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Bai 5 PDF
Bai 5 PDF
LESSON 5:
PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Glossary:
acoustic : thuộc thính âm
actual realization : sự hiện thực
air pressure : áp lực hơi
allophone : biến thái âm vị, âm tố
anterior : (âm) phía trước
articulatory characteristics : đặc tính cấu âm
aspirated : (âm) bật hơi
complementary distribution : sự phân bố bổ sung
concret : cụ thể
consonantal : thuộc phụ âm
constricted glottis : thanh môn co khít
constriction : sự co khít
continuants : âm liên tục, liên âm
contrastive : đối chiếu
contrastive distribution : sự phân bố đối chiếu
coronal : (âm) vành lưỡi
demonstrate : biểu thị
designate : định rõ
distinctive features : nét khu biệt
distinguish : phân biệt
distribution : sự phân bố
dorsal features : đặc điểm âm lưng lưỡi
environment : môi trường
evidence : bằng chứng
fairly randomly distributed : được phân bố một cách khá ngẫu nhiên
fairly randomly distributed : biến thái tự do
glide : (âm) lướt, trượt
glottal configuration : sự bố trí/sắp xếp âm hầu
identical : giống nhau, giống y hệt
independent : độc lập
infinite : vô hạn
laryngeal features : đặc điểm về âm thanh hầu
liquid : (âm) lỏng
minimal pair : cặp tối thiểu
nasal : (âm) mũi
notation : ký hiệu
obstruent : (phụ âm) cản
organizable : có thể tổ chức, sắp xếp được
organizable : cảm nhận
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phone : âm
phoneme : âm vị
phonemic (or broad) transcription : phiên âm (về mặt) âm vị (rộng)
phonetic (or narrow) transcription : phiên âm (về mặt) ngữ âm (hẹp)
phonetic variants : biến thể ngữ âm
phonological analysis : phân tích (về mặt) âm vị học
predictable : có thể đoán trước được
predictable : đại diện cho, tiêu biểu cho
represent : đại diện, tiêu biểu
rulegoverned : do quy luật chi phối
schwa : nguyên âm giảm
segment : âm đoạn
sequence : sự liên tiếp
simplified : đơn giản hoá
slash brackets : ngoặc sổ
sonorant : âm vang
spread glottis : thanh môn giãn
square brackets : ngoặc vuông
stressed vowel : nguyên âm nhấn, nguyên âm có trọng âm
strident : lanh lảnh (âm thanh)
substitutability : tính có thể thay thế được
substitution : sự thay thế
syllabic liquid : âm lỏng có tính âm tiết
unbroken stream of phonetic speech : chuổi âm liên tục (không bị đứt đoạn)
utterly : một cách hoàn toàn
vocalic : thuộc âm thanh
vowel : nguyên âm
Phone/Phoneme/Allophone
A great deal of evidence indicates that humans perceive speech sounds in a way that is vastly
simplified from how they actually sound. Specifically, an unbroken stream of phonetic speech is perceived
as a sequence of abstract psychological units called phonemes. The science of phonology, or the study of
how speech sounds are perceived by and organized in the brain, usually assumes that phonemes exist.
Some sounds that are phonetically different nevertheless sound the same to English speakers, e.g. [t]
and [th], [l] and [|], [p] and [ph]. Similar groups of sounds can be found for any human language. Such a
group of phones that sound alike to a speaker of a language represent a phoneme: a purely psychological
entity that a speaker considers to be a single sound, even though it may have various phonetic shapes,
or allophones.
Definitions
a. phone: a physical language sound, measurable by acoustic instruments.
b. phoneme: a language sound as it is perceived by a speaker.
c. allophone: a phone in complementary distribution with other allophones that are related to the same
phoneme.
Allophones have three important characteristics:
(i) they are perceived as the same sound,
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(ii) they are in complementary distribution, and
(iii) they are usually phonetically similar.
We distinguish phones from phonemes in our notation by writing them in square brackets and slash
brackets, respectively: e.g. [t] and [th] are allophones of the English phoneme /t/, [l] and [|] are
allophones of English /l/, and [p] and [ph] are allophones of English /p/. We must therefore distinguish at
least two ways of transcribing speech.
A phonemic (or broad) transcription shows the sequence of phonemes that a native speaker
perceives in the speech stream, while a phonetic (or narrow) transcription shows (in greater or lesser
detail) the actual phones that occur in the speech stream.
Phonemic and phonetic transcriptions of some /t/ words
Phonemic Phonetic
a. table /tewbl/ [thewb|]
b. batter /bæt∂/ [bæ∂]
c. stop /st]p/ [st]p]
Phoneme vs. Phones vs. Allophones
Distribution
Complementary distribution
Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in
complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in English, [p] and
[ph] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary distribution. [ph] always
occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all
other situations (as in the wordspin).
There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not considered allophones.
For example in English [h] and [[ŋ] (engma, written as "ng" in English) are in complementary distribution,
since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. But because they have so little
in common they are still considered separate phonemes.
Contrastive distribution
Contrastive distribution means that the sounds are distributed in the data in a way that distinguishes
one word from another. For example the sounds /p/ and /k/ are in contrastive distribution in English in
such words as skill and spill.
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Contrastive distribution is an indication that the two sounds in question are different phonemes.
Free Variation
The substitutability of one sound for another in a given environment, with no change in the word’s
meaning. For example, the word economics may be pronounced with /w/ or /e/ in the first
syllable; tomato is pronounced differently in British and American English; or either has two pronunciations
which are fairly randomly distributed.
Minimal pair
In establishing the set of phonemes of a language, it is usual to demonstrate the independent,
contrastive nature of a phoneme by citing pairs of words which differ in one sound only and have different
meanings. Thus in English 'fairy' /'fε∂w/ and 'fairly' /fε ∂lw/ make a minimal pair and prove that / / and /l/
are separate, contrasting phonemes.
Sometimes an exact minimal pair contrasting two phonemes does not exist in a language. Linguists
then look for near minimal pairs.
In a near minimal pair only the sounds surrounding the phonemes are identical. Could you come up
with a minimal pair for /∫, ¥/? A near minimal pair for these phonemes is mission, vision: /'mw∫∂n/ /'vi¥∂n'/
Distinctive Features
In any language it seems that the sounds used will only differ from each other in a small number of
ways. If for example a language had 40 phonemes, then in theory each of those 40 could be utterly
different from the other 39. However, in practice there will usually be just a small set of important
differences: some of the sounds will be vowels and some consonants; some of the consonants will be
plosives and affricates, and the rest will be continuants; some of the continuants will be nasal and some
not, and so on. These differences are identified by phonologists, and are known as distinctive features.
There is disagreement about how to define the features (e.g. whether they should be labelled according to
articulatory characteristics or acoustic ones), and about how many features are needed in order to be able
to classify the sounds of all the languages in the world.
Major class features
These features represent the classes: consonant, obstruent, nasal, liquid, glide, and vowel.
[± consonantal]
Sounds which are [+ consonantal] are those which have some kind of constriction along the center of
the vocal tract. This constriction must be at least as narrow as that required for a fricative. Examples: [p]
[b] [s] [z] [t∫] [¥]
[± sonorant]
Sounds which are [+sonorant] are those which are produced with a constriction in the vocal tract that
allows the air pressure both behind and in front of the constriction to be relatively equal. This feature
generally divides the sound system into sonorants ([+sonorant] sounds), which are nasals, approximants,
glides, and vowels, and obstruents ([sonorant] sounds), which are oral stops, fricatives, and affricates.
[± vocalic]
Vowels and syllabic liquids.
Use of major class features
[vocalic] +
[sonorant] + + + +
Examples p b z θ i æ j w l r m n
Laryngeal features
These features represent laryngeal states.
[± voice]
Sounds which are [+voice] are those which are produced with vibration of the vocal folds.
[± spread glottis]
Sounds which are [+spread glottis] are those produced with a glottal configuration that produces
audible glottal friction. For example, the aspirated stops in English are [+spread glottis]
[± constricted glottis]
Sounds which are [+constricted glottis] are those which are produced with the vocal folds drawn
together and tense.
Place features
These features represent place of articulation.
[± labial]
Any sound articulated with one or both lips is [+ labial. Examples [p] [b] [f] [v] [w].
[± round]
Sounds that are [+ round] are made by protruding the lips. Examples [w]
[± coronal]
Any sound articulated with the tongue tip or blade raised is [+ coronal]. Examples [t] [d] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [t∫]
[d¥] [∫] [¥] [n] [l] []
[± anterior]
Any sound articulated in front of the alveopalatal region is considered to be [+ anterior].Examples [p] [b]
[t] [d] [s] [z] [θ] [ð]
[± strident]
The 'noisy' fricatives and affricates only. Examples [s] [z] [∫] [¥] [t∫] [d¥]
Dorsal features
These features represent the placement of the body of the tongue.
[± high]
Sounds produced with the tongue body raised are considered [+ high] (both vowels and
consonants). Examples: [i:] [u:] [k] [g]
[± low]
Vowels made with the tongue body distinctly lowered from a central position in the oral cavity are [+
low]. Examples: [æ] [Y:]
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[± back]
Any sound articulated behind the palatal region in the oral cavity. Examples: [u:] []:] [k] [g]
[± tense]
Expresses the tense lax distinctions among vowels.
[± reduced]
Only the schwa ([∂]) is [+ reduced]
Manner features
These features represent manner of articulation.
[±continuant]
Sounds which are [+ continuant] are those which are produced without a central blockage in the vocal
tract. For example, fricatives have a central constriction, but there is no complete blockage of the air, and
they are therefore, [+ continuant].
[±nasal]
Sounds which are [+nasal] are produced with nasal airflow.
[±lateral]
Sounds which are [+lateral] are produced with airflow passing through one or both sides of the tongue,
which is in contact with the central part of the oral cavity.
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