set of rules. The first of such

rules is the nature of the antecedent.

2.1 + human Antecedent

What do we mean by the word, antecedent? Yes the antecedent is the head of a noun phrase.

Here are some examples with the heads underlined:

a. the cruel-looking dagger

b. a dangerous expedition

c. a foul-smelling egg

d. some oranges

Now use each of these noun phrases in a sentence.

a. Some oranges arc sweet.

b. A dangerous expedition was undertaken by the explorer.

c. A foul smelling egg landed on the master’s car.

d. The cruel looking dagger stared the traveler in the face.

All the antecedents in the sentences above do not refer to human beings. What do they refer to

then? Yes, they refer to non-human things. Now here are some examples with human

antecedents:

a. the heartless armed-robber

b. our kind teachers

c. the famous politician

The words armed-robber, teacher and politician refer to human beings. 1Jow if the antecedent

refers to a human being, we select the relative pronouns “who” or “that” to introduce the relative

clause. Here are examples;

1a. The heartless armed robber who was arrested yesterday escaped.

lb. The heartless armed robber that was arrested yesterday escaped.

2a. Here are our kind teachers who always help us.

2b. Here are our kind teachers that always help us.

3a. Kwame Nkrumah was a famous politician who led Ghana to independence.

3b. Kwame Nkrumah was a famous politician that led Ghana to independence.

Now write down two sentences containing relative clauses following a human antecedent.

The old woman who/that sells oranges is Kofi’s aunt.

The man who/that waits on customers in a restaurant is a waiter.

A person that/who teaches is a teacher.

2.2 Human Antecedent

Yes, with + human antecedents, we select who or that as relative pronouns to introduce the

relative clause. Now, what happens when the antecedent is -human, that is refers to non-human

objects? Let us start with some human antecedents: the tall building, the beach restaurant, the red

rose. Can you give some more examples? Now, when the antecedent is human or refers to

nonhuman objects, we select “which” and “that” to introduce the relative clause.

Here are some examples:

The vehicle that/which broke down near the school has been towed away. The house which/that

my father built has been sold.

The subject which/that is most interesting is English.

Now do the following:

a. Underline the relative clauses in the sentences above.

b. Put a ring round the verb phrases in the relative clauses.

c. c. Identify the antecedent in each sentence with double underlining

Exercises

1. a. Write down five (5) sentences containing relative clauses.

b. Give the antecedent double underlining.

c. Give the relative clause a single underlining.

2. What observation can you make about “that” as a relative pronoun in your study so far?

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN II:

FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE I CLAUSE IN THE SENTENCE

3.1 Defining or Restrictive Relative Clause

From the last session, it is clear that it is the antecedent that tells us whether we should select

who or that, on one hand, or “which” or “that” on the other. Can you explain what we mean here

to a mate who missed Session 2? Attempt an explanation to an imaginary absentee mate. Now a

defining or restrictive relative clause seeks to restrict its antecedent by limiting its reference,

hence the terms defining and restrictive.

Here are some examples:

1. The girl who is wearing a red pull-over is sleeping.

2. The boy who won the 100 metres race was Addo Quaye.

In both (1) and (2) the underlined parts are the relative clauses. In (1) the relative clause helps us

to identify the sleeping girl. Presumably, there are several girls, hut we are referring particularly
to the one in a red pull-over. The clause “who is wearing a red pull- over” is defining, restricting

or identifying its antecedent, “girl”. Similarly in (2), “who won the 100 metres race” helps pick

one boy from a group of several runners in the 100 metres race. The clause therefore helps us

identify the winner as Addo Quaye. The clause, in other words, defines, identifies or restricts the

antecedent “boy”. As a general rule, a defining relative clause selects one from a group, a smaller

number from a bigger group or a smaller quantity from a larger quantity.

1. The boys who came late were punished.

2. A girl who comes from Mate has won the prize.

3. The milk which is on the table has gone bad.

Features of the Defining/Restrictive Clause

a. In speech, the defining clause is said at the same pitch level as that used for the

antecedent. In other words there is no pause after the antecedent nor at the end of the

clause. Thus all the five sentences in our examples are said or read with no pauses.

b. In writing, the Convention S to use no punctuation marks, not even commas, in the

sentence containing a defining relative clause as exemplified in the five model sentences

above.

3.2 Non-Defining or Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Unlike the defining clause, the non-defining clause comments on its antecedent. The purpose of

the comment is to offer us extra information about the antecedent; it is not to help us identify it.

Here are some examples.

4. The Volta, which enters the sea at Ada, is a big river in West Africa.

5. The Bible, which is a holy book for Christians, has been translated into many languages.

8. President Kufuor, who won in 2000, is a great statesman.

In (6) the clause is not defining because there is only one river called the Volta. Similarly, in (7),

there is only one Bible and in (8) only one President Kufuor. The clauses in the three sentences

merely comment on their antecedents; they are, therefore, non-defining or non-restrictive relative

clauses.

3.4 Features of the Non-Defining Relative Clause

(a) The antecedents of non-restrictive clauses are always unique. By unique, we mean the

antecedent is the only one of its kind. Thus there is only one Volta, only one Bible and

only one President Kufuor. Unique antecedents are often names of people, Kofi, Fatima,

Marian; names of villages, towns and cities, like Kebegodo, Nsawam, and Accra; names

of institutions like University of Cape Coast, the Okomfo Anokye Teaching hospital, the

Volta River Authority, etc. Can you name other unique antecedents? You think about

names of days of the week, names of months, names of the oceans, names of the planets,

etc.

(b) The non-defining clause is characterized in speech by two pauses, one immediately after

the antecedent and the other at the end of the clause. In writing, the non-defining clause is

separated by two commas as equivalent to the pauses in speech. These features are

exemplified in sentences (6)-(8) above.

Now write down three sentences containing non-defining relative clauses. Test your sentences

for whether the antecedents arc unique and whether you have inserted commas.

3.5 Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses

(a) ‘who’ and ‘that’ arc selected for defining relative clauses with + Human antecedents. For

example;

9. The teacher who/that won the Best Teacher Award is Mr. Acquah.
 10. The young woman who/that threw her baby away has been arrested.

(b) “which” and “that” are chosen for defining clauses with -Human antecedents as in

11. The pen which/that you gave me was stolen.

12. Oranges which/that are unripe taste sour.

3.6 Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

(a) ‘who’ is the relative pronoun selected for non-defining clause with + Human antecedent.

13. My mother, who is very kind-hearted, pays my fees.

(b) ‘which’ is the chosen relative pronoun for the non-defining relative clause with -Human

antecedent. For examples:

10. Accra, which is the capital of Ghana, is crowded.

11. The University of Cape Coast, which is a famous institution, runs a Distance Education

programme.

From the examples above we can conclude that “that” as a relative pronoun cannot be used in

non-defining relative clauses.

Exercises

1. What is a defining relative clause? What are its features?

2. A non-defining relative clause is said to be “a comment clause”. Flow does this differ

from a defining clause?

3. Comment on the acceptability of the following sentences:

a. My mother who hails from Kumasi is generous.

b. Parliament which is the highest law-making body in Ghana has 200 members.

c. The Koran that can now be read in English was originally written in Arabic.

d. The book, which I left on table has been stolen.

 e. My uncle who lives in Tamale, has only one child.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN (III):

THE FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN

Relative Pronouns can Function as Noun Phrases

Can you recall what pronouns are? Yes, they normally refer back to nouns or noun phrases. (sec

2 pages 79-84). The relative pronouns, Like personal pronouns, for example, can function in

different ways. Some examples of personal pronouns are:

1. He came (Subject)

2. Tom met her (Object)

3. This is my bag (Genitive)

(see Module 2 page 80 for details). You will recall that the forms of the personal pronouns differ

according to case, that is personal pronouns mark case. In the following sentences the relative

pronouns function as:

(a) Subject (in the relative clause)

4. The man who stole Bridget’s heart is Mr. Tahiri.

5. The story that frightened me was “All Baba and the Forty Thieves”.

6. The house which collapsed yesterday was poorly built.

(b) Object

7a. Here is the girl whom I met yesterday.

8a. The child whom you spoke to is my daughter.

9a. The story that John told was interesting.

 10a. This is the book which Mary promised.

(c) Genitive

11. The chief whose daughter won a prize was happy.

12. The plant whose flowers smell sweetest is the rose.

What conclusions can we draw from the three sets of examples above? Here are some

conclusions:

1. In the (a) examples (4-6) who, that and which function as subjects so they are followed

immediately by the finite verbs, namely, “stole”, “frightened” and “collapsed” respectively.

2. (a) In the (b) examples, (7a - 10a) the relative pronouns whom, that, and which, introduce the

relative clauses, but they are followed by the subjects of the clauses. In (7), the subject is “I”,

in (8) “you”, in (9), “John” and in (10) “Mary”.

(b) When the relative pronoun functions as object, it merely introduces and identifies the

clause and the clause must clearly have its identifiable subject.

(c) When the relative pronoun functions as object, it is very similar to conjunctions in

introducing subordinate clauses like nominal clauses we have studied in Unit 2 above.

(d) The relative pronoun as object can be omitted without rendering the sentence or the

relative clause ungrammatical. Thus (7)-(10) may be written and said as

7b. Here is the girl I met yesterday.

8b. The child you spoke to is my daughter.

9b. The story John told was interesting.

10b. This is the book Mary promised.

 (e) The omitted relative pronoun as in (7b - 10b) is an instance of a zero relative pronoun.

Sentences 7b - 10b arc usually seen and heard in colloquial usage. They occur less often

in very formal usage, whether speech or writing.

3. The genitive form of the relative pronoun is “whose” for both + Human and -Human

antecedents.

4. In summing up the points above, we can say that:

(a) When the relative pronoun functions as subject in the relative clause, the pronouns

chosen are; who, which and that.

(b) On the other hand, when the function to be performed is object, the pronouns available

are: whom that, which, (and who in informal usage).

(c) The genitive function is performed by “whose” for all kinds of antecedents.

The case of the relative pronouns can be shown in a table thus:

The case of Relative Pronouns

Pronoun Subject Object Genitive

Who Who Whom Whose
Which Which Which Whose
That That That Whose

Exercise

1. Fill the blanks with appropriate pronouns.

a. The woman …………… daughter was injured is seeking legal redress.

b. I doubt if the person …………….. you saw was a ghost.

c. Those …………. work hard generally succeed.

d. The strategy …………… she suggested may not work.

 e. The house …………………. doors are painted green belongs to Akosua

2. Comment on the use of the relative pronouns in the following sentences.

a. Mount Everest, that is the highest peak in the world. is in Asia

b. The man whom came here was a bailiff.

c. The dog who’s tail is cut is wild.

d. Do you know the girl who’s standing near the door?

e. Do you admire girls that wear jeans?

3. Why is it necessary to know the function a relative pronoun is supposed to perform in a

relative clause?

SENTENCE RELATIVE CLAUSES

Sentential Antecedent

What is sentential antecedent? To answer this question, let us go back a little to recall what an

antecedent is (sec 1.3 of Session I above). In that part, we defined the antecedent as the head of

the noun phrase that the relative clause post-modifies. Can you give an example? Here are two

examples with the antecedents underlined.

1. The book which you misplaced has been found.

2. The man whom I have spoken to is my cousin

It is the type of antecedent that determines the choice of the relative pronoun we make. Can you

explain why “which” and “whom “arc chosen in the two sentences above? Which other relative

pronoun or pronouns can replace the relative pronouns in the two sentences above? Did I hear

you say “that” and “zero” relative pronouns? Yes, then you’re right. In the examples above the

antecedents are noun phrases. Indeed all the antecedents we have studied so far arc all noun
phrases. Sometimes, however, the antecedent may be bigger than a noun phrase. Consider the

sentences below:

3a. Mary has agreed to many me, which is good news.

4a. F’ati has left the husband, which surprises eeryone.

5a. I love my wife, which is natural.

Can you pick out the relative clauses from the sentences above? Yes, we can list them as:

3b. which is good news.

4b. which surprises everyone.

5b. which is natural.

What are the antecedents of these relative clauses? They are not the isolated

objects: “me” “husband; and “my wife, but the whole independent clause.

3c. Mary has agreed to marry me;

4c. Fati has left the husband:

5c. I love my wife.

You will agree that 3c-5c arc complete sentences with their subjects, finite verbs and objects.

Because these sentences precede the relative clauses, we call them sentential antecedents that is,

the antecedents are all sentences. When a whole sentence functions as the antecedent of a relative

clause, we term it sentential antecedent. Sentential relative clauses have sentential antecedents.

1.1 An Obligatory Comma Separates the Sentential Antecedent

Refer back to sentences 3a-5a. You notice that a comma (,) separates the sentence which serves

as the antecedent from the relative clause. This comma is obligatory and it cannot be omitted

without changing the meaning of the whole construction.

1.2 Sentential Antecedents Select “which” Only

In the three sentences above, we realise that ‘which’ is used as a relative pronoun in all of them.

The fact is that the sentential antecedent selects only ‘which’ as a pronoun for the relative clause.

No other pronoun can be chosen when the antecedent of a relative clause is a whole sentence.
1.3 The Function of the Relative Clause

What observation can you make about 3b-5h’ certainly they are not defining the antecedents.

Instead, they are commenting on the antecedents 3c-5c. In other words, the relative clauses with

sentential antecedents convey the speaker’s comment on the content of what he has said, (3b) -

(5b). In this case, the comment relative clauses may be regarded as co-ordinate sentences where

3a-5a are equivalent to:

3d. Mary has agreed to marry me, and this is good news.

4d Fati has left the husband, and this surprises everyone.

5d. I love my wife, and this is natural.