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Personalized Lane Keeping Assist Strategy: ISSN 1751-8644

doi: 0000000000

Adaptation to Driving Style

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Jagat Jyoti Rath 1∗ , Chouki Senouth 2 , Jean Christophe Popieul 3

Department of Automatic Control, LAMIH-UMR CNRS 8201, University of Valenciennes, France.
* E-mail: jagatjyoti.rath@gmail.com

Abstract: The research in Adaptive Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) has progressed to design architectures for driver specific
performance. Personalized ADASs’ in this aspect have been developed with adaptation to driver attributes, state, style, behavior,
skill etc. For the lane keeping task, the driver driving style while navigating a high/ low curvature track plays an important part in the
design of a lane keeping assist system. Considering this aspect, a robust co-operative control approach is formulated to design
a personalized lane keeping assist with adaptation to driver style. Based on statistical analysis of lateral jerk and steer feel, a
fuzzy rule based identification procedure for the classification of the driver style as clam, moderate, aggressive or very aggressive
is designed. Using the identified driving style, a modulation function is proposed to adapt the assist torque. The assist torque is
generated based on a robust higher order sliding mode approach as a feedback control for the driver-vehicle system. Closed loop
stability of the proposed driver-vehicle design in the presence of disturbances is established. Co-operative control between human
driver-autonomous controller for the lane keeping task over the Satory test track with adaption to driver style is then shown for
validation of the proposed architecture.

1 Introduction
The role of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) [1] has
evolved over decades of research and commercialization in assisting
the human driver for tasks with focus on improvements in driving
performance [2], [3] fuel efficient driving [4], [5], increased safety
and comfort [6] etc. Various ADAS architectures for lane keep-
ing, collision avoidance, cruise control, braking assistance, parking
assistance etc. [7], [8] have been developed. These advanced pro-
tocols are implemented in modern vehicles as semi-autonomous/
fully autonomous features. The human-machine interaction (HMI)
between drivers and automated vehicles for Advanced Driver Assis-
tance Systems (ADAS) is dependent upon variable factors which
comprise of environmental, vehicular and human factors [2], [7].
Typically traffic, weather, road conditions, driving skill, fatigue,
driver behavior, driver driving style [2], [9] etc. are some factors
which influence the performance [10]. To improve the HMI and the
overall efficacy of the system the objective is to design ADASs’
which can adapt to driver attributes such as behavior, skill, style etc
and hence be personalized.
Considering the case of semi-autonomous ADAS implementation
and its subsequent interaction with the human driver, co-operative
control between the human driver and the autonomous controller
in form of shared-authority based control , guidance based control,
driver personalized control [9], [11], [12] etc. has gained promi-
nence. Personalized ADAS for a specific driver with adaptation
to driver attributes has been explored in many works such as [2],
[3], [13] based on co-operative/ shared control. In the works of [2]
control strategies based on adaptation to driver workloads, level of
drowsiness etc. were proposed. Similarly in [13], the human arm
properties were analyzed and employed for development of an assis-
tance strategy. In other works driver style, behavior, intent, response
time to specific events [10] etc. have been studied for development
of assistance architectures. Driver Style (DS) which classifies the
driving response of the driver to different maneuvers, events, scenar-
ios etc. is a significant parameter that can be employed to design an
assist system.
Driving Style is a dynamic parameter that reflects how a typi-
cal driver operated a specific driving task. DS is affected by driving
skill of the driver, environment, driving conditions, mood, fatigue
etc [14], [15]. Further, the DS of a specific driver evolves con-
tinuously i.e. a specific driver may have different DS for different
maneuvers. In [16], based on comprehensive analysis of driver deci-
sion making capabilities, demographic background and character the
driver style was categorized into dissociative, anxious, risky, angry,
high-velocity, distress reduction, patient, and careful styles. It was
concluded that driver experience, training and familiarity with the
vehicle and the environment further affected the DS of a driver .
Similarly, in [17] the DS was classified on basis of level of aggres-
siveness while driving over freeways with variable road, traffic etc.
conditions. Consequently calm, moderate/ normal, aggressive and no
speed driving styles for a group of drivers based on the analysis of
lateral jerk signal were identified. In [18], the relationship between
driver style and driver characteristics such as somatic, behavioral
and emotional conditions were exploited to develop a structural
equation model for the the classification of DS into various styles
ranging from aggressive to cautious. Similarly, other approaches for
DS classification based on levels of aggressiveness [19], [20], [21],
based on vehicle dynamics such as headway time, jerk, etc. [22], car
pedal use and car following dynamics [23] among others have been
developed. In these works the DS was classified through rule based
approach (Fuzzy), Model based approaches or Machine Learning
based approaches (Supervised/ Unsupervised) [10] .
Integrating the information of DS, personalized ADAS systems
for improved fuel consumption, collision avoidance, comfortable
driving, safety etc. have been subsequently proposed. In [19] the
information of identified DS was used to identify the “owner” of
a connected vehicle in case of theft. Similarly in [20], consider-
ing different driver models i.e. Aggressive, Eco-driving and Normal
models, a personalized ADAS to minimize the fuel consumption in
conjunction with a path planning algorithm was proposed. In [24], a
personalized DS adapted active cruise control (ACC) was proposed.
In this work, the proposed ACC was then able to mimic the human
driving style for longitudinal control. The information of the clas-
sified DS was employed to plan the learning path for the driver for
achieving fuel economy upgrades and improve driver behavior in
[5]. A fuzzy control based approach for the design of a driver advi-
sory system to improve the fuel economy in Hybrid electric Vehicle
was proposed in [4]. Other uses of driver style adapted control
has been exploited for car-following maneuver [25], driver steer-
ing control [26], driving safely along curved roads [27] etc. Most

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of the works proposed for DS adaptation are for improving fuel con-
sumption, safety etc. with focus on longitudinal motion control. In
[31], a methodology was proposed for modeling individual driver
behavior for lane change maneuver. By integrating a sinusoidal lane
change kinematic model and a Gaussian mixture model, the kine-
matic parameters were adjusted to individual driving styles. These
parameters were then updated online for providing lane change w.r.t
individual driver/ vehicle response. Similarly in [32] a driver model
was used to detect unintentional lane change maneuvers early and
employ model predictive control action to prevent vehicle drifting
through steering control. Using various vehicle state measurements,
a switching logic was employed between the driver and the con-
troller to detect the unintentional lane change and provide control
accordingly. Further in [33] a driver style personalized approach for
driving on narrow roads was proposed. In this approach based on
pre-recorded driving experience of the driver, reference trajectories
are first established to classify driving styles. In real time, for any
deviation from reference trajectory, a minimal assisting action is pro-
vided to keep the vehicle on the road. Along similar lines, we explore
the possibilities of driver style adaptation based personalized lane
keeping assist for lateral motion control of vehicle in this work.
In this work, a driver style adaptive lane keeping assist system
based on a co-operative control architecture is proposed. Initially,
the bicycle model dynamics for lateral motion of a vehicle was inte-
grated with the visual cues based human driver model [2] and the
lane errors based road model, to establish a closed driver-vehicle
dynamic model. For the developed model, the control objective was
to design a personalized lane keeping assist (PLKA) system which
could adapt to the driver style. To develop the PLKA, the driving
response of a group of drivers was first considered i.e. the lateral
jerk, mean speed, lateral acceleration, steer feel etc [28]. for analy-
sis. Based on the statistical analysis of these measurements, lateral
jerk and steer feel were considered as two measurements which
could generate features for the classification of driving style into four
classes i.e. Clam, Moderate, Aggressive and Very Aggressive [17],
[27]. First, driving zones were identified based on the lateral accel-
eration and road map. Then specific to the driver zone, a Fuzzy-Rule
based approach was proposed to identify the driving style as out-
put. An adaptive activity function (AAF) for the driver considering
the driver torque and driver style was then formulated. Employing
the AAF, an assistance modulation factor was then formulated based
on levels of assistance required [2], [3]. Subsequently, to minimize
the lane errors i.e. lateral deviation and heading error, a robust feed-
back controller based on the higher order sliding mode (HOSM)
[29], [30] technique was designed to generate the assist torque. The
co-operative control architecture was completed with the modula-
tion of the assist torque with the developed assistance modulation
factor based on driver style for driver-vehicle operation. The main
contributions of the proposed work are:
• A fuzzy classification procedure for the identification of driving
style based on levels of aggressiveness was proposed. First based
on levels of lateral acceleration, driving zones are identified and
mapped. Employing normalized values of lateral jerk and steer feel
signals w.r.t the identified driving zones, a fuzzy classifier is pro-
posed to categorize driving style into four classes based on levels of
aggressiveness.
• A robust state feedback controller based on higher order sliding
mode approach is proposed to satisfy multiple objectives of i) mini-
mization of lane deviation errors ii) improvement of driver comfort.
Closed loop stability in presence of disturbance and uncertainty is
established.
• A dynamic function to represent the level of assistance required
based on driver style is proposed. Consequently, the co-operative
architecture for lane keeping is developed with the driver style mod-
ulated assisting torque and driver torque acting simultaneously to
perform lane keeping.
The performance of the co-operative control approach is validated
over the Satory test track for lane keeping thru numerical simu-
lations. For illustration, results of a single driver and generalized
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results for a group of drivers is shown. The subsequent analysis and
discussions have been presented for the driver style identification,
HMI between the driver-autonomous controller and lane keeping
performance for the proposed co-operative approach.
2 Driver-Vehicle System: Lateral Motion
To improve HMI and the overall efficacy of an assistive driving sys-
tem, the objective is to design ADASs’ which can adapt to driver
attributes such as behavior, skill, style etc and hence be personal-
ized. In this aspect, we consider incorporating driver style as a factor
for analyzing the HMI between human driver-autonomous system
for a Lane Keeping Assist (LKA) system in this work. To design and
implement the proposed co-operative control architecture, the inte-
grated vehicle-driver-road dynamics for a driver-in-the loop LKA
task is discussed.
2.1 Lateral Motion: Vehicle-Road Interaction
The lateral motion of vehicle can be replicated by the bicycle model
which integrates the dynamics of lateral speed/ slip and yaw motion.
Under the effect of lateral friction forces and with assumptions of
negligible longitudinal coupling, the nonlinear lateral dynamics for
a longitudinal vehicle velocity vx is given as [7], [2]

M vx β̇ = Fr + Ff cos(δf ) − M vx ψ + Fw
(1)
Iz ψ̇ = lf Ff cos(δf ) − lr Fr + Mw
where M is the mass of the vehicle, lf and lr represent the distance
from center of gravity to the front and rear axles respectively and
Iz is the yaw moment of inertia. The yaw rate is denoted as ψ, the
vehicle side slip angle as β, the tire steering angle as δf , the lat-
eral aerodynamic force and moment as Fw and Mw respectively.
The nonlinear friction forces that excite the vehicle and are respon-
sible for motion of the front and rear wheels are given as Ff and Fr
respectively. The tire-road interactive friction can be modeled using
various static and dynamic models such as Dahl, LuGre, Brush-
Tire etc. Considering the nonlinear Brush-Tire model, the dynamic
friction between tire-road is modeled in this work as [7]
h i
(
3σj 1 − |γj ζj | + 13 (γj ζj )2 ; ∀αj ≤ αsj
Fj = (2)
µf Fz sign(αj ) ; ∀αj > αsj
where j = f, r denoting the front and rear tires. The nonlinear
functions are given as γj = (2Cpj t2p /3µf Fz ), αsj = tan−1 (γ)j ,
σj = µf Fz γj ζj and ζj = tan(αj ) with Cpj denoting the tire stiff-
ness coefficient, tp representing the tire-road contact patch length,
µf is the dynamic road-tire friction coefficient and Fz is vertical
load on tire. The front and rear tire slip angles are given as
βvx + lf ψ βvx − lr ψ
αf = δf − ; αr = (3)
vx vx
Based on the Brush-Tire model, the linear region of frictional forces
i.e. for low slip angles and saturated region i.e. for high slip angles
can analyzed. The tire self-align moment as a function of the front
K t F
tire lateral force can be given as Tsn = pRps f , where Kp is the
level of assistance from the active steering system and Rs denotes
the steer gear ratio. For the vehicle, with above lateral dynamics
undergoing a lane keeping task the objective is to keep the vehicle at
the center of the lane with appropriate orientation. Thus the interac-
tion of the vehicle with the road curvature ρr for lane following can
be depicted by the lateral deviation error yl and the heading error Ψl
at a look ahead distance ls . These entities together represent the lane
tracking error, with their dynamics given as [2], [3]
ẏl = βvx + ls ψ + Ψl vx ; Ψ̇l = ψ − ρr vx (4)
For a real vehicle, the lane tracking error measurements are available
on a real-time basis from the vehicle perception unit [2]. Integrating
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the lateral motion dynamics (1) and the lane tracking error dynamics
(4), a nonlinear system can be formulated. In the absence of a human
driver, the design of control focuses on generation of the steer angle
δf for lane keeping system. In this work, with driver-in-the loop con-
sidered, the dynamics of the steering column are hence introduced to
depict the interaction between the human driver and the vehicle-road
nonlinear system. The steering column dynamics can be given as
Js δ̈f = Rs Td + Rs Tc − Rs Tsn − Rs Bs δ̇f (5)
where Js is the steer column moment of inertia, Bs is the viscous
coefficient of steering system, Td is the torque from the driver and
Tc is torque from the assist system. With the driver considered, the
driver steering angle can then be given as δd = Rs δf . For the lane
keeping task, now the driver model mapping the torque Td based on
visual cues is discussed.
2.2 Driver Model: Visual Cues Based
The human driver has been modeled in past researches based cogni-
tive actions, neuromuscular actions, human arm dynamics and visual
response. Considering the lane keeping objective of this work, a
driver model as function of the visual angles i.e. near visual angle
θn and far visual angle θf is employed [2], [34]. The near and far
visual angles represent the compensatory and anticipatory actions
performed by a human driver while ensuring that vehicle remains in
lane center in the absence of any assistive action. Using an anticipa-
tory behavior, the driver visualizes the road curvature at a far point of
the road and generates and anticipated steering torque before enter-
ing the curve. Once the driver starts lane keeping by entering the
curve, his/her compensatory behavior enables him/her to generate
the necessary compensatory steering torques. The integrating map-
ping of the anticipatory and compensatory steering motions of the
driver can be then used to depict the total torque generated by the
driver. The near and far angles are formulated as a function of the
lane tracking errors, predicted road curvature, look ahead distance at
the far point and given as [2]
yl
θn = + ψl ; θf = ρtp Lf (6)
vx Tp
where Tp is the driver preview time for the near point, ρtp is pre-
dicted road curvature and Lf is the look-ahead distance at the far
point given as, Lf = τa vx with τa representing time to the tangent
of the far point tracked by the driver. When the vehicle is on a straight
road, Lf has a high value as ρtp → ∞. In such a case, the far visual
angle is zero. However, on a curved path the value of Lf depends on
the anticipation time of the driver and the driving velocity, becoming
constant with the road curvature. The predicted road curvature can
be approximated as [34], [35]
 
1 ψ̇
ρtp = ψ + Lf
vx vx
Based on these near and far angles, the following model of the driver
is given
Td = Kc θn + Ka θf (7)
where Kc is the compensatory gain and Ka is the anticipatory gain.
Integrating the above expressions for predicted road curvature, far
visual angle and near visual angle, the driver torque can be easily
represented in terms of the lane errors and the vehicle states. An
illustration of the lane keeping task for a vehicle at a look-ahead
distance ls is shown in Fig. 1.
2.3 Integrated Model: Vehicle-Driver-Road
The vehicle-driver model for a lane keeping/following task is then
formulated by integrating the dynamics (1)-(7). This model can
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be represented as a generic nonlinear system due to the effect of
nonlinear tire-friction forces as
ẋ = f (x, t) + g(x, t)U + ∆ (8)
where x denotes the states of the system, f (x, t) represents the state
transition dynamics, g(x, t) the input-state dynamics, U the control
input and ∆ the disturbances affecting the system. The states of the
 T
nonlinear system are given as x = β ψ yl Ψl δd δ̇d .
The nonlinear functions f (x), g(x) can be obtained from the system
dynamics discussed earlier and the control input is sum of the assis-
tive torque Tc and the driver torque Td . For this nonlinear system,
the objective is then to design the assistive torque Tc for ensuring
lane keeping while traversing dynamic curves.
3 Proposed Architecture
Driver Style typically characterizes the torque generating capability
of a driver for a specific maneuver. The driver style for a specific
driver is influenced by various factors that can be based on psy-
chological, physiological, environmental and vehicle responses such
as driving conditions, traffic, weather, mood, driver skill, behav-
ior, fatigue etc. [10]. The use of driver style recognition for active
feedback in ADAS systems requires a trade-off between recogni-
tion efficiency, complexity, ease of implementation and improved
comfort for the driver.
3.1 Driver Style Identification
In, this work, the objective is to design a Lane Keeping Assist (LKA)
system that assists the human driver while navigating variable road
conditions. Specifically, the idea is to categorize the driver style into
various classes based on vehicle responses with focus on effective
lane tracking and increased driver comfort. To classify the driver
style for the design of a LKA system, various measurements i.e.
lateral acceleration, lateral speed, jerk, steer rate, lateral quickness
etc. can be considered. In this work, the following signals have been
selected for the identification of different driver styles:
Lateral Jerk : Lateral jerk is a third order index representing the
lateral vehicle motion. The lateral jerk signal has been extensively
used for classification of driver styles for lane keeping, lane change,
etc. driving tasks [10], [17], [20], [21], [27], [28]. For a driver fol-
lowing a track of variable road curvatures, the lateral acceleration
has a significant variation w.r.t to vehicle speeds. Consequently the
average jerk over different road segments also exhibits variations. In
general, for a very sharp turn, the jerk magnitude would be signifi-
cantly higher for an aggressive style of driving, in comparison to a
calm style. This response is further dependent on the driver param-
eters and the driving velocity. The instantaneous lateral jerk at time
instant k can be given as
1
Jy (k) = [ay (k + 1) − ay (k)] (9)
∆k
O

f
Lane
Center

Lf l

f
y
l
Car
Heading

n
ls
Fig. 1: The lane keeping task for a vehicle at a look-ahead distance.
3
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Steer Feel : Its of note that while following a particular track
with different road curvatures, its is quite feasible that one individ-
ual driver can have variable driving style. Thus, a particular driver
may have an aggressive style of driving while maneuvering a curved
track, while on a straight track he/she might have a entirely different
driving style [27], [28]. In such scenarios, the assisting action would
involve high frequency switching as the driver switches between dif-
ferent driving styles. This in turn leads to severe discomfort for the
driver and reduced the drive performance. To ensure that the DS
identified, takes into consideration the driver comfort, the Steer Feel
Factor (SFF) is introduced as follows:
SF F = vx δ˙d (10)
The SFF indicates the steering feel for the driver for a typical driv-
ing velocity vx based on the driver comfort expressed as a measure
of the steering rate. Thus, in the case of high driver comfort, the
SFF has a low value while for a very low driver comfort, the SFF
has a very high value. By the integrated analysis of the jerk sig-
nal and the SFF, the driving style can be categorized into multiple
classes such as calm, moderate, aggressive etc. Its of note that, to
identify different driving styles of the same driver along various
curves, the signals Jy and SF F must be analyzed w.r.t the lateral
acceleration of the vehicle while navigating the curve. The classified
driving styles thus would be specific to the average lateral accel-
eration for the considered road segment. Consider that the vehicle
is driven around a dynamic test track with the longitudinal velocity
constrained as |vx | ≤ vmx . Accordingly, to preserve limits of stabil-
ity across very sharp turns, the lateral acceleration is assumed to be
constrained within |ay | ≤ aymx . Incorporating the above effects of
lateral acceleration, the following generic algorithm is proposed for
detection of driving style:
- STEP 1: Based on the limits of lateral acceleration and road cur-
vature map, partition the driving cycle into multiple driving zones.
Each zone corresponds to an averaged lateral acceleration threshold.
- STEP 2: For each driving zone, compute the mean, variance
(VAR), standard deviation (SD), Root mean square (RMS) and Peak
value of signal (PK) for the signals Jy and SF F . The data is ana-
lyzed over an sliding window sw for smooth results. After analysis,
the significant statistical values are then normalized w.r.t particular
driving zone.
- STEP 3: Employ the normalized statistical values of Jy and SF F
as inputs to a decision block for classification of driving style into
four classes i.e. Calm, Moderate, Aggressive, Very Aggressive.
In this work, we employ fuzzy logic based decision algorithm to
generate different driver classes based on the analyzed jerk and steer
feel signals. It is of note that other rule based approaches, look-up
tables, supervised classification algorithms etc. can be employed to
classify the driving style.
Remark 1. In this work, the signals lateral acceleration and driver
steer rate are employed for identifying the driver style. Its of note that
other measurements such as lateral quickness, headway time, etc.
generate significant features when the objectives are lane change,
lane departure, obstacle avoidance [21],[22], [28] etc. In contrast,
with the objective of lane keeping along dynamic curves consid-
ered in this work, the lateral jerk and steer feel are among the
most significant signals used for driver style classification based on
aggressiveness levels with high accuracy [10], [17], [27].
3.2 Human Machine Interaction: Lane Keeping w.r.t Driver
Driving Style
The interaction between the human driver and the autonomous con-
troller designed for lane keeping can be modulated to achieve various
objectives such as lane keeping, obstacle avoidance, driver comfort
improvement etc. This modulation can be carried out by the design
of an adaptive function that reflects the changes in driver attributes
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and lane keeping performance. In this work, the focus is on the
design of an assistance architecture, where the assist torque gener-
ated by the driver is adapted to the driving style. To design such a
function, the relationship between driver torque, driver style and the
level of assistance required similar to [2], [35] is explored. In accor-
dance with that, an adaptive activity function (AAF) is formulated as
a function of the driver torque and the driving style as shown below:
p2 p3
AAF = 1 − e−p1 Tdn DS (11)
where, p1 = 2, p2 = p3 = 3. The function Tdn represents the nor-
malized driver torque and given as Tdn = |Td /Tdm |, with Tdm
denoting the maximum driver torque possible. The value of DS indi-
cating driver style has also been normalized w.r.t various styles. The
AF F replicates the activity of the driver in accordance with his driv-
ing style as an exponential function. To employ this information of
the driver activity for modulating the assistance torque, the relation-
ship between driver activity and level of assistance required [2] was
exploited. Based on previous research, it can be established that the
level of assistance required by the driver can be represented by a U -
shaped function [2]. To replicate this curve, the following assistance
modulation factor (AMF) is developed
1
µAF = (12)
|AAF −q1 | 2q3
1+ + 0.2
q2
where, q1 = 0.5, q2 = 0.355 and q3 = −2 respectively. Employing
the proposed AM F , the assistive control can be then generated as
Tc = µAF Uf b (13)
where Uf b is a robust feedback control designed in the following
section.
4 Lane Keeping: A Robust Feedback Approach
For the design of a lane keeping assist system, the control objective
are formulated as follows: (a) Minimization of lane deviation errors
(b) Improvement in driver comfort. To ensure that the lane deviation
errors i.e. yl and Ψl at a look ahead distance ls are minimized, the
tracking error el is defined as
el = yl + ls Ψl (14)
The driver comfort can be analyzed as a measure of the steering
rate. Integrating the steering comfort with the lane tracking error,
the integrated error surface can be hence formulated as
σ = η1 el + η2 ėl + η3 δ̇d (15)
where η1 , η2 , η3 > 0 are positive constants to be designed. The
dynamics of the error surface can be expressed as a function of the
states of the integrated driver-vehicle model (8) as
σ̇ = η1 ėl + η2 ël + η3 δ̈d
h i h i
= η1 ẏl + ls Ψ̇l + η2 ÿl + ls Ψ̈l + η2 δ̈d
η3
= η1 f1 (x) + η2 f2 (x) + η3 f3 (x) + U + ∆ (16)
Js f b
where f1 (x) = 2ls ψ + vx (β + Ψl ), f2 (x) = 2ls ψn + vx ψβn and
f3 (x) = (1/Js )(Td + Tsn + Bs δ˙d ) are functions of the states
of the system. The nonlinear functions ψn , βn represent the
nominal dynamics of the yaw rate and side slip measure-
ments, given as ψn = (1/Iz )(lf Ff cos(δf ) − lr Fr ) and βn =
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(1/vx )((1/M )(Ff cos(δf ) + Fr ) − ψvx ) respectively. The distur- where ν(σ) is a robust control based
Rt on the HOSM approach and
bance term ∆ affecting the error dynamics is given as given as ν(σ) = −α1 φ1 (σ) − α2 0 φ2 (σ) dt. The nonlinear func-
tions φ1 , φ2 are given as φ1 = σ + α3 |σ|0.5 sign(σ), α2 = σ +
Fw F w lw 0.5α32 sign(σ) + 1.5α3 |σ|0.5 sign(σ), where α1 , α2 and α3 are
∆=− − − (η1 + η2 )ls ρr vx − η2 ls ρ̇r vx (17) positive gains to be designed. Substituting for the proposed control
M Iz
(18), the error dynamics can be then expressed as

To ensure the convergence of the error dynamics, in the presence σ̇ = ν(t) + ∆ (19)
of the lumped disturbance ∆, the following feedback control Uf b is
then designed as
Based on practical operating ranges and boundedness of the distur-
bances thereof, the bound on the perturbation ∆ can be established
Js ˙ ≤ ρd , where ρd > 0 is a positive constant. It can be shown
as |∆|
Uf b = [−η1 f1 (x) − η2 f2 (x) − η3 f3 (x) + ν(σ)] (18)
η3 that for appropriately designed gains α1 , α2 and α3 , the finite time

Enviornment
Lat,
Accl Modulation
Normalization
Road
Driving Zone
Identification
Fuzzy Driving Style
Satistical
Jerk Identification

μ AF
Analysis

Vehicle
Steer Feel

Sensors
Driver
Human Torque
Driver

Robust Nonlinear Feeeback Control

Assist
Torque

Driver Style Adapted Co-operative Control Strategy

Fig. 2: The architecture of the proposed driver style assisted co-operative control scheme

1
(a) (b) 1
1
0.8
.75 .75
.5
0.6 .5
.25
0 .25
.04 0.4
4
.02 3 0
2
0 1 0 30 60 90 120
0 0.2

Fig. 3: (a) Driving zones w.r.t lateral acceleration and road curvature (b) Driving Zone identified for a single driver

Zone~1 Zone~2 Zone~3 Zone~4

(a) (b) (c) (d)
0.8 0.8
0.4
0.3
0.6 0.6
0.3
0.2
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.1 0.2 0.2
0.1

Fig. 4: Jerk profile of various drivers

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convergence of the error surface (σ = σ̇ = 0) can be ensured. For
details refer [29], [30]. The feedback control Uf b designed to sta-
bilize the tracking error dynamics represents the assistive torque
to be generated by the actuator in the case of autonomous con-
trol. Integrating the information from the driver style recognition
unit, the feedback control is then modulated to generate the assist
torque Tc as shown in (13) to ensure co-operative control between
the human driver and the autonomous system during shared control.
The architecture of the proposed scheme is shown in Fig. 2.
5 Results & Discussion
To evaluate the proposed approach the parameters of the vehicle con-
sidered were M = 2025 Kg, Iz = 2800 Kgm2 , lf = 1.30 m, lr =
1.60 m, tp = 0.052 m, Cpf = 42500 N/rad, Cpr = 55690 N/rad,
ls = 5 m, Bu = 0.5, Rs = 16.3, Js = 0.05 Kgm2 , τa = 1 s and
Tp = 0.8 s. The proposed co-operative control architecture was val-
idated on the Satory test track for different driving conditions. The
Satory test track is a real world test track composed of road sections
with radii varying from 25 m to 500 m [2]. The driver model (7)
has been validated on the SHERPA simulator for various drivers [2],
[34], [35] . Accordingly, real driver data validated on the simula-
tor was used to determine the anticipatory and compensatory gains

Zone~1 Zone~2 Zone~3 Zone~4

(a) (b) (c) (d)

0.12 0.5
0.075 0.6
0.4

0.05 0.08 0.3 0.4

0.2
0.025 0.04 0.2
0.1
0.01

Fig. 5: Steer feel of various drivers

VL / VS L/S M/C H/R VH / VR (b) CAL MOD AGG VAGG

(a)
Degree of Membership
Degree of Membership

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

JSD , SFSD Driver Style

(c) 0.8

0.6
DS

0.4

0.2

0
0 30 60 90 120
Time(s)

Fig. 6: Fuzzy (a) Input for the Lateral jerk and Steer feel (b) the Output driver class (c) The identified driver style for the illustrated driver

Table 1 The fuzzy rules for the driver style identification

Jsd SFsd
VS S C R VR
VL Calm Calm Moderate Aggressive Aggressive
L Calm Moderate Moderate Aggressive Very Aggressive
M Moderate Moderate Aggressive Aggressive Very Aggressive
H Moderate Aggressive Aggressive Very Aggressive Very Aggressive
VH Aggressive Aggressive Very Aggressive Very Aggressive Very Aggressive

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Kc , Ka respectively to represent various drivers [2], [34], [35].
The performance of the proposed approach was then validated thru
numerical simulations carried out on Matlab/Simulink platform for
the nonlinear vehicle-driver model (8). It is considered that the vehi-
cle traverses different sections of the track at a fixed velocity where
|vx | ≤ 15m/s. The level of assist provided form the active steering
system is fixed at Kp = 0.65. The road-tire friction coefficient, is a
variable entity dependent upon surface conditions. In this work, the
results presented are for µf = 1. However, the friction can vary in
the µf ∈ [0, 1] based on the road surface and the proposed controller
implemented accordingly with due modifications to the controller
gains. For the above driving conditions it is considered that for effec-
tive lane keeping performance, the states of the nonlinear system (8)
are constrained as follows [2], [34], [35]:
|ψ| ≤ ψm , |Ψl | ≤ Ψlm , |yl | ≤ ylm , |δf | ≤ δf m ,
|δ̇f | ≤ δ̇f m , |Tc | ≤ Tcm
where the maximum value of each measurement is given as ψm =
0.55 rad/s, Ψlm = 0.1 rad, ylm = 1 m, δf m = 0.18 rad, δf m =
0.11 rad/s, and Tcm = 10 N m. For the design of controller, the
gains η1 , η2 and η3 were selected as η1 = η2 = η3 = 1 for the
sake of simplicity. These gains can also be elected based on design
approaches such as pole placement, LMI etc. as discussed in [36].
Based on the maximum limits of the road curvature and the lateral
aerodynamic forces, the bound of the perturbation ∆ was computed
posteriori as ρd = 0.8. Its of note that the procedure of computation
of posteriori bounds is generally followed for HOSM approaches
[29], [30]. Based on the bounds of the perturbation, the HOSM gains
were selected as α1 = 1.5, α2 = 15 and α3 = 4.5 similar to [29],
[30]. For the above considered driving scenarios, the proposed driver
style adapted co-operative driving architecture was then evaluated
and the results are presented.
5.1 Driver Style Recognition
To identify and categorize the driving styles as discussed in Section.
3.1, multiple runs on the Satory test track for different driving con-
ditions and driver parameters were conducted. For different ranges
of longitudinal velocity |vx | ≤ 15m/s, the entire track was divided
(a) 1
.5
0 0
-.5
-1
Time(s)
Fig. 7: The lane tracking performance (a) lateral deviation error (b) heading error
.5
(a) (b) .15
.25 .075
0 0
-.25 -.075
-.15
-.5
Time(s)
Fig. 8: The controlled states of the system (a) yaw rate ψ (b) steer angle δf (c) steer angle rate δ̇f
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into multiple zones of variable acceleration levels with peak accel-
eration during the entire test fixed at |ay |pk = 5 m/s2 . Based on
the road curvature map and the lateral acceleration, distinct driving
zones can be mapped as shown in Fig. 3. The driving zones, DZ
are normalized in the range DZ ∈ [0, 1]. With the increase in levels
of acceleration and the road curvature the value for DZ increases
as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Employing this mapping, the driving zones
identified for a single driver is shown in Fig. 3 (b) for illustration.
From the identified DZ, four distinct zones were considered as
DZ1 ∈ [0, 0.25], DZ2 ∈ [.25, 0.4], DZ3 ∈ [0.4, 0.6] and DZ4 ∈
[0.6, 1]. For each driving zone identified, the lateral jerk and steer
feel signal was then analyzed to identify the driver style as discussed
in Section. 3.1. Accordingly, the mean, variance (VAR), standard
deviation (SD), Root mean square (RMS) and Peak value of signal
(PK) was obtained for variable sliding window lengths. In this work,
we considered three different sliding windows i.e. sw = 15, sw =
25 and sw = 50 for the data analysis. From the analyzed data, it was
found that the standard deviation from the mean value for each signal
could best express the difference between different road zones. For
illustration purposes, the mean SD of the lateral jerk signal (Jsd )
computed over sw = 50, for different driving zones and drivers is
shown in Fig. 4.
It can be seen from Fig. 4, that for different driving zones, the jerk
profiles of the drivers are different. Further, it is of note that a single
driver can have an aggressive driving style during one zone while a
calm style during another zone. Similarly the illustration for the SD
of steer feel (SFsd ) is shown in Fig. 5 .
Employing the normalized values of Jsd ∈ [0, 1] and SFsd ∈
[0, 1], a fuzzy inference logic as shown in Table. 1 was then
designed to identify driver style. For the considered fuzzy system,
the inputs were Jsd and SFsd , with the output as driver style
(DS ∈ [0, 1]). The Jsd input was categorized into five normal-
ized membership functions having labels ∈ {V L, L, M, H, V H}
i.e. Very Low to Very High. The steer input SFsd was
labeled based on comfort as ∈ {V S, S, C, R, V R} where the
labels are Very Smooth, Smooth, Comfortable, Rough, Very
Rough. The fuzzy output is the driver style with labels ∈
{Calm, M oderate, Aggressive, V eryAggressive}. The fuzzy
membership inputs have trapezoidal shapes while the output has a
triangular shape as shown in Fig. 6.
(b)
.1
.05
-.05
-.1
Time(s)
(c) .1
.05
0
-.05
-.1
Time(s) Time(s)
7
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For the above fuzzy inference system, 25 rules were formulated as style DS, the driver assistance function DAF is then formulated as
shown in Table. 1. Based on the above fuzzy rules, the output driver discussed in Section. 3.1.
style is defuzzified as shown in Fig. 6 (b). Using the identified driver

T d (Driver) Tc Td AAF AF
(a) (b)
8 .9
.75
4
.6
0
.45
-4 .2
.15
-8
0
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120
Time(s) Time(s)

Fig. 9: The controlled system (a) assist torque Tc , driver torque Td (b) the AAF and µAF

1 (b) 1
(a)
0.8 0.8
0.5 0.5
DS

0.7
0.6
0.6
0 0
0.4
10 0.5 10

5 Drivers 5 4
Drivers 0.4 3
4 0 2
3 1
0 1 2 DZ
DZ DZ 1 DZ 2 DZ 3 DZ 4
0.4
(c) (d) .03

0.3
.02
0.2

.01
0.1

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drivers Drivers

Fig. 10: (a) The identified driver style w.r.t driving zone for a group of drivers (b) The modulation factor w.r.t driving zone for a group of
drivers (c) lateral deviation error yl (d) heading error Ψl over different driving zones.

DS-Assisted No~Assist
2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Drivers

Fig. 11: A comparison of the lane keeping performance between driver style assisted and no assist architectures.

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5.2 Lane Keeping Performance: Satory test track
The designed co-operative control strategy was evaluated over the
Satory test track for lane keeping performance. For illustration pur-
poses, the performance of a single driver-autonomous system based
co-operative system is discussed in detail first. Subsequently, the
results are generalized for a group of drivers. Based on the statis-
tical analysis of the jerk and the steer feel signals for the driver, the
identified driver style is shown in Fig. 6 (c). It can be deduced from
Fig. 6 (c), that the driver style continuously evolves for the consid-
ered driver. It is dependent on the identified driver zone as discussed
earlier.
For the identified driving style, the lane tracking errors yl and Ψl
are thus shown in Fig. 7. The lane errors employing the proposed
control are minimized and within the limits established earlier. In
Fig. 8 the controlled states i.e. yaw rate, steer angle and steer angle
velocity for the closed loop system are shown to within the pre-
scribed limits. With the states of the controlled system shown to
be within limits, the generated torques by the assisting Tc and the
driver Td are shown in Fig. 9 (a). Further, the torque generated by
the driver while navigating the test track in the absence of any assist-
ing torque is shown. It can be deduced from Fig. 9 (a), that for the
co-operative controlled system, the torque generated by the driver is
much lower, typically during high curvature regions. Consequently,
the HMI between the human driver and the autonomous controller is
shown in Fig. 9 (b) by the illustrated plots of AAF and µAF . It can
be seen that typically during low driver activity regions, the auto-
mated system provides a high level of assistance to the driver, thus
assisting it in lane keeping effectively.
The above results presented show the performance of the pro-
posed driver style adaptive co-operative control architecture in this
paper achieves the control objectives of lane keeping and driver
comfort. To generalize the performance, simulations were then con-
ducted for various drivers to show the accuracy of the driver class
recognition, lane keeping performance, level of assistance provided
etc. In Fig. 10 (a), the mapping of the driver styles identified for
various drivers over different driving zones is shown.
With the increase in the identified Driver Zones (DZ), the level of
aggressiveness indicated by the driver style increases. This behav-
ior is prevalent across the group of drivers considered as shown in
Fig. 10 (a). Its also of note, that for a single driver the driving style
increases towards a more aggressive driving with the increase in the
zone of driving. The corresponding modulation provided under the
proposed co-operative control scheme for the group of drivers is then
shown in Fig. 10 (b). The modulation factor µAF and consequently
the assistance provided by the autonomous controller is well dis-
tributed across the driving zones for all drivers. Under such levels
of assistance, the lane keeping performance for the group of drivers
is shown in Fig. 10 (c). For the four driving zones DZ1 · ·DZ4 , the
RMS (root mean square) of the lane deviation error yl and heading
error Ψl was computed and is illustrated for different drivers. It can
be seen that for all drivers, the lane errors are within the required
limits thus establishing lane keeping performance of the proposed
scheme across a group of drivers. Further in Fig. 11, a comparison
between the proposed co-operative control scheme and the driver
only system i.e. no assist torque, is shown. It can be clearly seen, that
based on the driver style adaptive design the lane error are reduced
in comparison to a no assist case.
The proposed approach in this work used the information of iden-
tified driver style for design of a lane keeping assist system. To
increase the accuracy of the identification more signals such a lat-
eral quickness, mean velocity, driver intent etc. can be employed for
different driving scenarios. In such a scenario, use of a advanced
learning approach for the classification would be viable. Having said
that, the fuzzy DS recognition approach employed in this paper has
less computation burden and is more efficient for being employed in
a closed loop control design as shown.
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6 Conclusion
In this work, a driver style adaptive co-operative control architec-
ture was proposed. To identify the driving style lateral jerk and steer
feel were used as inputs for a fuzzy-rule classifier with driving style
as output. Based on identified driving style i.e. Calm, Moderate,
Aggressive and Very Aggressive a modulation factor for the assis-
tance torque generated was then developed. To design the assistance
torque for the closed Driver-Vehicle model, a robust HOSM con-
troller was proposed and stability established. The proposed control
framework was able to adapt to the driver driving style classified
on levels of aggressiveness and consequently reduce lane tracking
errors i.e. lateral deviation/offset and heading error. Extensive results
showing the driving style identification, lane keeping performance,
HMI between driver and the autonomous controller were presented.
In future the aspects, driving event, driver skill, behavior etc.
recognition in conjunction with the proposed driver style identifica-
tion would be explored for the development of the modulation factor
to assist the driver.
Acknowledgment
This work has been done within the framework of the AutoCon-
duct project (ANR-16-CE22-0007), funded by the Agence Nationale
de la Recherche. This work was also supported by the Interna-
tional Campus on Safety and Intermodality in Transportation, the
Hauts-de-France Region, the European Community, the Regional
Delegation for Research and Technology, the Ministry of Higher
Education and Research, and the French National Center for Sci-
entific Research.
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