Faculty of Engineering - School of Mechanical Engineering

Solar Distiller
Executive Summary

Final Project

Name: Orel Belo

Project advisor: Prof. Hadas Maman
Organization: EcoSwell
Executive Summary
Water issues have become a disturbing worldwide problem in the current era, but it is
more complicated in the arid areas, where it rains rarely and there is hardly any fresh
water source at all. Hence, there is a serious need to find new, sustainable, alternative
ways to get drinking water.
Safe and readily available water is important for public health, whether it is used for
drinking, domestic use, food production or recreational purposes. Improved water
supply and sanitation, and better management of water resources, can boost countries’
economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction.

The NGO where I did a renewable energy internship, EcoSwell, set a goal to make
clean water and electricity available to poor towns in northern Peru.
The area in which I operated is characterize by hot weather, without much rainfall,
without water sources in the vicinity and is located near a beach.
In addition, a relatively accessible and affordable solution is appropriate for the poor
population in the area.
As a result, expensive or existed water-based solutions disqualified in the first place.
There are a few methods to collect and treat water. Each one of them operates in
different area conditions and meets different requirements such as budget, capacity etc.
They all serve the same purpose – provide clean drinking water. I will be focusing on
the main ones: rooftop rainwater harvesting, groundwater, atmospheric water
generator, reverse osmosis.

The solar distiller was chosen because it is easy to assemble and use, relatively
inexpensive and does not need clean water sources and uses seawater.

Figure 1: Illustration of a solar distiller

Fig.1 shows an illustration of the system operation. Seawater is put into the tank, the
solar energy passing through the glass frame causes the water to heat and vaporize.
The water vapor rises and due to the inclination of the glass frame they condense on
the glass and go down to the collection tube which is also at an inclination angle to
accelerate the movement of water. The water is collected into a container and then
passed through a carbon filter to meet drinking water quality standards.

The goal of the project is to produce a system that desalinate seawater which is
relatively easy to assemble and maintain, will not require much energy (if any) and will
be an alternative source of water when the local system supply stops.

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During my stay in Peru, I performed a series of experiments that examine the system's
efficiency with and without the reflectors, which should increase system's efficiency,
and indeed I got results that matches the theory. With the addition of the reflectors I
got a 7.5% increase in system efficiency.
In addition, I performed several tests to check the quality of water after passing a
carbon filter.
The parameters I tested were pH, TDS and physical properties (color, odor,
transparency).
The water quality I received after the carbon filter met the WHO standards for the
parameters I initially set. The filtered water met the pH ranges (average of 7.1) and the
ppm ranges (average of 329).
Also, in the test of the physical attributes measured by me and by number of students
that include taste, color and smell, the filtered water met the criteria.

In addition, alternatives were provided to the system design which can improve the
efficiency of the system - water heater, cooling fans and replacement of the black
geomembrane sheet.
The alternatives were tested based on price, user convenience, ease of assembly and
compliance with environmental conditions. The most suitable options selected are the
water heater and the black geomembrane sheet replacement which will provide
maximum efficiency for a longer time.

Water demand never ends. New and original ways must be created to provide clean
drinking water, especially in dry areas.

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Table of Contents
Table of Figures ......................................................................................................... 5
1. Project description .................................................................................................. 6
2. Requirements specification .................................................................................... 7
3. Literature survey on water treatment methods and water systems 3.1 RTRWH ..... 8
3.2 Groundwater ....................................................................................................... 10
3.3 AWG................................................................................................................... 12
3.4 RO....................................................................................................................... 13
3.5 Solar Distiller ...................................................................................................... 14
3.6 Alternative Comparison Table ............................................................................ 16
4. Existing desalination system and its limitations and requirements ....................... 17
4.1 Presentation of the desalination system- solar distiller ....................................... 17
4.2 Existing system without changes made, prior to my stay ................................... 18
4.3 Existing system after the changes made during my stay ..................................... 22
5. Quality and efficiency requirements of the system............................................... 25
5.1 Water quality ...................................................................................................... 25
5.2 Output of a solar distiller .................................................................................... 28
5.3 Productivity Enhancement by Using Reflectors ................................................. 29
6. Experimental sets to test the operation of the existing system .............................. 31
6.1 Experiments description ..................................................................................... 31
6.2 Experiment course: ............................................................................................. 34
7. Presentation and Analysis of Results .................................................................... 38
7.1 Analysis of Results- Stage 1 ............................................................................... 38
7.2 Analysis of Results - Stage 2............................................................................... 39
7.3 Analysis of Results - Stage 3............................................................................... 40
7.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 41
8. Presentation of the design improvements ............................................................. 42
8.1 Water Heater ....................................................................................................... 42
8.2 Cooling fans ........................................................................................................ 43
8.3 Sealing the system .............................................................................................. 44
8.4 Design improvements comparison ..................................................................... 45
9. Summary .............................................................................................................. 46
10. Requirements and Products ................................................................................ 47
11. Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 48
12. Appendix ............................................................................................................ 49
12.1 Work proposal ................................................................................................... 49
12.2 Excel data processing tables with and without mirrors ..................................... 52

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Illustration of a solar distiller .............................................................. 2
Figure 2:Basic features of a household RTRWH system ................................... 8
Figure 3: Average rainfall amount (mm) and rainy days .................................... 9
Figure 4: An illustration of the soil layers ........................................................ 10
Figure 5: Schematic representation of cooling condensation ........................... 12
Figure 6: Diagram for working principle of RO .............................................. 13
Figure 7: Solar distiller illustration .................................................................. 14
Figure 8: Different designs of solar distiller .................................................... 14
Figure 9: Me and Justo with the solar distiller system ..................................... 17
Figure 10: Upper view of the theoretical model ............................................... 18
Figure 11: Side view of the theoretical model .................................................. 18
Figure 12: Partitions of the wood ..................................................................... 18
Figure 13: Front view of the solar distiller before the implantations................ 19
Figure 14: Side view of the solar distiller before the implantations ................. 19
Figure 15: Side view of system interior............................................................ 20
Figure 16:Window glass connection to the wood frame .................................. 21
Figure 17: Water catch metal tube.................................................................... 21
Figure 18: Water catch ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 19: Water output piping ........................................................................ 23
Figure 20: The drain ......................................................................................... 23
Figure 21: Side view of the system .................................................................. 24
Figure 22: Water turbidity scale ....................................................................... 25
Figure 23: The solar distiller with the reflectors stand ..................................... 29
Figure 24: Water quality test kit for Chlorine/Bromine test and pH test .......... 31
Figure 25: Nitrate and Nitrite test strips kit ...................................................... 31
Figure 26: Sawyer point one filter bucket adapter kit ...................................... 32
Figure 27: Digital TDS meter water quality tester pen ..................................... 32
Figure 28: A geomembrane sheet tailored to cover the possible holes ............. 38
Figure 29: The drill made in the back of the tank for the water heater ............. 43

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1. Project description
This project carried out in a nonprofit organization in Peru, “EcoSwell”, where I did an
internship in renewable energy last summer.
Water scarcity is one of the main problems in Lobitos. This semi-rural town (2000
population approx.) is located in an arid zone, the northern coastal desert of Peru.
The clean water supply is highly fluctuating. It is only supplied occasionally (on
average 3 times a week and only for a few hours), through on-grid installations that
bring the water from the nearby city of Talara. However, there are times in which no
water are supplied for weeks or even longer.
The current situation is unsustainable in the long term. With climate change and severe
impending climate events like El Niño, the safe and clean water scarcity in Lobitos is
expecting to get worse.
The town is right next to the sea. Therefore, desalinization is a good alternative to get
by during harsh drought times.
Distillation can remove virtually all salt, nitrates, and heavy metal such as arsenic from
water as well as pathogens and other biological contaminants from water.
The goal of this project is to assemble a solar distiller that meet quality and efficiency
requirements. The long-term goal is for scaling up the system for civilian use of
Lobitos.
This project will present the seawater filtration system built by previous interns, the
changes made in it and an array of experiments that examine the effectiveness and
quality of the system.

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2. Requirements specification

• Relatively simple and convenient water supply.

• Can be operate during times of need (when normal water supply stops).
• Complies with drinking water standard requirements such as:
o TDS range: 25 to 500 mg/L
o pH range: 6.5-8.5
o Nitrites: 1 mg/L
o Nitrate: 50 mg/l
• Meets the efficiency requirements of a similar system (30% efficiency).

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3. Literature survey on water treatment methods and water systems
3.1 RTRWH
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common technique of rainwater harvesting
(RWH) for domestic consumption. In rural areas, this is usually done at small-scale.
A simple and low-cost technique requires minimum specific expertise or knowledge
and offers many benefits.
In Fig.2, we can see Basic features of a household RWH system. Rainwater is collected
on the roof and transported with gutters to a storage reservoir, where it provides water
at the point of consumption or can be used for recharging a well or the aquifer.
Rainwater harvesting can supplement water sources when they become scarce or are of
low quality like brackish groundwater or polluted surface water in the rainy season.
However, air pollution, animal or bird droppings, insects, dirt and organic matter may
affect rainwater quality. Therefore, regular maintenance (cleaning, repairs, etc.) as well
as a treatment before water consumption (e.g. filtration or/and disinfection) are very
important [1].
Advantages:
• Low cost
• Easy maintenance
• Rainwater is better than other available or
traditional sources
• Not affected by local geology or topography
• Almost all roofing material is acceptable for
collecting water for household purposes

Figure 2:Basic features of a household RTRWH system

Disadvantages:
• Limited by the amount of rainfall and the size of the catchment area and storage
reservoir.
• Supply is sensitive to droughts: Occurrence of long dry spells and droughts can
cause water supply problems.
• Proper operation and regular maintenance are a very important factor that is often
neglect.
• Air pollution, animal or bird droppings, insects, dirt and organic matter may affect
Rainwater quality.

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 Figure 3: Average rainfall amount (mm) and rainy days

As we can see in Fig.3, in Lobitos, the amount of rainfall per year during the recent
years is little. For that reason, RTRWH is not an option here because of a lack of
rainfall [2].

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3.2 Groundwater
Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and
rocks. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and
rocks called aquifers.
To reach an aquifer, surface water infiltrates downward into the ground through tiny
spaces or pores in the rock. The water travels down through the permeable rock until it
reaches a layer that does not have pores; this rock is impermeable (Fig.4). This
impermeable rock layer forms the base of the aquifer. The upper surface where the
groundwater reaches is the water table.
In this method, water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well
or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several horizontal
perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical shaft [3].

Figure 4: An illustration of the soil layers

Advantages:
• Rocks act as a natural filter

• No loss of water through evaporation

• No requirement for expensive and environmentally damaging dams
• Pumping costs low
Disadvantages:
• Sedimentary rocks and presence of aquifers

• surface subsidence
• pollutants have long residence time
• Groundwater not always suitable for drinking

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The reports EcoSwell has on groundwater are from the petrol companies’ drilling
surveys in their environmental impact assessments, meaning they are limited to very
specific places. The nearest location to the town is a few miles away in Talara, which is
quite close geologically.
The ground water here is saline, more so than the sea, with an average of 16,000 parts per
million salinity. As this is a big oil-drilling area, many of the ground aquifers are embed
with the oil.
Some small collections of rainwater have accumulated in impermeable layers at 100 -
300m depth. However, these only replenish during El Niño events, which are rather
unreliable.
Other aquifers found between Lobitos and Talara at 25-50m depth in clay deposits where
there is no access to the water.
Ultimately, we have no access to water other than the sea.

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 3.3 AWG
An atmospheric water generator is a device that extracts water from humid ambient air.
Extracting water from air occurs naturally as well as by men made technologies.
In Fig.5, we can see the schematic steps of AWG system. In a cooling condensation
method, a compressor circulates refrigerant through a condenser and then an
evaporator coil, which cools the air surrounding it. This lowers the air temperature to
its dew point, causing water to condense. A controlled-speed fan pushes filtered air
over the coil. The resulting water is then pass into a holding tank with purification and
filtration system to help keep the water pure and reduce the risk posed by viruses and
bacteria.
The rate at which water can be produced depends on relative humidity and ambient air
temperature and size of the compressor [4].

Figure 5: Schematic representation of cooling condensation

Advantages:
• Needs no water source.
• Water is free from bacteria, viruses and harmful chemicals.
• Environment positive – no water wastage or rejects re-contaminating ground
water.
• Secure water supply.
Disadvantages:
• Initial investment cost is high
• Requires understanding of the process and system parts
• To work effectively, a few conditions must meet: the temperature of the ambient air
must be at least a few degrees above freezing and the humidity should be above a
certain concentration

In the organization I worked for, they preferred a cheaper machine. One that interns can
then build and replicate for home use.

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 3.4 RO
Reverse Osmosis, RO, is a process where you demineralize or de-ionize water by
pushing it under pressure through a semi-permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane.
Reverse Osmosis can remove up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles,
colloids, organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water.
In Fig.6, we can see a diagram for working principle of RO.
The system works by using a high-pressure pump to increase the pressure on the
salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO membrane,
leaving almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject
stream.

As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure (enough pressure to
overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the semi -
permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed to
pass and are discharged through the reject stream, which goes to drain or can be
fed back into the feed water supply.

The water that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or product
water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the dissolved salts removed from it
[5].

Figure 6: Diagram for working principle of RO

Advantages:
• The ability to remove many dissolved substances efficiently yet produce a good
tasting finished water
• Does not add any other chemical to the water. It merely separates the dissolved
substances from the incoming water
Disadvantages:
• Removes essential minerals such as iron, magnesium, calcium and sodium which
are essential to the human body and cause a mineral deficiency in the body
• Expensive and consumes a lot electricity
• As natural minerals are removed water gets de-mineralized as a result water taste
affected, it becomes tasteless

In the organization I worked for, they preferred a cheaper machine. One that interns can
then build and replicate for home use.

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3.5 Solar Distiller
Solar distiller is a machine that distil and purify water (brackish water, seawater, dirty
water) using UV radiation. Distillation can remove virtually all salt, nitrates, and heavy
metal such as arsenic from water as well as pathogens and other biological
contaminants from water.
In some cases, such as extremely poor quality or salty water, solar stills may be the
most practical way to treat the water.
In Fig.7, we can see the basic concept of the typical solar still.
It starts with the sun’s energy going through a glass (or Plexiglas) window and
evaporating the water in the pool at the bottom of the still. The evaporated water
condenses on the glass and flows along the glass surface to channels at the bottom
where it is collected. The collected water is then passes through a carbon filter to
further ensure the drinking water is pure and contains little to no contaminate [7].

Figure 7: Solar distiller illustration

There are two types of solar water distillers:

1. Passive - which only relies on heat from the sun.
2. Active - which uses additional heat energy to increase temperature within
distiller and promote distillation.

In Fig.8, we can see the different designs that can be used when constructing a passive
solar still.

Figure 8: Different designs of solar distiller

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Advantages:
• Provide a maintained pH level which is very close to natural water as compared to
other water purifiers.
• very cheap there is no cost of extra energy once you’re solar still is manufactured
you will get benefits without extra cost.
• Less hazardous because there is no any mechanical equipment.
• Works on free energy which we get from the sun hence there is a record of Co2
emission.
• Water taste is claimed to be very good if we compare it with other purifiers

Disadvantages:
• The solar still doesn’t break down the bacteria.
• In solar still boiling process of water does not occur.
• Sun still produces a low quantity of water.
• It required time very much to produce less quantity of water.
• Large top glass may attract the bugs and insects

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 3.6 Alternative Comparison Table

Table.1 Alternative Comparison Table by the Pugh matrix

Water Easy Suitable Operate

Low
Alternatives cost quality to for Easy to Low during Totals Rank
requirements build Environmental operate maintenance times
conditions of need
RTRWH 1 0 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 2
Ground
Water 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 0 1 2
AWG -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 0 4
RO -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 0 4
Solar
Distiller 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1

As we can see, the solar distiller outperforms the other alternatives and so it is the
chosen system for the area and environmental conditions in Talara, Peru.

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4. Existing desalination system and its limitations and requirements

4.1 Presentation of the desalination system- solar distiller

Due to lack of funding, the solar distiller that will be described in this project is the
passive one and after being tested, will be added additional heat energy to increase
temperature within distiller and promote distillation.
There are several different designs that can be use when constructing a passive solar
still. The design for this project is a single effect still (a), due to its ease of construction,
ease of maintenance and lower cost (fewer materials).
In order to maximize the operational efficiency of the solar sill, emphasis should be
placed on 3 design elements:
1. A high-water temperature in the saline solution reservoir through maintain a
shallow water level in the reservoir and ensuring low heat leakage through walls
and floor
2. Maintaining a large temperature differential between the reservoir and the
condensing surface (achieved through using a low heat absorption condensing
surface and quick removal of condensed water through use of secondary air or
water flow across the condensing surface).
3. Ensuring low levels of leakage of evaporated vapor from the basin.

In this project, I will focus on these three elements as well as the parameters that define
drinking water to reach the optimal system in terms of efficiency and water quality.

Figure 9: Me and Justo with the solar distiller system

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 4.2 Existing system without changes made, prior to my stay
Previous interns build the current solar distiller in EcoSwell organization. The
following steps were taking to build the solar distiller.

The design
The design of the solar distiller was made with the help of a few consultants from
different countries to make the best version that will be able to fulfill the requirements.
It consists different part being put together and described below.

Figure 11: Side view of the theoretical model Figure 10: Upper view of the theoretical model

Figure 12: Partitions of the wood

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 In Fig.12, we can see the partition of the wood parts that build the solar distiller frame
and container that includes:
1. Baseboard
2. Tank front face
3. Tank Sidewalls
4. Tank backing
5. Maintenance compartment siding
6. Maintenance compartment backing
7. Top ledge
8. Reflector

The top of the solar distiller is the solar window that includes the window frame and
the window glass.
The window frame is made of wood and holds the window glass. The dimensions of
the window frame are 210cm on 100cm and has a width of 5cm.
It was made from two pieces in size 100cm x 5cm x 2.5 cm and two pieces of size
210cm x 5cm x 2.5 cm.
The window glass is made of a thin see-through glass of size 200cm x90cm x2cm.
The slope of the glass can vary between 7.5° - 20°. If the incline is too low, the distilled
water will drip back into the basin. In my design, the incline is 13° angle since it’s the
average of the recommended incline.
The basin covered with black geomembrane sheet. The geomembrane has several
features that increase solar distiller efficiency and fits well with water treatment:
Excellent chemical resistance, stress crack capacity, lowest permeability, excellent UV
resistance, stable low temperature embrittlement resistance and proven performance.

Figure 13: Front view of the solar distiller before the Figure 14: Side view of the solar distiller before the
implantations implantations

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The following parts and steps were not implemented prior my stay and are necessary
for the operation of the solar distiller.

1. Water catch- the water catch is a rectangular metal piece, secured to the wall and
stationery. In Fig.15, we can see a side view of the solar distiller components being put
together. The small sheet metal lip attached to the frame and sealed with caulk to direct
water droplets down to the catch.
The water catch will be connected at a small angle with the lower side at the exit.

Figure 15: Side view of system interior

2. Water output piping will include:

• PVC short connection from water catch to exit hole of basin
• PVC 90o elbow
• PVC exit tubing
• Nipple attachment for final water collection basin

3. Drain: The drain must locate in an area where all the water will drain out (low area).

4. Sealing the system: Once the system is constructed the next most important part is
the sealing method. This is without a doubt the most important task. The entire basin
will be sealed, along with every joint, wall, siding, window etc. This is very important,
not only for the longevity of the system but also for the overall system efficiency. If
there are any gaps, where evaporated steam can escape, that means we are losing fresh
water.
Places to seal:
• Entire basin: bottom, siding, walls. The basin covered with black geomembrane
sheet that prevent the water to touch the wood and cause leaking and destroying the
wood.
• Joints: each joint needs to be noticed and make sure there are no gaps that go
untouched.
• Window:
o In Fig.16, we can see the gap between the glass window and the wooden frame.
That part needs to be sealed, at the joints and where the glass connects to the
frame.
o At the lower end of the window where the water will be collecting. That should
be a smooth seal so the droplets will fall to the water catch below.

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 Figure 16:Window glass connection to the wood frame

• Closing edges
o It is necessary to fully seal the spaces between the frame window and the
basin. This is to prevent water vapor from escaping and that system efficiency
will not be impaired.
• Water Catch
o In Fig.17, we can the metal tube before being attached to the basin. The entire
water catch, top and bottom needs to be sealed so that it does not rust after long
use
o Make sure it is smooth, so it does not prevent the water from flowing

Figure 17: Water catch metal tube

• Drain
o After drilling a hole in the base of the tank and assembling the drain pipe, we
need to make sure that there is no space between the black geomembrane sheet
and the wooden basin so that water does not penetrate between the two layers.
o To make sure that the drain pipe does not leak and withstand pressure.

• All screws and extra hardware: Any place there are screws or other holes in the
basin to connect hardware need to be sealed as well

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4.3 Existing system after the changes made during my stay
1. Water catch:
In Fig.18 we can see the installed water catch. The steps taken for this section:
• The metal water pipe was covered with two layers of food grade silicone that is
safe for drinking water.
• Drilled an exit hole on the right side of the tank for the end of the metal water
catch.
• Tightened the water catch tube with screws to the tank front face.
• The screws were covered with food grade silicone to prevent rust formation.

Figure 18: Water catch

2. Water output piping

In Fig.19, we can see the installed water output piping. The steps taken for this section:
• A short length of PVC fitted over the end of the water catch connected to a length
of smaller PVC that is attached to a small copper elbow, to which was attached to
a clear length of plastic tubing.
• This part besides the plastic tubing was covered with foil tape to prevent water
from coming out of the pipes.
• This part was fitted to the water catch tube and connected with the appropriate
silicone to the right side of the tank, where the water catch tube comes out of the
tank.
• A larger layer of silicone was applied on the outside to strengthen the structure.

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 Figure 19: Water output piping

3. Drain
In Fig.20, we can see the installed drain. The steps taken for this section:
• Drilled a hole on the left side of the bottom of the tank for the drain pipe.
• Connected a valve capable of withstanding the water pressure.
• The connection between the black geomembrane sheet and the valve and the
bottom of the wooden container covered with a thick layer of food grade
silicone that is safe to use to prevent leaks.

Figure 20: The drain

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 4. Sealing the system:

The frame (includes the window and the closing edges):

The steps taken for this section:
• Fastened the glass window to the wooden frame with small long screws on the
inside. Then we covered a waterproof silicone in a uniform layer to prevent rust
from forming.
• Covered the closing edges with thin pieces of soft and flexible silicone material to
prevent grinding of the wood from closing and opening the system window. In
addition, it helps with higher sealing and prevents water vapor from escaping.
• Attached seven pressure clips to the wooden frame to the sides of the basin and the
front. Two clips per side and three on the front. In Fig.21, we can see the pressure
closure clips and silicone material we installed on the closing edges.

Figure 21: Side view of the system

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5. Quality and efficiency requirements of the system

5.1 Water quality

Water, or in its more professional way H2O, has a unique chemical structure that gives
it unique physical properties. When that structure is being broken, we can no longer
consider it as a drinkable water.
In order to define potable water, it is possible and even compulsory to consider many
parameters that define water quality [8].
In this project, I will focus only on parameters that will be tested during the
experiment, the details of sampling, testing and analysis. The following is a general
description of the significance of water quality tests usually made.

Water is classified into physical, chemical (organic and inorganic) or biological

characteristics.

5.1.1 Physical characteristics

Color

Color in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and manganese
or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Color tests indicate the
efficacy of the water treatment system. Color is measured by visual comparison of the
water with platinum-cobalt standards.

Turbidity

A measure of the scattering of light by particles in a water suspension. Measured in

Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Suspended particles reduce water clarity and
increase turbidity. Indicates the quality of wastewater discharges and natural waters
with respect to colloidal and residual suspended matter. In Fig.22, we can see the water
turbidity scale.

Figure 22: Water turbidity scale

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Odor and taste

Are associated with the presence of living microscopic organisms; or decaying organic
matter including weeds and algae; or industrial wastes containing ammonia, phenols,
halogens, hydrocarbons.

The method to scale odor is threshold odor test. The units: threshold odor number
(TON). It determines the threshold odor by diluting a water sample with odor-free
water. Human nose is the odor testing device, panel of at least 5 persons for TON test.

TDS
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are the total amount of the mobile charged ions in a
given volume of water which include minerals, salts, cations, anions, and metals.
TDS is represented in units of mg per unit volume of the water (mg/l) that is also
referred to as parts per million (ppm).

The Dissolved salts come from both natural and inorganic sources. The Organic
sources of the dissolved salts include leaves, plankton, trash from industries,
pesticides, fertilizers and more.

Water can be classified by the amount of TDS:

1. Fresh water < 1500 mg/L TDS

2. Drinking water generally - 25 to 500 mg/L TDS.

3. Brackish water 1500 to 5000 mg/L TDS

4. Saline water > 5000 mg/L TDS

The TDS test is performed by a digital TDS meter tester pen.

5.1.2 Chemical characteristics

pH

Is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in water. It is an indicator of

relative acidity or alkalinity of water. pH ranges from 0 to 14.

o 7 neutral
o 0 - 7 acidic
o 7 - 14 alkaline
o Standard drinking water range: 6.5-8.5

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5.1.3 Bacteriological characteristics

Nitrites (NO³)
Nitrites are a salt or ester anion of nitrous acid, which can occur naturally or artificially
in groundwater. Nitrites come from fertilizers through run-off water, sewage, and
mineral deposits. Nitrite is used in food production for the curing of meat products due
to it inhibiting the growth of bacteria. It can also stimulate the grown of bacteria when
introduced in high levels into a body of water.
The guideline value of the WHO for Nitrite is 1 mg/L [9].

Nitrate (NO²)

Nitrate is an inorganic compound that occurs under a variety of conditions in the

environment, both naturally and synthetically. Nitrite can be formed from nitrate by a
chemical process called reduction. Nitrate does not normally cause health problems
unless it is reduced to nitrite.

The guideline value of the WHO for nitrate is 50 mg/l [9].

27
5.2 Output of a solar distiller
The solar distiller is a device able to exploit the solar radiation in order to distillate
seawater, removing salts, microbes and nitrogen compounds. In the scientific literature,
there are different studies which explain in detail the functioning of this system.
To obtain the equation that describes the amount of distilled water the solar distiller
produces per day, we use heat equations:

(1) 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎 [𝑘𝐽]

Using the heat flux expression:

(2) 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 [𝑘𝐽]

It is possible to compute the estimated mass of evaporated water (useful output of the
solar still), as:
(3) 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎 = 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 ∗ ∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎 [𝑘𝐽]

From the three equations, we can get the equation that describes the amount of distilled
water the machine produces each day as described in equation (4):

𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙

(4) 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 = [kg/day]
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎

Where:
𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 = daily output of distilled water [L/day]
𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 = overall efficiency [%]
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 = daily global solar irradiation [KJ/m²]
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎 = The vaporization enthalpy variation of seawater [kJ/kg]
𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = aperture area of the glass surface [m²]

Equation (4) provides an approximate method of estimating a daily output of a solar still
and I will be using this equation to check the system efficiency.
Given the following system values, we can get an estimate of how much water the
system can provide each day:
• A simple basin still operates at an overall efficiency of about 30%.
• The equation refers to an average daily energy
• 1kg of water ̴ 1 liter of water
• In Lobitos, the average solar radiation of a sunny day is qsun≈18 [kJ/m²] [6]
• The glass surface equal to Aglass=1.71 m²
• The vaporization enthalpy variation of seawater equal to ∆heva=2.217 [kJ/kg]
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙
⟹ 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 =
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎
kJ
18 [ 2 ] ∗ 1.71[m2 ] ∗ 0.3
= m = 4.165 𝑘𝑔 ≈ 4.165 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦
kJ
2.217[ ]
kg

Approximately 4 liters of distilled water can be expected every day, if I have not made
any changes that can improve efficiency.

28
5.3 Productivity Enhancement by Using Reflectors
Reflectors are cost-effective and improve still performance by reflecting solar
radiation towards contaminated water. The quantity of distillate produced from solar
water stills with and without reflectors requires investigation to determine if using
reflectors is an economical solution.
In Fig.23, we can see the initial design with the reflectors stand. In designing the
system, space was left for installing mirrors at 90° angles relative to the bottom of the
tank.

Figure 23: The solar distiller with the reflectors stand

In order to understand the range of angles of the sun's rays that will enter the tank with
the reflectors it is necessary to understand Snell's law.

(5) 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

When:
𝑛1 - The first coefficient of refractive index
𝑛2 - The second coefficient of refractive index
𝜃1 - The angle of impact
𝜃2 - The breaking angle

The angle is measured from the line to the mediation meeting.

For air- refractive index is 1.
For transparent glass- refractive index is 1.5.
For reflector - always Full reflection of the light.

It is necessary to calculate the critical angle at which refraction will not occur and all
light will be reflected.
The angle of incidence is calculated as follows:

𝑛2
(6) sin 𝛼𝑐 = ≈ 0.999
𝑛1

29
 𝛼𝑐 = 87.4°

The mirrors were placed at a 90° angle perpendicular to the bottom of the tank and the
tank itself had a ~ 13° angle.
Hence the range of angles of the sun's rays that I can utilize and enter the container are:
13°-87.4°

By using mirrors, I can increase the range of solar rays entering the tank which
increase the heat supply from the sun, 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 .
Thus, the temperature of the water in the tank is increasing > causing faster
evaporation > greater temperature difference > greater evaporation of water >
increasing the amount of distilled water produced from the system.

30
6. Experimental sets to test the operation of the existing system
6.1 Experiments description
Experiment - Measuring Solar Distiller efficiency and water quality.
Experiment goal:
1. Run the system and check that it is working properly until you made sure there are
no leaks or other defects.
2. Run the system with and without improvement aids for 4 times (each run is a full
sunlight day) and measure system efficiency and compare it to theoretical value.
3. Perform quality tests on filtered water and compare them to home value, seawater
value and standard value for drinking water.
Experimental equipment:
1. Solar distiller
2. 2of 5-gallon container
3. A 5-gallon bucket and a filter towel
4. Sawyer point one filter bucket adapter kit that include(Fig.26):
o Sawyer Point ZeroONE™ 0.1 Micron absolute inline water purifier
o Adapter
o Filter Cleaner
o Filter Hanger
o Bucket
5. Digital TDS meter water quality tester pen (Fig.27).
6. Nitrate and Nitrite test strips kit (Fig.25)
7. Water quality test kit for pH test (Fig.24).

Figure 25: Nitrate and Figure 24: Water quality test kit for
Nitrite test strips kit Chlorine/Bromine test and pH test

31
 Figure 26: Sawyer point one filter
Figure 27: Digital TDS bucket adapter kit
meter water quality tester
pen

Theoretical background:
Output of a solar still
An approximate method of estimating the output of a solar still is given by:

𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙

(4) 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 = [Liter/day]
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎

𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 = daily output of distilled water [L/day]

𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 = overall efficiency [%] (=30%)
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 = daily global solar irradiation [KJ/m²] (= 18 [kJ/m²])
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎 = The vaporization enthalpy variation of seawater [kJ/kg] (=2.217[kJ/kg])
𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = aperture area of the glass surface [m²] (=1.71 m²)

With that equation, we can check if the theoretical daily output of the distilled water
𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎 matches the real one and measure its efficiency and see whether it has improved
with the additional features.

Water quality
After the two filtration processes that the water goes through, we are expected to
receive potable water. When we reach the water quality testing stage, we will compare
the values we have received to the standard values approved by the WHO Conference
on drinking water standards.

pH- Standard range is between 6.5 and 8.5. Higher or lower than that is not safe for
drinking.

32
TDS – TDS is represented in units of mg per unit volume of the water (mg/l) that is
also referred to as parts per million (ppm).
In a study by the World Health Organization, a panel of tester came to the following
conclusions presented in Table.1 about the preferable level of TDS in water:

Table.2 Taste of water with different TDS concentration

TDS level (mg/l) Rating

150-300 Excellent
300-600 Good
600-900 Fair
900-1200 Poor
Above 1200 Unacceptable

Nitrate and Nitrite- The guideline value of the WHO for nitrate is 50 mg/l and for
Nitrite is 1 mg/L (as N).

33
6.2 Experiment course:
The experiment is performed under field conditions, in an uncontrolled environment,
as the solar distiller is located outside with varying conditions like temperature, winds,
clouds, etc. that we cannot control.
To make a more accurate test I will refer to the variables in the experiment and try to
understand how they relate to each other.
6.2.1 Stage 1- Running the system:
In the first stage, I want to check that the system works properly and that there are no
leaks in the system that can interfere with the results of the experiment as well as the
efficiency of the solar distiller.
System sealing is the most important thing in its construction process, and it is
necessary to make sure that the system is indeed sealed and there are no leaks.
I will run the system for two consecutive days without adding any optimization aids
and check that there are no leaks on all sides of the system.
The process for running the experiment:
• Make sure the drain pipe is closed.
• Make sure the filtered water outlet pipe is sealed well with tape to the clean water
tank.
• Filter the large particles of the water (sand, leaves etc.) with a towel attached to the
bucket and transfer the water through it.
• Fill 10 liters of first filtered water in the morning for the machine.
• Close the lid and seal it with the handles.
• Perform a two-hour inspection of the machine on all sides to detect leaks.
• If there is a leak, locate it and act accordingly to seal the hole causing the leak.
• Materials that can be used to seal the system – food grade silicone and black
geomembrane sheet.
• Repeat this step twice (day after day) to make sure all the holes are sealed and there
are no leaks.
• If there are any more leaks, this part should be performed again.

34
6.2.2 Stage 2- Evaluate system efficiency with and without reflectors:
In the second stage, once I have verified that the system is sealed and we have made
the necessary amendments, I want to measure the efficiency of the system compared to
the theoretical value. I also want to measure the efficiency of the system with the
addition of mirrors as an aid that improves efficiency.
This will be done in two stages:
1. Run the solar distiller 4 times without accessories
2. Run the solar distiller 4 times with the mirrors.

The process for running the experiment:

• Make sure the drain pipe is closed.
• Make sure the filtered water outlet pipe is sealed well with tape to the clean water
tank.
• Filter the large particles of the water (sand, leaves etc.) with a towel attached to the
tank and transfer the water through it.
• Fill 40 liters of initial filtration water in the solar distiller basin, in the morning.
• Close the lid and seal it with the door clasp hasp lock latch.
• Record environmental data including start time, environmental conditions (sunny,
cloudy, etc.) and amount of water entered.
• Keep a sample of the seawater entering the system (100 ml).
• Wait for the filtered water tank to fill and replace with another if needed.
• Stop the process at sunset.
• Collect the clean water tanks.
• Empty the machine through the drain pipe and clean the salt residue at the bottom
of the machine.
• Measure the amount of filtered water.
• Calculate theoretical value.
• Save the data in an Excel file for data processing.
• Repeat the process for 4 days per stage.

35
6.2.3 Stage 3- Evaluation of water quality after filtration:
In the third and final stage, we want to examine the quality of the water and compare it
to the source (seawater), domestic tap water (Lobitos, Peru) as well as to WHO
approved drinking water quality standards.
The distilled water we received from the solar distiller is not potable yet and they have
to undergo carbon filtration. In this experiment, we will use a filter kit by "SAWER"
which works as a carbon filter. This filter is enabling to remove 99.997% of viruses
(exceeding EPA and NSF recommendations). It also effectively removes harmful
bacteria (like salmonella), protozoa, or cysts like E. coli, Giardia, Vibrio cholerae, and
Salmonella typhi.

The process for running the experiment:

• Make sure there is a clean container for transferring the filtered water to it.
• Add the distilled water into the clean bucket from the filter kit.
• Lower the filter head below the bottom of the bucket to start the flow toward the
clean bucket. The greater the distance between the filter and the top of the water
line, the faster the water will flow.
• When the bucket with the clean water is full, raise the filter above the bucket to
stop the filter water flow.
• Take a 100 ml sample of the distilled water for testing.
• Perform a pH level with the pool and spa test kit as follows:
o Remove caps and rinse tubes before using.
o Fill tubes to lines with water taken from the 100 ml sample
o To test pH- add 4 drops of Phenol Red to pH tube.
o Cover tube with caps and invert several times to mix.
o Immediately compare water color with color chart for pH
o Write down the results.
• Perform a TDS test with a TDS meter device as follows:
o Collect the filtered water in a clean glass or cup.
o Turn the power on to the TDS meter, and remove the cap.
o Insert the two electrodes at the end of the TDS meter fully into the water,
being sure not to insert the whole unit, which could cause damage.
o Stir the water a little using the TDS meter or shake it slightly to ensure the
electrodes are fully immersed, and that no bubbles are attached to the
electrodes.
o Wait about 5 seconds, or until the display stabilizes with a constant figure.
The figure that you now read is the TDS reading.
o After you have finished, take the TDS meter out of the water and give it a
shake to ensure excess liquid is removed. It is ideal to rinse the electrodes
with clean water, to ensure that the next test does not contain contamination
from the test just completed.
o Place the cap back onto the TDS meter to protect the electrodes.
• Perform a Nitrate and Nitrite test with a Nitrate and Nitrite test strips as follows:
o Remove one Nitrite Nitrate test strip from the vial.
o Dip the test strip into the water sample so that both pads are immersed and
hold for 2-3 seconds in the solution.
o Remove the test strip and shake off any excess liquid.

36
 o Compare test pad to the color chart after 30 seconds.
• Perform a physical examination of the water manually as follows:
o Odor - Smell the water sample and rate their odor from 1 (no odor) to 5 (there
is a strong odor). If there is an odor, note in the comments what kind of odor
it is.
o Visibility / Transparency - Place the water sample in a transparent glass (a
clear glass preferable) in front of the sun and check the water transparency.
Record the rating of water transparency from 1 (full transparency) to 5 (very
murky water).
o Taste - if the received water after the second filtration meets the WHO
drinking water quality standards, perform a taste test of the water sample and
rate their taste from 1 (no taste) to 5 (there is a strong taste). If there is a taste
to the water write down what the taste is - iron, mud, etc.
o In order to get reliable results, ask two more people to perform these steps
and then calculate average.
o Of course, this stage is not professionally and scientifically performed due to
the lack of tools at our disposal, but this information can yield important
conclusions.

37
7. Presentation and Analysis of Results
The experiment was performed in the town of Lobitos in northern Peru under varying
terrain conditions. The results and their processing which will be presented below will
be presented according to the three experimental stages.

7.1 Analysis of Results- Stage 1

First, I wanted to check if the existing system meets the requirements and there are no
holes that can cause system leaks and disrupt the results.
About two hours after I filled the water, I detected leaks from the drain pipe, from the
basin on the right side and the clean water exit pipe.
In order to prevent future leaks, I decided to seal all sides of the tank and not just where
there was a leak.
For the drain pipe and the sides of the basin I acted as follows:
• Adjusted a black geomembrane sheet for the drain or one of the sides of the basin.
• Covered the basin sides and the area around the drain hole with silicone and then
glued the fitted black geomembrane sheet on it.
• Tightened the material with a strong stapler.
• Cleaned the silicone residue with a paint remover.
• After the silicone has dried, I apply a uniform layer of a food grade silicone, that
is safe to use with water. That is for the water to have no contact with the toxic
silicon.
In Fig.28 we can the final cover for the basin. For the clean water exit pipe, I connected
the elbow to the wooden container from which the metal tube comes with silicone.
After drying, a generous layer of silicone between the wood and the elbow to
strengthen the structure.
• The reason I did not do this directly with the safe silicone is because we did not
have much of the food grade silicone and no such silicone is available in the area.

Figure 28: A geomembrane sheet tailored to cover the

possible holes

Overall, I performed this stage five times and each time I did some improvement or
adjustment until I saw no leaks from the system.

38
7.2 Analysis of Results - Stage 2
After all the steps were completed, I concentrated the average of the parameters tested
in four days (with and without reflectors) - the amount of distilled water, system
efficiency according to formula (4) and the average number of hours the system
operated throughout the day.
You can see the data compiled in the table below:

Table.3 Average of stage 2 parameters in a four-day experiment for a

system with and without reflectors

Average Distilled Efficiency (%) Total time

Volume (L) (hours)
Without 3.6 26% 9.375
With Reflectors 4.65 33.50% 9.25

As we can see, the number of hours of system operation is almost identical.

In contrast, we can see an increase in the amount of distilled water the system produces
with the mirrors compared to the amount of water without the mirrors.
Overall, we can see an average 7.5% increase in system efficiency combined with
mirrors.
Of course, environmental and weather data should also be taken into consideration,
which can have a major impact on system efficiency and performance such as winds,
average temps, clouds, etc.
Overall, my hypothesis was fulfilled, and system efficiency increased but not to large
scale.
Repairs or improvements to the system would still have to be made so that the amount
of water provided each day will be greater.

39
 7.3 Analysis of Results - Stage 3
Once the water had been collected it was filtered using the filter kit to reintroduce
important nutrients to the water to ensure it is ready for testing.
From the filtered water a 100ml sample was taken so that various tests could be
performed to test the waters suitability for drinking.

It should be noticed that the Nitrate and Nitrite data are not in the table since the strips
test seemed to not give adequate results. The test strips were not coloring in the manner
that was shown on the chart, remaining their original grey colors.
The test was repeated with a new strip and the same result was obtained.
This could potentially mean that there was no presence of Nitrate or Nitrite. However,
it could also mean that the test strips were not functional due to being too old or stored
incorrectly, for example.
Either way further testing would be required to certify the safety of the water with
respect to the presence of Nitrate or Nitrite.

After all the steps were completed, I calculated the average for all parameters tested at
this stage - pH, ppm, odor, visibility and taste.
All the parameters were calculated for the system with and without the reflectors
compared to tap water, seawater and WHO drinking water standards.

Table.4 Average of stage 3 parameters in a four-day experiment for a

system with and without reflectors compared to seawater, tap water and
WHO standards

Visibility
Average ppm pH Odor (1-5) (1-5) Taste (1-5)
Without 337 7 1.25 1.5 1.25
With 321 7.2 1.25 1.25 1.5
Reflectors
Seawater 6675 8.4 5 4 -
Tap water 356 7.2 1 1 1
WHO 25-500 6.5-8.5 - - -
Standards

It can be assumed that the quality of the water does not depend on the efficiency of the
system and therefore the data for the system with and without mirrors are almost
completely identical.
The water samples taken from the tap water and seawater show a decrease in the pH
level and in the amount of ppm.
Overall, the system meets WHO standards for drinking water.
It can be said that the water that the system produced, after filtering in the filter kit, was
drinkable and met the standards I set at the beginning.
It should also be noted that there are many other parameters that define drinking water
which I did not focus on because I did not have the equipment to measure them.

40
7.4 Conclusion
Efficiency Test
In conclusion, after making improvements and repairs, running the system with
reflectors and without reflectors, the experiment can be set up as successful and the
prototype worked well but not satisfactorily in terms of efficiency.
There was an average 7.5% increase in system efficiency after adding the reflectors.

The low efficiency I received can be attributed to several factors:

• Environment conditions: On the days I ran the system, the weather was unstable,
and the sky was not clear with strong sun all the time.
• Small leaks: The leaks repairs were done manually and with materials available on
site. Due to lack of budget, the leaks could not be sealed in a long-term durability.
Therefore, during the run of stage 2 of the experiment, new leaks were created that
were corrected during the run or after it.
In this experiment I was able to increase efficiency by two elements out of three
efficiency increasers that I mentioned at the beginning of the project:
• A high-water temperature in the saline solution reservoir through maintain a
shallow water level in the reservoir and ensuring low heat leakage through walls
and floor. By using reflectors and black geomembrane in the basin.
• Ensuring low levels of leakage of evaporated vapor from the basin. By running the
system and looking for leaks and using available materials to seal them.

Quality Test

The water quality I received after filtering met the WHO standards for the parameters I
initially set, except for Nitrate and Nitrite for which I could not find values.
The filtered water met the pH ranges (average of 7.1) and the ppm ranges (average of
329).
Also, in the test of the physical attributes measured by me and by number of students
that include taste, color and smell, the filtered water met the criteria.
Physical properties were not tested in the best way and the results are subjective.
But overall, with the tests described in the experiment, the water met the criteria.

41
8. Presentation of the design improvements

In order to maximize the operational efficiency of the solar sill, emphasis should be
placed on 3 design elements:
1. A high-water temperature in the saline solution reservoir through maintain a
shallow water level in the reservoir and ensuring low heat leakage through walls
and floor
2. Maintaining a large temperature differential between the reservoir and the
condensing surface (achieved through using a low heat absorption condensing
surface and quick removal of condensed water through use of secondary air or
water flow across the condensing surface).
3. Ensuring low levels of leakage of evaporated vapor from the basin.
To meet the above requirements, I will list for each requirement a way to improve or
appropriate alternative that meets the need.

8.1 Water Heater

To obtain the first element, a water heater can be used.
The water heater can operate with a power connection or a solar panel connection that
provides energy from the sun, which may contribute to water evaporation.
In this case, the heat equation becomes:

(7) 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 + QIH = 𝑄𝑒𝑣𝑎 [𝑘𝐽]

The heat QIH, released by the electric can be computed starting from its type-certificate
data sheet. In particular, two boilers have been considered:
• Boiler 1: Power P1=120 W
• Boiler 2: Power P2=300 W

Considering the estimated daily production during a sunny day and the actual condition
of the batteries, the first boiler might be used for no more than 8 hours per day, whereas
the second for no more than 4 hours per day.
Accordingly, the heat released by the heater are:

(8) QIH,1 = P1*Nhours,1 =960 [Wh]=3456 [kJ]

(9) QIH,2 = P2*Nhours,2 =1200 [Wh]=4320 [kJ]

The two amounts of evaporated waters are therefore:

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝐼𝐻,1

(10) 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎,1 = = 5.724 𝑘𝑔 ≈ 5.724 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 ∗ 𝜂𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝐼𝐻,2

(11) 𝑚𝑒𝑣𝑎,2 = = 6.114 𝑘𝑔 ≈ 6.114 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
∆ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑎

With respect to the case without electric heater the production has increased of
∆l1≈1.5 liters, ∆l2≈2 liters.

42
The use of boiler 2 allows a higher water production but shows the disadvantage of
relying more on batteries.

The water heater will be located at the back of the tank at the bottom and full sealing is
required along with the black geomembrane sheet. In Fig.29, you can see the drill made
in the back of the tank for inserting the water heater.

Figure 29: The drill made in the back of the tank for the water heater

Nevertheless, some issues shall be considered:

The electric heaters are very energy intensive devices and consume almost all the
production of solar panels or a lot of power which means a higher cost.

8.2 Cooling fans

To obtain the second element, a cooling fan can be used.
Placing strong fans that will run toward the glass is a good idea that can cool the glass
surface on which the water vapor is condensed and speed up the condensation process.
In order to further utilize the process in the long run, fans can be connected to solar
panels using solar energy.
The solution is an effective solution but not necessarily a convenient one.
The fans should be positioned in such a way that they cool the glass surface but do not
interfere with the sun's rays passing. The fans should also be strong enough to create
heat convection from the glass surface.
Powerful fans are generally more expensive and consume higher energy that a standard
solar panel cannot provide.
Admitting strong fans can improve and utilize the process, but given the budget,
location and target population, this solution is irrelevant.

43
8.3 Sealing the system
Sealing the system is an integral and important part in order to maximize the efficiency
of the system.
The system sealing action plan should be reviewed in Part 1 of the experiment.
If there are additional leaks, my suggestion is to replace the black geomembrane sheet
with a new one and make the appropriate adjustments to the container without cutting
the sheet to pieces, but rather as a whole piece affixed inside the container.
The black geomembrane sheet was fitted to the container with cutting and clamping
with pins which can be damaged in quality and strength of the black geomembrane
sheet and caused leakage.
The black geomembrane sheet is an expensive material, but it is a long-term durable,
resistant to environmental conditions and temperature and does not impair water
quality.
Therefore, it is an option that can fit for the long term, if installed correctly without
holes or cuts.

44
 8.4 Design improvements comparison

Table.5 Design Improvements Comparison Table by the Pugh matrix

Suitable for
Easy to environmental Easy to Low
Alternatives Low cost build conditions operate maintenance Totals Rank
Water Heater 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
Cooling Fans -1 1 -1 0 -1 -1 3
New Black
Geomembrane -1 1 1 1 1 4 1

In summary, the three proposed alternatives can be used to optimize the system, but in
order to suit the system requirements and the population, in my opinion the best
options at the moment are the use of a water heater and the replacement of the black
geomembrane sheet if there are leaks.
It should be noted that Lobitos has a relatively strong winds and therefore the cooling
fan option is less relevant to the region.
The two chosen options will help utilize the process and thus increase the amount of
water produced each day.

45
9. Summary
As part of the project, a water desalination system has been studied and built to meet a
real and vital need for a disadvantaged population.
The project was divided into several main steps:
Step one: In the initial step, I studied the system, the environment in which the system
was established, the water standards as well as the system efficiency standards and the
possible alternatives that answer the same problem.
Step two: In the second step, the missing parts of the system were assembled, and an
initial run was performed to guarantee proper operation.
Step three: In the third step, experimental sets were written that included three steps
that check system integrity, system efficiency and water quality.
Step four: In the fourth step, I ran the series of experiments with and without the
mirrors in order to test the efficiency of the system and also performed tests for the
water quality.
Step five: In the fifth step, after collecting all the data, I analyzed the information to
understand whether there is a change in efficiency with the addition of mirrors and
whether the water meets the quality standard. I did indeed get good results.
Step six: In the sixth step, I mentioned some other options for improving the system
design and comparing them based on the system criteria mentioned at the beginning.
This is to further improve the efficiency of the system and provide tips for continued
operation.

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10. Requirements and Products

Table.6 Project Requirements

Requirement Requirement description Statues

number
1 Relatively simple and convenient water
supply. V
2 Can be operate during times of need (when normal
water supply stops). V
3 Complies with drinking water standard requirements
such as: V
o TDS range: 25 to 500 mg/L (beside
o pH range: 6.5-8.5 Nitrate and
o Nitrites: 1 mg/L Nitrites)
o Nitrate: 50 mg/l
4 Meets the efficiency requirements of a similar system
(30% efficiency) V

Table.7 Project products

Product Product description Statues Reference

number
1 Presentation of the existing filter system Chapter 4
and its limitations and requirements V
2 Display quality and efficiency Chapter 5
requirements of the system V
3 Literature survey on water treatment Chapter 3
methods and water systems V
4 Writing experimental sets to test the
operation of the existing system and V Chapter 6
adapting it to the requirements
5 Examine 1-2 solutions for optimizing the
system, focusing on one most viable V Chapter 5,8
alternative in terms of budget, efficiency,
maintenance and quality
6 Writing experimental sets to test the V Chapter 6
operation of the existing system focusing
on the selected optimization proposal
7 Display the optimal system design, V Chapter 8
including optimization suggestions to
follow

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11. Bibliography

[1] https://sswm.info/sswm-solutions-bop-markets/
[2] https://www.worldweatheronline.com/lobitos-weather-averages/piura/pe.aspx [2]
[3] https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/
[4] https://www.academia.edu/33917395/
[5] https://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis
[6] https://globalsolaratlas.info/map
[7] https://answers.practicalaction.org/our-resources/item/solar-distillation
[8] https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118131473
[9] https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health

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12. Appendix
12.1 Work proposal

Project name: Solar Distiller

Project descripstion:
Water scarcity is one of the main problem in Lobitos. This semi-rural town (2000
population approx.) is located in an arid zone, the northern coastal desert of Peru. The
clean water supply is highly fluctuating. It is only supplied occasionally (on average 3
times a week and only for a few hours), through on-grid installations that bring the
water from the nearby city of Talara. However, there are times in which no water is
supplied for weeks or even longer.
The town is right next to the sea, so desalinization can is an alternative to get by during
harsh drought times.
Solar distillers are a device which distil and purify water (brackish water, seawater,
dirty water). Distillation can remove virtually all salt, nitrates, and heavy metal such as
arsenic from water as well as pathogens and other biological contaminants from water.
Solar stills purify water through distillation, where pure water is vaporized out of
collected dirty water and then condensed. In some cases, such as extremely poor
quality or salty water, solar stills may be the most practical way to treat the water. In
Fig.1 we can see the basic concept of the typical solar still. It starts with the sun’s
energy going through a glass (or Plexiglas) window and evaporating the water in the
pool at the bottom of the still. The evaporated water condenses on the glass and flows
along the glass surface to channels at the bottom where it is collected.
The collected water is then passed through a charcoal filter to further ensure the
drinking water is pure and contains little to no contaminates.

Fig.1 Solar distiller illustration

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There are two types of solar water distillers:
1. Passive - which only relies on heat from the sun.
2. Active - which uses additional heat energy to increase temperature within
distiller and promote distillation.
Due to lack of funding, the solar distiller that will be describe in this project is the
passive one. There are several different designs that can be use when constructing a
passive solar still. The design that will be used for this project is a single effect still,
due to its ease of construction, ease of maintenance and lower cost (fewer materials).
Now, the solar distiller system is lack of a catchment tube, a water collection tank and
adjustments.
Reaserch goal: Assemble a solar distiller that meet quality and efficiency
requirements. The long-term goal is for scaling up the system for civilian use of
Lobitos.
Requirements specification:
- mechanically operated system and by solar energy alone first and if possible (in terms
of budget and in terms of time of my stay in Peru), electric heating system will be
added to increase the efficiency of the solar distiller.
- The system will meet the quality and safety requirements - pH level and ppm level
that meet the standard for drinking water.
- The system will allow easy and accessible maintenance.
- The solar distiller system will be as simple as possible and inexpensive, so that it can
be scale up after the initial model has been successful.

Methodology:
1. Evalute the requirements of quality and safety standards for drinking water.
2. Study the existing filtration system and adapt it to the environmental conditions and
requirements of the organization.
3. Understanding of the missing parts of the existing system, adding them to the
system, as well as checking that they are suitiable.
4. To demonstrate experiments for the existing system with the additional parts,
focusing on two aspects: machine efficiency and water quality.
5. Examine 1-2 solutions for optimizing the system, focusing on one most viable
alternatives in terms of budget, efficiency, maintenance and quality.
6. To demonstrate experiments for the system with the selected optimization proposal
chosen, focusing on machine efficiency and water quality.

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Work products:
1. Presentation of the existing filter system and its limitations and requirements.
2. Display quality and efficiency requirements of the system.
3. Review of the situation exists in the market and in the professional literature -
presenting various solutions in the world for water filtration and an explanation for
choosing the system shown here depending on environmental conditions.
4. Writing experimental sets to test the operation of the existing system and adapting it
to the requirements, which will include: trial plans, goals, charts and criteria for
success.
5. Examine 1-2 solutions for optimizing the system, focusing on one most viable
alternatives in terms of budget, efficiency, maintenance and quality.
6. Writing experimental sets to test the operation of the existing system and adapting it
to the requirements, which will include: trial plans, goals, charts and criteria for
success, focusing on the selected optimization proposal.
7. Display the optimal system design, including optimization suggestions to follow.
Time schedule:
midterm report- 31.12.2019. Will inclufe products 1-4.
Final report – 24.5.2020 or even befor. Will include all of the above, products 1-7.

Date: 12.09.2019 student signuture: __________________

Date: 12.09.2019 advisor signuture: ____________________

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 12.2 Excel data processing tables with and without mirrors

Table.1: Continuous data collection table running the experiment without the mirrors

Sample Date Start Time End Time Total Time (Hours) Input (L) Distilled Volume (L) Efficiency (%) PPM
Without Accessories 1 6/2019/‫אוק‬ 7:30 AM 5:30 PM 10 ~ 40 3.6 26% 393
2 7/2019/‫אוק‬ 8:30 AM 5:30 PM 9 ~ 40 3.7 27% 300
3 10/2019/‫אוק‬ 9:00 AM 5:30 PM 8.5 ~ 40 3.2 23% 342
4 11/2019/‫אוק‬ 7:30 AM 5:30 PM 10 ~ 40 3.9 28% 313
Average 9.375 3.6 26% 337

pH Nitrite [mg/l] Nitrate [mg/l] Odor (1-5) Visibillity (1-5) Taste (1-5) Weather (Temp - Wind - Conditions)
7.2 0 0 1 1 1 24 C / 21 - 32 km/h / Sunny Sun h
6.9 0 0 1 1 1 25 C / 21 - 32 km/h / Sunny
7.1 0 0 2 2 2 22 C / 21 - 32 km/h / AM: Cloudy, PM: Sunny some leak
7 0 0 1 2 1 27 C / 21 - 33 km/h / Sunny
7 1.25 1.5 1.25

Table.2: Continuous data collection table running the experiment with the mirrors

Sample Date Start Time End Time Total Time (Hours) Input (L) Distilled Volume (L) Efficiency (%) PPM
1 13/2019/‫אוק‬ 07:30 5:30 PM 10 ~ 40 4.3 31% 330
With Accessories 2 14/2019/‫אוק‬ 08:30 5:30 PM 9 ~ 40 4.8 35% 336
3 16/2019/‫אוק‬ 08:30 5:30 PM 9 ~ 40 4.9 35% 298
4 17/2019/‫אוק‬ 08:30 5:30 PM 9 ~ 40 4.6 33% 320
Average 9.25 4.65 33.50% 321

pH Nitrite [mg/l] Nitrate [mg/l] Odor (1-5) Visibillity (1-5) Taste (1-5) Weather (Temp - Wind - Conditions)
6.9 0 0 1 1 1 23 C / 21 - 32 km/h / AM: Cloudy, PM: Sunny
7.3 0 0 2 2 2 28 C / 26 - 35 km/h / Sunny
7.1 0 0 1 1 1 27 C / 27 - 32 km/h / Sunny
7.4 0 0 1 1 1 26 C / 21 - 33 km/h / Sunny
7.2 1.25 1.25 1.5

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