Concrete Lining

Related terms:

Shotcrete, Canals, Excavation, Reinforced Concrete, Cement Concrete, Rockbolts

View all Topics

Engineering and Technical Fundamen-

tals of Lining
Alireza Bahadori Ph.D., in Essentials of Coating, Painting, and Lining for the Oil, Gas
and Petrochemical Industries, 2015

4.16.5 Refractory Concrete Lining

Refractory concrete lining is used to line radiant and convection sections of furnace,
waste heat boilers, flue ducts, and steel stacks. These materials should not be applied
in freezing or excessively hot weather unless precautions are taken to maintain the
ambient temperature of refractory steel and mixing equipment as close to 15°C as
possible during mixing and application, and for a minimum of 24 hours thereafter.
Neither admixture of any kind nor live steam should be used for this purpose. The
vessel is to be placed in an erect position in the field.

Only personnel who are thoroughly familiar and experienced in application of

refractory should apply lining. Skilled tradespeople such as brick layers and nozzle
operators should have at least one year’s previous experience of work on jobs of a
similar nature.

> Read full chapter

Underground Metro and Road Tunnels

R.K. Goel, ... Jian Zhao, in Underground Infrastructures, 2012
8.3 Precast Lining
In some projects, fiber-reinforced precast concrete linings have been adopted.
Precast concrete segmental lining is now used in soil, boulders, and weak rock
masses (Fig. 8.6). The TBM is capable of placing them in position all around a circular
tunnel with the help of a segment erector. Segment bolts are then tightened twice
by impact wrenches. The curved alignment is achieved with the help of tapering of
the lining rings. All rings are tapered, and curvature is obtained by adjusting the
orientation of rings suitably. Before taking them inside the tunnel, the segments
are checked on the ground for any cracks/damage. As water tightness is extremely
important for the durability of the tunnel lining, a double gasket system comprising
a durable elastomeric gasket and a water sealing made from hydrophobic material
is used. These gaskets are located in grooves cast into the edges of the precast
concrete segments. Together with high precision casting of the segments achieved
by precision steel moulds, gaskets will ensure durable and water tight tunnels.
Hydrophobic seals expand up to 250% once they come into contact with water.

Figure 8.6. Tunnel lining in soils [8].

Thought should be given to a fire-resistant design of concrete lining, as fires in trains

are common these days. An extra thickness of concrete covers ( 75 mm) should be
provided over the steel reinforcement. Underreinforced concrete segments may be
used to ensure the failure in the ductile phase, if it occurs.

Grouting is carried out simultaneously with tunneling. There are inbuilt ports in the
tail skin of the TBM. These are used in primary grouting of the annulus (void between
excavation profile and outer face of the precast ring). Grouting is continued up to 3
bars (0.3 MPa) pressure. Excavation is not commenced until the previous lining is
completed. Secondary grouting is also done within 14 days of ring erection. Every
third ring is grouted to a pressure of 3 bars (0.3 MPa). Secondary grouting will fill
up any void left during the primary grout due to its shrinkage.

> Read full chapter

Extended Fictitious Crack Model for
Multiple-Crack Analysis
Zihai Shi, in Crack Analysis in Structural Concrete, 2009

4.6.1 Fracture Test on a Tunnel-Lining Specimen

The second structural problem involving multiple cracks is the fracture test of a
real-size concrete lining specimen of a waterway tunnel, as shown in Figure 4.15
(Abo et al., 2000). The test was carried out to investigate the cracking behavior and
fracture process of a tunnel lining with void formation above the ceiling area and
uniformly distributed loads applied to the sidewalls and to study the remaining
load-carrying capacity after the formation of cracks. As shown, the tunnel was 2.5
m in diameter, with a wall thickness of 25 cm. The test was carried out under the
load control, and during the test structural deformations were recorded at the crown
and the two sidewalls along with the strains, as illustrated in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15. Fracture test (dimensions in mm) on a tunnel specimen.

Although no measurements of the CMODs were taken during the test, the crack
propagation patterns were carefully recorded, as shown in Figure 4.16, in which
the load-displacement relations are also presented. As shown by the test results,
five cracks propagated in the test specimen before the collapse of the tunnel under
compression. The most active crack occurred in the right wall, which was followed
by two progressive cracks in the bottom plate from outside. The crack in the left
wall and the crack in the ceiling area from outside were small and less active. Upon
reaching the peak load, the tunnel specimen failed in a brittle fashion, as indicated in
the load-displacement relations. It was reported that during the experiment a certain
degree of eccentric loading occurred, generating a higher pressure-load on the right
wall. This is evident from the load versus displacement relations separately measured
on the left and right walls, as well as from the unsymmetric crack propagation
patterns recorded on the test specimen.

Figure 4.16. The results of a fracture test on a tunnel specimen: (a) load-displacement
relation and (b) crack propagation chart.

Based on these facts, the right portion of the bottom plate was believed to be under
bending during the experiment, and the corresponding vertical supports in effect
did not function, as indicated in Figure 4.16. In the following, the cracking processes
of the tunnel specimen will be studied by employing two FE models: a half-model
with three initial notches and a full-model with five initial notches. These analyses
will reveal the unique cracking behaviors frequently observed in actual tunnels. The
material properties of the test specimen are summarized in Table 4.2. Notice that
the bilinear tension-softening relation in Figure 4.9 is employed to solve the crack
equations.

Table 4.2. Material Properties of a Tunnel Specimen

E (GPa) ƒc (MPa) ƒt (MPa) GF (N/mm)

20.00 0.20 20.00 2.00 0.10

> Read full chapter

Access
D.M. Farrar BSc, MSc, PhD, CEng, MICE, MCIWEM, in Sewers: Rehabilitation and
New Construction Repair and Renovation, 1997

Shaft conversion
Conversion of the shaft is the last stage of the construction sequence. Shafts may
be provided with a secondary concrete lining (generally 100-150 mm thickness) to
provide additional strength, or as a safeguard against water ingress, or for protection
of the bolted segments when storage or surcharging of sewage flows is anticipated.
Alternatively, the segment panel may be fitted with precast concrete ‘pellets’ to give
a smooth finish. Precast concrete landing slabs and roof (reducing) slabs lessen the
time of construction compared with in situ concrete slabs. Reinstatement of the
ground surface requires removal of the top temporary segmental rings, placing of
the reducing slab, construction of the smaller access shaft capped with the manhole
cover and frame, and breaking out part if not all the temporary concrete collar.

> Read full chapter

Rockbolting Design
Charlie Chunlin Li, in Rockbolting, 2017

5.3.5 Compatibility Between Support Devices

The current methodology of rock support in civil tunnels is to install fully encapsu-
lated stiff rockbolts in the rock and to apply shotcrete or cast-in concrete lining on
the rock surface. Yield support devices may be imbedded in the lining in squeezing
rock conditions (Schubert, 2001; Li, 2012). Rock support systems in civil tunnels
are in principle composed of stiff internal devices (fully encapsulated rebar bolts)
and yield external devices (deformation-compensated concrete lining), which are
conceptually sketched in Fig. 5.3.13A. In such a support system, the stiff internal
devices (rockbolts) may fail after a small deformation, but the external devices (the
concrete lining) can accommodate relatively large rock deformation because of the
embedded yield devices. The internal and external devices in the system are thus
not compatible in deformation. In underground mining, people are used to employ
yield rockbolts and meshes to deal with excessive rock deformation. The support load
is mainly carried by the rockbolts, and the mesh restrains the dilation of the rock
surface. Fig. 5.3.13B is a conceptual sketch of this type of support system. In such
a support system, the internal devices (rockbolts) and the external devices (meshes)
are compatible in deformation, but the load-bearing capacity of the meshes seems
too low.

Fig. 5.3.13. Sketches illustrating incompatible rock support systems: (A) in civil
tunneling and (B) in mining.

In a satisfactory rock support system, both internal and external devices should be
both strong and deformable. In other words, they should be compatible both in load
and deformation capacities in order to achieve the optimum reinforcement effect.
The behavior of the internal and external support devices in such a system should
be as sketched in Fig. 5.3.14.
Fig. 5.3.14. A sketch illustrating the concept of a compatible rock support system.

> Read full chapter

Materials for Offshore Applications

Mamdouh M. Salama, in Handbook of Offshore Engineering, 2005

15.3.1 Materials Applications

In the past, plain carbon steel was the material of choice for seawater, firewater,
process piping and equipment. Corrosion control was mainly addressed by painting,
galvanising, or concrete lining. Because of excessive corrosion and often-needed
replacements, stainless steels AISI 303, 304, 316 and 321 were used in piping of
chemicals and hydraulic oil, and even in seawater systems [Haven, et al 1999].
External corrosion attack soon appeared, and only 316 proved to be resistant to
the offshore atmosphere. The Cu–Ni alloys were also used for their resistance to
seawater corrosion. However, the Cu alloys are found to be sensitive to seawater
velocities because they can suffer erosion–corrosion at high velocities (V > 3m/s, 10
ft/s) and some pitting corrosion may occur at stagnant conditions. If, however, there
is a possibility of H2S contamination, Cu–Ni is not recommended. As a follow-up,
exotic materials such as 22 Cr and 25 Cr duplex and 6 Mo stainless steels, Ni base
austenitic alloys and titanium alloys began to be introduced. These new alloys offered
excellent corrosion resistance and are weldable.

While the 300 series, the austenitic and the duplex stainless steels offered excellent
internal corrosion resistance, some failures occurred due to external stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) caused by the chloride-rich atmosphere offshore. The Ni content
plays an important role and the lowest resistance is experienced at about 8% Ni.
While 316 stainless steels are not recommended for temperatures above about 140°F
(60°C), duplex stainless steels have a much better resistance against SCC due to 50%
ferrite content of the structure. Exposed to offshore atmosphere, the 22 Cr duplex
shows resistance to 230°F (110°C). Above 230°F (110°C), 6 Mo or 25 Cr is generally
recommended.

However, chloride stress corrosion cracking temperature limits for the alloys are
always subject to debate. While some operators use 140°F (60°C) as specified above,
others use lower limits and some use higher limits. As an example, the EEMUA 194
publications states that austenitic steel grades such as 316/316L are susceptible to
chloride stress corrosion cracking where the material temperature exceeds about
50°C (122°F) and oxygen and chloride containing water are present. To a lesser extent
duplex stainless steels are also affected, though the threshold temperature increases
to about 120°C (248°F) for the 22% Cr and to about 150°C (302°F) for 25% Cr grades,
dependent upon fluid chloride content, temperature, pH and oxygen level. Oxygen
levels in produced hydrocarbons are usually too low to give rise to this problem.
Where oxygen may be introduced locally as a result of raw seawater ingress or
chemical injection, or where brines are very concentrated, consideration should be
given to the use of nickel alloys resistant to chloride stress cracking. The results
from over 700 stainless steel shell and tube heat exchangers in heating/cooling
water service including boiler water feeds showed that on the water side, chloride
stress corrosion cracking will not occur in austenitic stainless steels exchangers when
the system water temperature is less than 80°C (176°F), regardless of the chloride
content. At a chloride content of <7 mg/L, SCC will not occur regardless of water
temperature. Chitwood and Skogsberg (2004) have reported that 316 stainless steel
can be safely used in deaerated production environments containing upto 0.5 psi
(0.003 MPs) H2S and 50,0000 ppm Cl– at a minimum pH of 3.5 and a maximum
temperature of 175°F. At 0.5 psi H2S, the maximum temperature can be raised to
225°F if the maximum chloride content is reduced to 10,000 ppm. For non-sour
environment, 316 can be used to a maximum temperature of 350°F when the
chloride level is less than 150,000 ppm.

Where a process fluid contains wet H2S and CO2, Incoloy 825 or Inconel 625 are
selected. For components operating at low pressure (<20 bar), internal lining with
an organic/inorganic coatings can be used as an alternative to cladding with 825
or 625. Where H2Sis present, all materials must meet the requirements of NACE
MR0175 and ISO 15156-1/2/ DIS. Low-temperature carbon steel (LTCS) is used for
service down to −40°C and austenitic stainless steel, type 316L/304L, for design
temperatures below this, unless corrosive conditions dictate higher alloy grades.

> Read full chapter

Pipeline Design and Construction
Don D. Ratnayaka, ... K. Michael Johnson, in Water Supply (Sixth Edition), 2009

15.14 Mortar and Concrete Linings

Steel and ductile iron pipes can be lined with cement-sand mortar or spun concrete
and these form some of the best and most cost effective types of interior protection.
The cement mortar or concrete lining generates a high pH environment which
passivates the metal and prevents corrosion. Cement mortar lining (CML) may be
either factory applied by centrifugal spinning or may be applied in situ by spraying
(orange peel finish) followed, at large diameters and if required at small diameters,
by trowelling to a smooth (washboard) finish. BS 534 covers both mortar and
spun concrete and AWWA C205 and C602 cover shop applied and in situ mortar
respectively. BS EN 10298 covers mortar linings. Concrete lining has been chosen
in preference to CML on some projects because it is thicker (typically 25 mm instead
of 12 mm at DN 1400 and larger) and because the aggregate is larger, therefore
reducing shrinkage and presenting a more robust and durable surface.

Aggressive waters (as indicated by the Langelier index, Section 10.41) dissolve the
cement and increase pH, causing water quality problems particularly for small
diameter pipelines. However, the cement lining may be sealed with an approved thin
(150 to 250 μm) layer of epoxy paint. The seal coat provides a barrier to solution of
the cement mortar by aggressive low pH, low calcium waters but it is not particularly
robust. Where pH cannot be raised, for example by dosing with lime or, where
dosing cannot be guaranteed due to materials supply or operational uncertainties,
epoxy or other lining should be used.

Cement mortar linings and concrete linings are thicker than epoxy. They therefore
result in a slight reduction in pipe diameter (or require a slightly larger external
diameter to obtain the same finished internal diameter). Although cement mortar
or concrete linings may, after a while in service and with biofilm formation, attain a
hydraulic roughness similar to epoxy, they in general tend to have a greater initial
hydraulic roughness than epoxy. These factors may lead to epoxy being a more
cost effective solution if energy costs are taken into account, depending on the
circumstances. However, for typical civil engineering applications no distinction
is made between lining types when considering long-term roughness values. The
current trend away from concrete and mortar lining and towards epoxy lining for
new steel pipe may be linked to market forces, and also to the need for material in
contact with water used for the public supply (including raw water mains) to meet
the required approval process. The approval process is time consuming and entails
continued control of materials sources, including cement, as for concrete for water
retaining structures and linings for ductile iron pipes. Epoxy lining on its own would
be an expensive solution for ductile iron due to the surface roughness after grit
blasting; the pipes are cement mortar lined at all sizes and in the UK have a seal coat
on pipes only of DN 800 and smaller.

Bare metal pipe is spun at high speed on rollers and the mortar is poured as a slurry
into the interior. The lining builds up by centrifugal force and when the required
quantity has been poured the speed of rotation of the pipe is increased. The mortar
compacts further and surplus water runs off as the pipe is tilted very slightly. The
mortar mix comprises sand or fine crushed rock aggregate mixed with Portland or
sulphate-resisting cement in the ratio of 2.5:1 or 3:1 by weight. The lining is usually
so well compacted after spinning that the pipe can be immediately taken off the
spinning bed and is then cured in a damp warm atmosphere for 21 days. The mortar
lining thickness for steel is generally thicker than for ductile iron pipes of the same
diameter because of the flexibility of steel pipes compared with ductile iron pipes.
All fittings associated with mortar lined pipes are also mortar lined but this has to be
trowelled on. The discontinuity of the lining at joints in steel pipes should be filled
if the pipe is of large enough diameter to give inside access. Steel pipes which are
not large enough for this should either be jointed using flexible joints or be jointed
by externally welded collar joints. With the latter the lining is brought flush with the
pipe ends which are butted together; the heat input is not sufficient to damage
the lining. The collar is coated before assembly; any water between pipe and collar
is largely stagnant giving low risk of corrosion.

> Read full chapter

Domain Characterization by Tomogra-

phy and Material Parameter Identificat-
ion for Geological Surveying
Yasuaki Ichikawa, in Inverse Problems in Engineering Mechanics III, 2002

Numerical example: Underground cavern excavation

The damage identification method mentioned above is applied to a practical hydro-
electric underground cavern opening. The cavern is 20.5 m wide, 44.1 m high and
129 m long. It has a mushroom shape with 1 m thick arch concrete lining and the
arch span is 25.9 m. The cross sections of the cavern are shown in Figure 6. The
overburden of the cavern is 300-350 m. The distribution of rock classes (CRIEP class)
around the cavern is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Cross-section of the cavern.

Figure 7. Rock classification.

The surrounding rock mass consists mainly of rhyolite, and involves numerous
joints, although intact rock is very hard. Material properties of the intact rocks
obtained by uniaxial and triaxial compression tests are shown in Table 2, and the rock
mass properties obtained by in-situ plate loading tests are in Table 3. Initial stresses
were measured using the overcoring method. The results at the arch crown position
are shown in Table 4.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of intact rock for each class.

CH class CM class Fracture zone

Elastic modulus (GPa) 40.0 20.0 2.0
Poisson’s ratio 0.25 0.25 0.4

Table 3. Mechanical properties of rock mass by in situ test.

CH class CM class Fracture zone

Elastic modulus (GPa) 10.0 5.0 0.5
Poisson’s ratio 0.25 0.25 0.4
Table 4. Initial stresses at the arch crown position

Initial stress (MPa)

Horizontal x0 -9.75

Vertical y0 -7.12

Shear xy0 -0.28

x0/ y0 = 1.37

In Figure 8 the excavation sequences shown, and Figure 9 gives the locations of
extensometer measurement.

Figure 8. Excavation sequence.

Figure 9. Measuring system.

The number of parameters to be identified is 3 for each rock class. There are two
different rock classes, so the total parameters are 6. The finite element mesh is
arranged in a way that the measurement points of extensometers to coincide with
those of finite element nodes as shown in Figure 10. The observation data together
with the calculated results by the damage identification analysis are given in Table 5.
Note that Δu31 implies the relative displacement between the points 3 and 1 shown
in Figure 10. Then, the identified damage tensors for each class are as follows:
Figure 10. FE mesh of the cavern (a part).

Table 5. Relative displacements measured and calculated by damage analysis.

Measured Damage
RO3 Δu31 22.32 21.03

RO3 Δu32 10.40 12.70

RO4 Δu34 -6.32 -5.73

RO5 Δu85 9.07 8.68

RO5 Δu86 8.00 7.74

RO5 Δu87 5.00 5.64

unit(mm)

Using the identified damage tensors, the subsequent excavation process of the
cavern is simulated. Here we report a comparison of the predicted response with
those measured when the excavation of the cavern is completed. In Table 6 the
predicted relative displacements of the extensometers are compared with measured
ones. Furthermore, the predictions by the proposed method and the conventional
finite element analysis by using the rock mass properties given by Table 3 are shown
in Figure 11 and compared in Tables 6 and 7. As seen from the tables, the predictions
are greater than those by those of the conventional analysis. Nevertheless, the results
of damage analysis are in good agreement with the measurements.

Table 6. Displacements measured and predicted by damage and conventional FE

analyses.

Relative displacement
R03(3-l) R04(3-4) R05(8-5)
Measured 2.42 0.92 2.19
Damage analysis 1.24 1.28 2.36
Conventional FEM 0.97 2.00 1.89
unit(cm)
Figure 11. Comparison of final displacement.

Table 7. Calculated displacements at the side wall and crown.

Method Disp. Crown 1 Side wall 2 | u2/v1 |

Damage analysis Horizontal u 0.76 -9.08

Vertical v -1.71 -2.20 5.33

Conventional FEM Horizontal u -0.34 -4.35

Vertical v -2.01 0.15 2.16

unit(cm)

> Read full chapter

Strengthening of existing structures

D. Bournas, in Textile Fibre Composites in Civil Engineering, 2016

17.2.5 Strengthening of a highway RC tunnel lining (Greece

2008)
Egnatia Odos A2 is the Greek part of the European route E90. It is a motorway in
Greece that extends from the western port of Igoumenitsa to the eastern Greek–-
Turkish border. It runs a total of 670 km. In 2008, the RC lining of a vehicular tunnel
along the Egnatia Odos was strengthened with TRM to correct a structural deficiency
(Nanni, 2012). The original lining was 650 mm thick with a clear cover of 50 mm
and was reinforced with top and bottom steel bar mats. During inspections, some
flexural cracks on the concrete lining were observed. Also, finite element analyses
confirmed that there was a need to increase the RC lining moment of resistance in
both the circumferential and longitudinal directions.

A PBO fiber-unbalanced textile with rovings spaced at 10 and 20 mm, respectively,

was used (Fyfe, 2009). The equivalent nominal fiber thickness of the textile in two
directions was equal to 0.046 and 0.011 mm, respectively, whereas the weight of the
PBO fibers in the textile was 88 g/m2. The ultimate strength, ultimate strain, and
elastic modulus of the PBO fibers provided by the composite manufacturer were
5800, 0.025, and 270,000 N/mm2, respectively. The matrix comprised high-fineness
cement, an adhesion promoter, inorganic nanoparticles, microaggregates and a
polycarboxylate water-reducing admixture. This matrix was designed to achieve a
chemical bond with the PBO fibers. The ultimate compressive and tensile strength
of the inorganic matrix were, according to the manufacture, greater than 30 and
4 N/mm2, respectively.

Calculations indicated that the addition of a single layer of PBO fiber textile increased
the circumferential flexural strength of the lining by 14% and 4% at the top and side
portions of the tunnel, respectively. The addition of two PBO–TRM layers increased
the flexural strength by 100% in the longitudinal direction on the top portion of
the tunnel lining. The concrete surface was prepared using hydrojetting prior to the
installation of the PBO fibers and the application of a finishing coat of the matrix as
summarized in Figure 17.6.

Figure 17.6. (a) Surface preparation by hydrojetting; (b) application of the inorganic
matrix; and (c) application of the PBO textile reinforcement.Kind permission of
Ruredil SPA.

The cost of the project (in 2008) was around €800,000, which was less than any other
retrofit measure considered. The total area of PBO fibers used was 12,000 m2.

> Read full chapter

Durability of concrete structures

Peter A. Claisse, in Civil Engineering Materials, 2016
25.2.1 Pressure driven flow
“Permeability” is defined as the property of concrete that measures how fast a fluid
will flow through concrete, when pressure is applied. Figures 25.2 and 25.3 show
examples of pressure-driven flow in structures.

Figure 25.2. Schematic Diagram of Transport Processes in a Tunnel Lining

Figure 25.3. Schematic Diagram of Wicking Process

Figure 25.2 shows the effect of pressure-driven flow on a tunnel with a concrete
lining. These processes will be of greatest concern, if the groundwater has salt
in it. Most concrete tunnel segments are reinforced to prevent breakage during
installation, and the chloride will make this corrode and cause spalling. Adsorption
onto the hydrated cement matrix will significantly reduce the flow of chlorides, and
the water reaching the steel will probably have a very low concentration throughout
the design life.

Figure 25.3 shows the wicking process. It is characterised by a line of concrete

spalling about a metre above the ground, where the last of the moisture evaporates,
leaving the salt behind.

> Read full chapter

ScienceDirect is Elsevier’s leading information solution for researchers.
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Terms and conditions apply.