CHAPTER 4: THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
intermediate filaments
 Tissue – group of cells that usually have a
common origin in an embryo and function
together to carry out specialized activities
 Histology – science that deals with the study of
tissues
 Pathologist – a physician who examine cells and
tissues to help other physicians make accurate
diagnoses
4 TYPES OF TISSUES
1. Epithelial Tissue – covers body surfaces and
lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts
o Allows the body to interact with both its
internal and external environment
2. Connective Tissue – protects and supports the
body and its organs
o Bind organs together, store energy
reserves as fat, and help provide the
body with immunity
3. Muscular Tissue – composed of cells specialized
for contraction and generation of force
o Generates heat and warms the body
4. Nervous Tissue – detects changes inside and
outside the body and responds by generating
electrical signals called nerve action potentials
CELL JUNCTIONS
 Cell Junctions – contact points between the
plasma membranes of tissue cells
5 Types of Cell Junctions:
1. Tight Junctions – consists of web-like strands of
transmembrane proteins that fuse together the
outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes
to seal off passageways between adjacent cells
2. Adherens Junctions – contain plaque, a dense
layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma
membrane that attaches both to membrane
proteins and to microfilaments of the
cytoskeleton
o Cadherins – transmembrane
glycoproteins that join the cells
o Adhesion Belts – extensive zones;
encircles the cell similar to the way a
belt encircles your waist
3. Desmosomes – contain plaque and have
transmembrane glycoproteins that extend into
the intercellular space between adjacent cell
membranes and attach cells to one another;
does not attach to microfilaments; attaches to
4. Hemidesmosomes – resemble desmosomes but
they do not link adjacent cells
o Integrins – the transmembrane
glycoproteins in hemidesmosomes
5. Gap Junctions – membrane proteins called
connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called
connexons that connect neighboring cells
EPITHELIAL TISSUE/EPITHELIUM
 Epithelial Tissue – consists of cells arranges in
continuous sheets, in either single or multiple
layers
3 Major Functions:
1. A selective barrier that limits or aids the
transfer of substances into and out of the body
2. A secretory surface that releases products
produced by the cells onto its free surfaces
3. A protective surface that resists the abrasive
influences of the environment
 Apical (Free) Surface – faces the body surface, a
body cavity, the lumen (interior) of an internal
organ, or a tubular duct that receives the cell
secretions
 Lateral Surfaces – face the adjacent cells on
either side, may contain tight junctions,
adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap
junctions
 Basal Surface – opposite the apical surface
 Apical Layer – most superficial layer of cells
 Basal Layer – deepest layer of cells
 Basement Membrane – thin extracellular layer
that commonly consists of two layers, the basal
lamina and reticular lamina
a. Basal Lamina – closer to – and secreted
by – the epithelial cells; contains
proteins such as laminin and collagen,
as well as glycoproteins and
proteoglycans
b. Reticular Lamina – closer to the
underlying connective tissue and
contains proteins such as collagen
 Fibroblasts – connective tissue
cells
2 Types of Epithelial Tissue:
1. Covering and Lining Epithelium – forms the
outer covering of the skin and some internal
organs
 2. Glandular Epithelium – makes up the secreting
portion of glands (thyroid gland, adrenal glands,
sweat glands)
Classification of Epithelial Tissue:
1. Arrangement of Cells in Layers
a. Simple Epithelium – single layer of cells that
functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration,
secretion, or absorption
 Secretion – production and
release of substances such as
mucus, sweat, or enzymes
 Absorption – intake of fluids or
other substances such as
digested food from the
intestinal tract
b. Pseudostratified Epithelium – have multiple
layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at
different levels and not all cells reach the
apical surface
c. Stratified Epithelium – consist of two or
more layers of cells that protect underlying
tissues
2. Cell Shapes
a. Squamous Cells – thin; allows the rapid
passage of substances through them
b. Cuboidal Cell – as tall as they are wide and
are shaped like cubes or hexagons
c. Columnar Cell – much taller than they are
wide, like columns, and protect underlying
tissues
d. Transitional Cell – change shape
Epithelial Tissue: Covering and Lining Epithelium
A. Simple Squamous Epithelium – single layer of
flat cells that resembles a tiled floor when
viewed from apical surface
o Endothelium – when it is lining the
cardiovascular and lymphatic system
o Mesothelium – when it’s forming the
epithelial layer of serous membranes
B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium – single layer of
cube shaped cells
C. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium –
single layer of nonciliated column-like cells with
oval nuclei near base of cells
o Microvilli – finger-like, cytoplasmic
projections
o Goblet Cells – modified columnar
epithelial cells that secrete mucus at
their apical surfaces
D. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium – single
layer of ciliated column-like cells with oval
nuclei near base of cells
E. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium – appears
to have several layers because cell nuclei are at
various levels
o Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar
Epithelium – extend to surface and
secrete mucus or bear cilia
o Pseudostratified Nonciliated Columnar
Epithelium – cells without cilia and lacks
goblet cells
F. Stratified Squamous Epithelium – has two or
more layers of cells
o Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium – develops tough layer of
keratin in apical layer of cells and
several layers deep to it
 Keratin – tough, fibrous
intracellular protein that helps
protect skin and underlying
tissues from heat, microbes,
and chemicals
o Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium – does not contain large
amounts of keratin in apical layer and
several layers deep and is constantly
moistened by mucus from salivary and
mucous glands
G. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium – has two or
more layers of cells; cells in apical layer are
cube-shaped
H. Stratified Columnar Epithelium – consist of
shortened, irregularly shaped cells
I. Transitional Epithelium – has a variable
appearance (transitional)
Glandular Epithelium
 Gland – consist of a single cell or a group of cells
that secrete substances into ducts, onto a
surface, or into the blood in the absence of
ducts
A. Endocrine Glands – secretions (hormones) enter
interstitial fluid and diffuse directly into
bloodstream without flowing through a duct
B. Exocrine Glands – secrete their products into
ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering
and lining epithelium
a. Unicellular Glands – single-celled
glands
b. Multicellular Glands – composed of
many cells that form a distinctive
microscopic structure or
macroscopic organ
  Simple Gland – if the
duct of the gland does
not branch
 Compound Gland – if
the duct branches
 Tubular Glands – glands
with tubular secretory
parts
 Acinar/Alveolar Glands
– with rounded
secretory portions
 Tubuloacinar Glands –
have both tubular and
more rounded
secretory parts
i. SIMPLE GLANDS
o Simple Tubular – tubular secretory part
is straight and attaches to a single
unbranched duct
o Simple Branched Tubular – tubular
secretory part is branched and attaches
to a single unbranched duct
o Simple Coiled Tubular – tubular
secretory part is coiled and attaches to
a single unbranched duct
o Simple Acinar – secretory portion is
rounded, attaches to single unbranched
duct
o Simple Branched Acinar – rounded
secretory part is branched, attaches to a
single unbranched duct
ii. COMPOUND GLANDS
o Compound Tubular – secretory portion
is tubular, attaches to a branched duct
o Compound Acinar – secretory portion is
rounded, attaches to a branched duct
o Compound Tubuloacinar – secretory
portion is both tubular and rounded,
attaches to a branched duct
 Merocrine Glands – synthesized on ribosomes
attached to rough ER
 Apocrine Glands – accumulate their secretory
product at the apical surface of the
secretory/secreting cell
 Holocrine Glands – accumulate a secretory
product in their cytosol
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Connective Tissue – one of the most abundant
and widely distributed tissues in the body
2 Basic Elements:
1. Extracellular Matrix – the material located
between its widely spaced cells; consists of
protein fibers and ground substance, the
material between the cells and fibers
2. Cells
 Mesenchymal Cells – give rise to the cells of
connective tissue
 Fibroblasts – immature cells in loose and dense
connective tissue
 Chondroblasts – immature cells in cartilage
 Osteoblasts – immature cells in bone
 Blast Cells – retain the capacity for cell division
and secrete the extracellular matrix that is
characteristic of the tissue
Types of Cells in Connective Tissue:
1. Fibroblasts – large, flat cells with branching
processes; present in all the general connective
tissues; most numerous
2. Macrophages – develop from monocytes, a type
of white blood cell; have an irregular shape with
short branching projections and are capable of
engulfing bacteria and cellular debris by
phagocytosis
o Fixed Macrophages – reside in a
particular tissue
o Wandering Macrophages – have the
ability to move throughout the tissue
and gather at sites of
infection/inflammation to carry on
phagocytosis
3. Plasma Cells – small cells that develop from a
type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte;
secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or
neutralize foreign substances in the body
4. Mast Cells – abundant alongside the blood
vessels that supply connective tissue; can bind
to, ingest, and kill bacteria
o Histamine – chemical that dilates small
blood vessels as part of the
inflammatory response
5. Adipocytes – also called fat cells or adipose
cells; connective tissue cells that store
triglycerides (fats)
6. Leukocytes (white blood cells) – not found in
significant numbers in normal connective tissue;
migrate from blood into connective tissue
o Neutrophils – gather at sites of infection
o Eosinophils – migrate to sites of
parasitic invasions and allergic
responses
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix Components
1. Ground Substance – the component of a
connective tissue between the cells and fibers;
may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified;
supports cells, binds them together, stores
water, and provides a medium for exchange of
substances between the blood and cells
o Glycosaminoglycans – polysaccharides
o Proteoglycans – proteins that are
associated with GAGs
o Hyaluronic Acid – viscous, slippery
substance that binds cell together,
lubricate joints, and helps maintain the
shape of the eyeballs
o Hyaluronidase – an enzyme that breaks
apart hyaluronic acid
o Chondroitin Sulfate – provides support
and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone,
skin, and blood vessels
o Dermatan Sulfate – contained in skin,
tendons, blood vessels, heart valves
o Keratan Sulfate – contained in bone,
cartilage, and the cornea of the eye
o Adhesion Proteins – responsible for
linking components of the ground
substance to one another and too the
surfaces of cells
o Fibronectin – the main adhesion protein
of connective tissues
2. Fibers – embedded in the extracellular matrix
between the cells; strengthens and supports
connective tissues
A. Collagen Fibers – very strong and resist
pulling forces, but they are not stiff, which
allows tissue flexibility
 Collagen – the most abundant
protein in the body
B. Elastic Fibers – smaller in diameter than
collagen fibers; branch and join together to
form a fibrous network within connective
tissue; strong and can be stretched up to
150% of their relaxed length without
breaking
 Elasticity – returning to the
original shape after being
stretched
C. Reticular Fibers – consisting of collagen
arranged in fine bundles with a coating of
glycoprotein; provides support in the walls
of blood vessels and form a network around
the cells in some tissues
Embryonic Connective Tissue
 Major subclass of connective tissue
2 Types:
1. Mesenchyme – present primarily in the embryo
and in the fetus; has irregularly shaped
mesenchymal cells embedded in semifluid
ground substance that contains delicate
reticular fibers
2. Mucous Connective Tissue – has widely
scattered fibroblasts embedded in viscous, jelly-
like ground substance that contains fine
collagen fibers
Mature Connective Tissue
 The second major subclass of connective tissue
 Present in the newborn
5 Types:
1. Loose Connective Tissue – fibers are loosely
arranged between cells
A. Areolar Connective Tissue – one of the
most widely distributed connective
tissues; consists of fibers arranged
randomly and several kinds of cells
embedded in a semifluid ground
substance
B. Adipose Tissue – has cells derived from
fibroblasts (adipocytes) that are
specialized for storage of triglycerides
(fats) as a large, centrally located
droplet
 White Adipose Tissue – most
adipose tissue in adults
 Brown Adipose Tissue – darker
due to very rich blood supply
and numerous pigmented
mitochondria; widespread in
the fetus and infant
C. Reticular Connective Tissue – a fine
interlacing network of reticular fibers
and reticular cells
2. Dense Connective Tissue – contains more fibers,
which are thicker and more densely packed, but
have considerably fewer cells than loose
connective tissue
A. Dense Regular Connective Tissue –
forms shiny white extracellular matrix
B. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue –
made up of collagen fibers
C. Elastic Connective Tissue – contains
predominantly elastic fibers with
fibroblasts between them
3. Cartilage – consists of a dense network of
collagen fibers and elastic fibers firmly
embedded in chondroitin sulfate (gel-like
component of the ground substance)
o Resilience – ability to assume its original
shape after deformation
o Antiangiogenesis Factor – substance
that prevents blood vessel growth
o Chondrocytes – cells of mature cartilage
o Lacunae – spaces in the extracellular
matrix
o Perichondrium – covering of dense
irregular connective tissue
2 Basic Patterns of Cartilage Growth:
A. Interstitial Growth – there is growth from
within the tissue
B. Appositional Growth – there is growth at
the outer surface of tissue
3 Types of Cartilage:
A. Hyaline Cartilage – contains a resilient gel as
ground substance and appears in the body
as a bluish-white, shiny substances
B. Fibrocartilage – has chondrocytes among
clearly visible thick bundles of collagen
fibers within extracellular matrix
C. Elastic Cartilage – has chondrocytes in
thread-like network of elastic fibers within
extracellular matrix
4. Bone Tissue
o Bones – organs composed of several
different connective tissues, including
bone/osseous tissue, the periosteum,
red and yellow bone marrow, and
endosteum
o Endosteum – membrane that lines a
space within bone that stores yellow
bone marrow
2 Classifications:
i. Compact – its basic unit is an osteon or
haversian system
i. Lamellae – concentric rings of
extracellular matrix that consist
of mineral salts and collagen
fibers
ii. Lacunae – small spaces
between lamellar that contain
osteocytes
iii. Central Canal/Haversian Canal –
contains blood vessels and
nerves
ii. Spongy Bone – lacks osteons; consists
of columns of bone called trabeculae
5. Liquid Connective Tissue – has a liquid as its
extracellular matrix
o Blood – has a liquid extracellular matrix
called blood plasma and formed
elements
o Blood Plasma – pale yellow fluid that
consists mostly of water with a wide
variety of dissolved substances
o Formed Elements – suspended in the
blood plasma
a. Red Blood Cells
(Erythrocytes) – transport
oxygen to body cells and
remove some carbon
dioxide from them
b. White Blood Cells
(Leukocytes) – involved in
phagocytosis, immunity,
and allergic reactions
c. Platelets (Thrombocytes) –
participate in blood clotting
o Lymph – the ECF that flows in lymphatic
vessels; consists of several types of cells
in a clear liquid extracellular matrix that
is similar to blood plasma but with
much less protein
MEMBRANES
 Membranes – flat sheets of pliable tissues that
cover or line a part of the body
Epithelial Membranes
 Epithelial Membranes – an epithelial layer and
an underlying connective tissue layer
A. Mucous Membrane/Mucosa – lines a body
cavity that opens directly to the exterior; a
barrier that microbes and other pathogens have
difficulty penetrating
o Lamina Propria – the connective tissue
layer of a mucous membrane; areolar
connective tissue
B. Serous Membrane/Serosa – lines a body cavity
that does not open directly to the exterior and
it covers the organs that are within the cavity
o Parietal Layer – the layer attached to
and lining the cavity wall
 o Visceral Layer – the layer that covers
and adheres to the organs within the
cavity
o Serous Fluid – watery lubricant that
allows organs to glide easily over one
another or against the walls of cavities
o Pleura – the serous membrane lining
the thoracic cavity and covering the
lungs
o Pericardium – lining the heart cavity
and covering the heart
o Peritoneum – lining the abdominal
cavity and covering the abdominal
organs
C. Synovial Membranes – line the cavities of freely
movable joints
o Synoviacytes – discontinuous layer of
cells
o Synovial Fluid – lubricates and
nourishes the cartilage covering the
bones at movable joints and contains
macrophages that remove microbes
and debris from the joint cavity
MUSCULAR TISSUE
 Muscular Tissue – consists of elongated cells
called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use
ATP to generate force; produces body
movements, maintains posture, and generates
heat
3 Types:
A. Skeletal Muscle Tissue – consists of long,
cylindrical, striated fibers; voluntary because it
can be made to contract or relax by conscious
control
o Striations – alternating light and dark
bands within fibers that are visible
under a light microscope
B. Cardiac Muscle Tissue – consists of branched,
striated fibers with usually only one centrally
located nucleus; involuntary control
o Intercalated Discs – transverse
thickenings of plasma membrane
C. Smooth Muscle Tissue – consists of fibers
usually involuntary, nonstriated
o Smooth Muscle Fiber – small spindle-
shaped cell thickest in middle, tapering
at each end, and containing a single,
centrally located nucleus
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Nervous Tissue – consists of two principal types
of cells: neurons and neuroglia
A. Neurons/Nerve Cells – sensitive to various
stimuli; convert stimuli into electrical signals
called nerve action potentials (nerve
impulses) and conduct these action
potentials to other neurons, muscle tissue,
or glands; consist of cell body and processes
extending from cell body
o Cell Body – contains the nucleus and
other organelles
o Dendrites – tapering, highly branched,
and usually short cell processes; major
receiving or input portion of a neuron
o Axons – single, thin, cylindrical process
that may be very long; output portion
of a neuron
B. Neuroglia – do not generate or conduct
nerve impulses
EXCITABLE CELLS
 Neurons and Muscle Fibers
- Exhibits electrical excitability, the ability to
respond to certain stimuli by producing
electrical signals such as action potentials
TISSUE REPAIR: RESTORING HOMEOSTASIS
 Tissue Repair – the replacement of worn-out,
damaged, or dead cells
 Stroma – supporting connective tissue
 Parenchyma – cells that constitute the
functioning part of the tissue or organ
 Stem Cells – immature, undifferentiated cells
 Fibrosis – fibroblasts synthesize collagen and
other extracellular matrix materials that
aggregate to form a scar tissue
 Granulation Tissue – actively growing
connective tissue
 Wound Dehiscence – the partial or complete
separation of the outer layers of a sutured
incision