Chapter 8

CHAPTER VIII

8. CARBONATION INDUCED CORROSION IN RC STRUCTURES

8.1 General

The infrastructure development in the country is essential for its improvement in social-
economic status. While reduction of the durability of infrastructures due to the aggressive
environment like carbon dioxide polluted air, quality of materials and construction practices
is a diverse effect to the sustainable development. RC structures are becoming so vulnerable
to carbonation induced corrosion of steel in concrete especially in fast growing cities. At
Bangalore city, Carbon dioxide turns to 490 ppm in morning and 390ppm in evening
(Ramachandra and Kumar 2010). However, compared to chloride induced corrosion
carbonation-induced corrosion in RC structures seem to be neglected or else overlooked as it
expected to take many years to initiate.

RC structures located in non-coastal regions have shown signs of active corrosion in

shortest time after their construction. Documented data is not available but with data
collected recently from real structures to highlight the carbonation induced corrosion. For
example, no single research about carbonation induced corrosion in RC structures exposed to
real natural Rwandan environment. However, RC structures have found deteriorating and
suffering from active corrosion of reinforcement especially to carbonation. While at
Bangalore some data is available but it is limited and which shows that some RC structures
have been strongly affected with carbonation induced corrosion. To understand the situation
and the extent of carbonation-induced corrosion, a survey was conducted since 2013-2015 at
Bangalore city in India using non-destructive testing techniques (NDT) on 14 RC structures,
however there is no corrosion map (Abaho et al. 2015: 1041-1048). The life span of
structures surveyed ranged from 6years to 60 years.

8.2 Case Study Description at Bangalore

Bangalore city is among the fast developing cities in India with industrial and economic
activities at fore front. Ramachandra and Kumara reported a dramatic change of the city and

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increase in both carbon dioxide and temperature sincethe year 1973-2009.This may be due to
urbanisation and industrialisation (Ramachandra and Kumar 2010). Bangalore city has grown
by 63.2% and average atmospheric temperature has increased from 2 to 2.5 in duration
period of less than 40years (Ramachandra and Kumar 2010).The reported environmental
changes (increase) are really very influential and favouring factors for increase for
carbonation font in structures. The city is located very far from the coast at a distance of 300
km away east and west coast. It is located elevated plateau region of the Southern India
(Sudhira et al. 2007). This indicates that deterioration of RC structures in Bangalore city
cannot be attributed to corrosive environment contaminated with chloride ions commonly
known at coastal or neighbouring coastal regions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is reported to turn to
490 ppm in morning and 390ppm in evening in Bangalore due to development activities
including cement production and electricity production, transportation in general and other
fossil fuel burning actives (Guha and Gosh2014). Carbon dioxide concentration in
atmosphere in USA was 316 ppm in 1959 and 390ppm in 2011 (Gajanan 2012). This
indicates that CO2 level in atmosphere environment in Bangalore is very much high. Due to
other factors which favour the initiation and progress of reinforcing steel corrosion as well it
can be a significant problem to inland located infrastructures. When CO2 concentration and
temperatures are high in surrounding environment and when concrete quality is poor, such
conditions can lead to RC structure deteriorate by carbonation induced corrosion. It was
found that the higher rate of temperature also enhances the rate of carbonation (Maslehuddin
1996). Therefore, understanding the environment in which structures are located would help
to estimate time rage when the structures would require some maintenance. Even though the
durability of structures would be defined by its capacity to withstand or perform well when
exposure to specific environment for a given designed period of time, this would not avoid
minimum maintenance. Carbonation and chloride ion attack in concrete are the most
common causes of steel corrosion in reinforced concrete structures (Page et al. 1982, Ahmad
2006, Fu and Chung 1997, Saetta et al. 1993, Ho and Lewis 1987, Neville 2004, Broomfield
1997). Carbonation and chloride attack causes deterioration of concrete by reducing the
alkalinity of pore solution to pH less than 11, a situation that makes reinforcing steel
vulnerable to corrosion. Carbonation is more likely because carbon dioxide is almost
everywhere and due to deficiencies in quality of concrete. Carbon dioxide differs from one

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place to another due to difference in pollution; the normal carbon dioxide concentration in
atmosphere is around 0.03% but increasing annually and higher in cities. Carbonation rate
and carbonation depth in a concrete structure mostly depends on carbon dioxide
concentration in surrounding environment of relative humidity, density, quality of concrete,
time and conditions of exposure. Bangalore has a tropical wet and dry savannah climate,
relative humidity for Bangalore city is averagely 65%, such kind of climate favour high rates
of carbonation. It is reported that corrosion activity increases highly in RC structures when
average relative humidity is above 50% and below 70% (Neville, 2003).

The survey conducted on fourteen structures in this city, has indicated that carbonation
depth in RC can penetrate up to the level of steel surface in six years. This is a typical case
which shows premature failure of RC structures. It has occurred primarily due to early
corrosion of steel reinforcement. Reinforcements are prevented from corrosion by the pH
environment of high value 12.5-14 available in pore solution around SR in concrete.
However, due to the ingress of elements which includes but not limited to moisture, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, sulphates, and chlorides into the concrete, the pH is reduced below 9 which
makes the reinforcements are not passivated. The ingress of air (CO2) and moisture for this
case, later initiates corrosion of steel and the process begins with the reaction between carbon
dioxide and calcium hydroxide present in concrete. This is called carbonation (Ho and Lewis
1987). Because of this carbonic acid produced, the pH (alkalinity) of the concrete slowly
reduces and when alkalinity is reduced to below or around 10, the passivation/ protective
oxide film to the steel is broken or destroyed. With the presence of oxygen and water;
corrosion of steel will be initiated. Durability of any structure is determined from design
stage, material selection, and construction to the service stage. For corrosion prevention and
control, systems approach is essential. Reinforced concrete structures perform well as long as
the alkaline environment is intact as explained by (Neville 1995) Eqn.1 shows the
precipitation of calcium carbonate.

Ca (OH) 2+CO2 CaCO3+ H2O (8.1)

Step 1 H2O +CO2 =HO-3 + H+

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HCO3-= CO3-+H+ (8.2)

Step 2

Ca (OH) 2+2H+ + CO32-= CaCO3+2H2O (8.3)

The neutralization reaction penetrates gradually into the concrete to the surface of steel. The
process of CO2 diffusion can then be modelled based on Fick‟s first law. The initial model
proposed is based on the diffusion law and considers that the carbonation rate is proportional
to the square root of the time of exposure to the CO2 (Broomfield1997). Under steady
conditions, the depth of carbonation increases in proportion to the square root of time, as
depicted by the following equation:

dc =K t1/2eq. (8 .4)

In equation {eq. (4)} above, dc= depth of carbonation, K = carbonation coefficient and

t= time of exposure to CO2 in years. Good concrete has a K- value between 0.25mm/year
and 1 mm /year0.5 [Broomfield 1997, Bentur et al. 1997, Tuutti 1982]. Based on experimental
data, carbonation coefficient has values around (1 - 1.5)mm/year0.5, but can increase to 7.0
and 8.0 (mm/year0.5) for poor concrete and environmental situation (Mangat 1991). The
atmospheric carbon dioxide diffuses into the hardened concrete through its pores and when
carbon dioxide reaction takes place, the alkalinity of the concrete reduces from 13.5 to 10
and below. Humidity between 50-70% accelerates carbonation, lower than that water is not
enough to accommodate carbonation process and higher than that water inhabits CO2
diffusion. Shiessl reported that two folds‟ higher corrosion rate could be reached by 10 °C
increase in temperature (Shiessl and Raupach 1990 (ed), Berke and Hick 1994). Tuutti 1982)
found that carbonated specimens had a logarithmic rise in corrosion rate with temperature
from -20°C to around 30°C. Accelerated tests carried out in the laboratory to compare the
resistance to carbonation in different types of concrete shows that, indicatively, one week of
exposure to an atmosphere containing 4% CO2 will cause the same penetration of
carbonation as a year of exposure to a normal atmosphere (Al-Kadhimi et al. 1996). It was
found that 100% of CO2 under increased pressure produce the same microstructure as natural

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carbonation (Al-Kadhimi et al. 1996). Table.1- shows the classification of exposure

environment for carbonation to various concrete structures (LNEC E-464 2005). The
carbonation environment shown in table.1; C3 and C4 environment with relative humidity
ranging from (50-70) percent, at temperature of 30°C and above carbonation aggressively
increases. However concrete quality and time of exposure is critical to determine carbonation
rate.

Steel corrosion

Corrosion is known from long ago, the work of Plato (427-347 B.C.). Naturally steel is a
product of processed iron ore which is its lowest energy/stable state (Mars G Fontana, 2005).

Table 8.1 Time to initiate corrosion

Structure Clear cover (mm) Average Time to initiate

Element type (ACI-138-11) Carbonation corrosion per
Coefficient year
Slab 19 3.83 18
Beam 37.5 96
Column 37.5 96

During the manufacturing of steel around 3500°C energy is inserted to melt the ore as to
remove unwanted and remain with useful steel. Corrosion is insidious in nature. Corrosion of
rebar in concrete is only apparent in its advanced stage when it manifests itself progressively
in the form of „rust‟ stain, cracking, delaminating; spalling with exposed and corroding steel
reinforcement (Sunil et al. 2010). The corrosion of reinforcement behaviour and corrosion
rate will depend on the time of exposure, concrete clear cover and carbonation coefficient of
the structure. For specified concrete cover as per ACI 318-11, the time to initiate corrosion of
different structural elements are calculated and summarized in Table-2. Here, carbonation
coefficient is assumed to be 3.83mm/year0.5. It is assumed that, after 18years of exposure,
corrosion of steel bars in slab will be started. From the field investigations, it was also found
that corrosion of steel bars in slab was started earlier compared to the other structural
members. Steel bars embedded in slab was corroded earlier than the steel bar embedded in

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other structural members due to the less cover as well as the use of lower quality concrete in
slab compared to the other structural members. The ingress; diffusion rate of corrosive
agents; their concentration; the environment condition like: drying and wetting; temperature;
humidity, quality of concrete and the interaction between these influencing factors
themselves with concrete determine the service life of a reinforced concrete structure.
Corrosion products thus formed being more voluminous results in expansive pressure in the
surrounding concrete and lead to cracking of the concrete. The formation of such cracks
accelerates further corrosion.

Up to date, the concrete construction industry faces challenges in regardsto sustainable

development is concerned. Construction industry consumes huge quantities of virgin
materials used for construction but these constructions have short service life which has an
adverse effect on the resource productivity of the industry. In regards to sustainability,
environmental impact associated to the extraction of raw materials in quarries, the energy
consumption related to cement production, carbon dioxide emissions released in the
production as well as transport processes are major issues of concern (Schneider 2011, Shi et
al. 2011, Juenger et al. 2011). These contribute to greenhouse gas emissions that are
implicated in global warming and climate change. It reduces service life of reinforced
concrete structures due to carbonation induced corrosion of SR hence affect sustainable
development. The urban air pollution mostly from vehicle & motor vehicle,
industries/factories gases: like pulp & paper, cement, mining, chemical & pharmaceuticals,
software and others emit gases like CO2, SOX, NOX and CO, are relevant parameters to the
cause of corrosion to concrete reinforcements. Continuous generation of waste by-products
possessing hydraulic and pozzolanic properties, create environmental problems, and outline
the need for their collection and productive utilization.

8.3 Methodology

Visual inspection is to be generally the first step and the basis for the detailed investigation in
every structure inspected. Detailed inspection was done using standard tools and equipment,
with experienced technical and systematic procedure of physical observations. Detailed
investigative study with both non-destructive testing (NDT) and Destructive testing

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techniques was employed. Rebound hammer test and ultrasonic pulse velocity test, were
carried out on the reinforced concrete members in order to assess the surface hardness/quality
and strength of in-situ concrete. The tests were conducted using Schmidt rebound hammer
from M/s. proceq, Switzerland and “PUNDIT” (Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive Digital
Indicating Tester) equipment from M/s. CNS Farnell U.K, respectively as per the guidelines
in Indian standard ((IS:1311-(Part11)-1992- (Reaffirmed in 2004)). Half-cell Potential
Measurements test was carried out on R.C members using Copper-Copper Sulphate. It was
used to estimate the stage of corrosion in reinforcing bars using CANIN Corrosion analyser
from M/s. proceq, Switzerland as per the guidelines furnished by manufacturing‟s manual
and ASTMTC-876-91 - (Reaffirmed in 1999). The cover meter studies were carried out on
various RC members, in order to assess the thickness of cover concrete and to map the
disposition of peripheral embedded rebar‟s in the R.C. members. The tests were conducted
using Profometer-5+ from M/s Proceq, Switzerland as per the guidelines furnished by the
manufacture‟s manual (ASTMTC-876- 91) - (Reaffirmed in 1999). Core test was conducted
in order to assess the quality/ strength of in-situ concrete in R.C members. The extracted core
samples were subjected to compressive strength test after necessary trimming and capping as
per the guidelines in IS: 516-1959 ((Reaffirmed in 2013). Carbonation test was carried out on
reinforced concrete members using phenolphthalein indicator in 0.1N methyl alcohol to
assess the extent of carbonation in cover of RC members. Chloride determination test was
carried out on concrete to estimate the level of chloride in concrete. The permissible limit of
quantity of chloride in concrete is 0.6 kg/m3. The Bureau of Indian Standard earlier specified
the maximum chloride content in cement as 0.05 percent. But it is now increased the
allowable chloride content in cement to 0.1 percent, I S 456 of 2000 limits of the chloride
content. Sulphate determination test on concrete is carried out to estimate the level of
sulphate in the concrete. Sulphates in concrete were determined generally by chemical
analysis and expressed in terms of percentage of sulphate by weight of concrete. The
permissible limit of quantity of sulphates in concrete is 0.4%. The level of pH in fresh
concrete is generally in the range of 12 to 14. Due to carbonation, when pH of concrete falls
below 10, the alkalinity of the concrete will not be adequate to protect the rebars against
corrosion. Results of this survey on fourteen structures and the tests conducted on samples
are tabulated in table-3.

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8.4 Discussion and Evaluation

This work was focused on corrosion of embedded steel in reinforced concrete structures and
its possible causes. The evaluated structures were exposed to Bangalore moderate exposure
condition. Hence, nominal concrete cover was expected to be as stipulated by India standard
for durability requirements (table.4). It was found that carbonation had reached the level of
steel surface in all corroded reinforcements or reinforcements with high corrosion potential.
According to ASTM criteria for corrosion conditions, the corrosion potential of the rebars
after reaching a quasi-stationary value lay between -0.420 and -0.380 VCSE. It is an
indication of high risk of corrosion condition (90% of risk) PUNDIT M/s. CNS Farnell.,
U.K, as per ASTMTC-876- 91- (Reaffirmed in 1999). This corrosion condition was found to
be a more of general case for the almost the 14 structures evaluated. As per visual inspection,
severe growth of vegetables & fungus, damaged drainage system (leaking), dampness,
cracks, Surface honeycombs, concrete cover spalling and exposed corroded rebar were
common defects in almost fourteen structures surveyed. It was found that no maintenance
had been done to these structures since when they were put in service as confirmed by the
owners during the time of preliminary investigation. Detailed physical measurement were
carried out and recorded for theoretical verification to obtain dimensions of various members
(columns, beams, slabs and others). Layout plans were sketched. However, with
examinations on foundation and tests on soil conducted, the safe bearing capacity of soil was
satisfactory; no signs of settlement or disturbance to the foundation system were found in all
structures considered. The detailed data collected (tabulated in Table6.2 – Chapter VI) as per
the objective of survey with a combination of various NDT techniques gives the basis for
given conclusion. A combination of NDT-techniques as well as tools used to collect data
gives correlated raw data for corrosion of steel in concrete hence reliable for further analysis.
Since the overall foundation tests were satisfactory hence, settlement has no effect on cracks
commonly observed on members of structures surveyed. The concrete cover ranged between
(12-50)mm, more than 67% of the structures surveyed had concrete cover thickness less than
30mm, and this is inadequate concrete cover to control the ingress of corrosive environment
for long time (Monteiro 2012). More than (80%) of structures surveyed were found with high
probability of corrosion as indicated in table.3. After the ingress of carbon dioxide, moisture

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and initiation of corrosion, corrosion rate was high as it depended on other factors than
concrete cover (Patel 1985). As per table-3, it is observed that carbonation is the major cause
of distress, being at steel level in all 14 structures evaluated. This is more confirmed by the
pH lagging below 9 in most of the structural members about 85% of inspected concrete
structures. This means that SR was no longer passivated hence prone to corrosion.

Fig 8.1 Number RC structures selected at random for evaluation and their range of age
A big number of surveyed structures ranged between (21-30) years.

A wide range of pH is identified in structures 12 and14 (Table- 6.2) but average pH is below
10. This was caused by the difference in structure exposure, difference in time of exposure
(age) and non-uniformity of concrete cover.

With chemical tests analysis, it is observed that except 4 out of 14 structures (28.57%), the
quantity of chlorides in concrete was below limit to initiate corrosion (below chloride
threshold) in 10 out of 14 (71.43%) structures inspected. The permissible limit of quantity of
chloride in concrete is 0.6kg/m3 as per Indian Standard (I S 456 of 2000) limit for chloride
content in concrete. The chloride threshold of conventional reinforcing steel ranges between
0.6 and 1.2kg/m3(Ji et al 2005, ACI 318-89 (1992)). Therefore, it is not expected that RC was
due to chlorides. It can be observed that while carbonation was at the level of steel in all
structures, chlorides seem not increase with the increase of concrete age and this is in

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agreement with Patel who said that carbonation can affect the diffusion of chloride in
concrete through changing the pore structures of concrete (Patel1985). It is also in agreement
with Angala who found a reduction of total porosity and a redistribution of pore sizes as a
result of carbonation (Angala et al 1997). The chloride binding capacity is decreased with
carbonation due to change in cement gel in relatively coarse crystalline products and the
decrease in pH of pore solution. Sometimes the interactions of the factors which affect
corrosion are very strong and the change in one factor might bring changes to all other
factors consequently influencing the corrosion behaviour of steel in concrete structure. For
example, the moisture content in the concrete depends not only on the relative humidity of
the atmosphere but also upon the cycling temperature during day and night (Andrade 1997).

Table-8.2 Estimated coefficient of carbonation of different structural members with in

class XC3 class surveyed.

Structural element Average coefficient of carbonation -K(mm/year0.5)

Slab 4.420
Beam 3.510
Column 3.905
Others 3.475
Average 3.8275

Figure 8.2 Show structural member samples tested for carbonation.

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A total of 80 samples from fourteen different structural members were considered in Fig 8.2.
Also variation of temperature has simultaneous effect on different parameters which might
counter balance each other. The oxygen content as well as pH value of pore solution will
decrease and the concentration of chloride ion increases when temperature rises.

Carbonation depth measurements were taken from 14 different concrete structures of five
age groups in Bangalore city are shown in Fig 8.3. Measurements were taken from different
structural members, such as, slab, beam, column, stair, sun shade, shear wall, etc. footings,
Stair case, sun shade, and shear wall categorized as other structural member. This is
indicating that the influence from environment is complicated in real structures exposed to
atmospheric environment where the parameters are not under control. Particularly, the
interactions among those factors need to be extensively investigated and carefully analysed
with controlled experiments.

Good concrete carbonation coefficient should range between (0.25-1) mm/year-1/2(Tuutti

1982)(Broomfield 1997). Also Monteiro found that with good quality concrete, concrete
cover of 30 mm was sufficient at design level of 60 years‟ structures of service life for
carbonation penetration control. The carbonation coefficient was estimated to be
3.76mm/year 0.5Also (Monteiro 2012).

Figure 8.3 Resultant curves of carbonation depth in concrete against

structure exposure time for different structural members in the present survey.

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In the present study, the analysis of quality concrete cover in structures surveyed was done
with the use of formula ( )…. eq.4. The resultant carbonation coefficient curves were
as in figure.5. The average carbonation coefficient in the structures surveyed is found to be
3.83mm/year0.5. This is 0.07mm/year0.5 higher compared to carbonation coefficient of 3.76
0.5
mm/year (Monteiro 2012) fig 8.3. The difference of carbonation coefficient in surveyed
structures from Monteiro findings with the present study was due to poor quality of concrete
to control the rate of carbonation but also it is an indication of high carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmospheric environment in question. It was found that slabs had more
average carbonation coefficient K (mm/year0.5) of 4.42 compared to 3.91, 3.51 and 3.46 for
columns, beams and others respectively as indicated in table-5. It is observed that
carbonation depth increased with the time of atmospheric air exposure/age (environmental
exposure class XC3 Table-5.1).

In structures (6, and 14), it was found that chlorides also sulphates contents in concrete were
beyond the threshold, corrosion of steel reinforcement and carbonation had reached the level
of steel as well. In such a situation it is not easy to specify the major cause of corrosion of
steel in concrete since the influence of each parameter is not specific, a combination and a
resultant effect due to their interactions is apparent. However, the rate of steel corrosion in
concrete structures affected by chloride ion penetration is much faster than in carbonation-
induced corrosion (CEB 1992, Branco and Brito 2004).Fig.8.4 shows relationship between
carbonation depth and exposure time for the present study (Monteiro et al 2012).

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Figure 8.4 Comparison of the findings between the present researches with (Monteiro
2012) about carbonation coefficient

Table. 8.3 Nomial concrete cover to meet durability requirements

as per indian standard code- IS 456:2000 (Clause 26.4.2)

Exposure condition Nominal concrete cover not

less than (mm).
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very severe 50
Extreme 75

As per the Indian Standards Table - 8.3, the concrete cover to be used in Bangalore is 30 mm
since it has moderate exposure condition as per the corrosion map of India.

Irrespective of the exposure conditions and structural elements, the average carbonation
coefficient is found to be 3.83mm/year0.5 as shown in Fig-8.3. Carbonation coefficients of
various structural elements are summarized in Table-8.25 for various exposure conditions. A
higher value of carbonation coefficient is found to be caused by poor quality concrete, low
concrete cover as compared to durability requirement (table-4) as well as moderate
carbonation environment in Bangalore city.

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8.5 Conclusions

The carbonation induced corrosion found in almost all structures except in few members of
three structures where chlorides were found high enough to initiate corrosion. Survey data on
analysis indicate an average carbonation coefficient (K) of 3.83mm /year0.5 in concrete
structure exposed to Bangalore atmosphere. Carbonation coefficient was found high
(4.42mm/year0.5) in slabs as compared to the rest of structural members. This was due to low
quality concrete and less concrete cover.

The present study (Abaho et al 2016c) confirms with Monteiro I et al 2012, for 60-years
designed service life structure in moderate environment should have at least 30 mm concrete
cover to protect SR from early corrosion initiation. Carbonation induced corrosion was
accelerated by 490 parts per millimetre concentration of CO2 in the surrounding environment
of the surveyed structures. It was facilitated by the deficiency in construction practices like
inadequate concrete cover, high w/c ratio and poor quality of concrete in general. The
concentration ranges of total chloride ions (0.72 - 0.79, 0.16-0.84)kg/m3 and percentage of
sulphate (3.09 - 3.14, 2.89 - 3.38) found in concrete structures (6 and 14) respectively and
carbonation being on the level of reinforcement as seen in Table 6.2 (CHAPTER VI), lead to
suggestion that the interaction of carbonation, chloride and sulphate attack under certain
environment has a significant influence to early distress or deterioration of reinforced
structures. Therefore, more research can be conducted on their combined influence under wet
and dry environmental conditions. All structures surveyed were devoid of maintenance,
proper maintenance would have controlled corrosion of reinforcement. Age was a
contributing factor to the deterioration of concrete to some structures surveyed. Hence
preventive maintenance is essential.

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