The document provides an overview of the integumentary and skeletal systems. It describes the major components and functions of skin including the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. It also outlines the major bones and classifications in the skeletal system including long bones that support weight, flat and short bones, and irregular bones like vertebrae. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, while the appendicular skeleton comprises the limbs and girdles.
The document provides an overview of the integumentary and skeletal systems. It describes the major components and functions of skin including the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. It also outlines the major bones and classifications in the skeletal system including long bones that support weight, flat and short bones, and irregular bones like vertebrae. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, while the appendicular skeleton comprises the limbs and girdles.
The document provides an overview of the integumentary and skeletal systems. It describes the major components and functions of skin including the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. It also outlines the major bones and classifications in the skeletal system including long bones that support weight, flat and short bones, and irregular bones like vertebrae. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, while the appendicular skeleton comprises the limbs and girdles.
●Integumentary System (covering) - skin and its ●Nails - protective covering various structures 3 Parts of Nail: ●Skin Cells - help produce Vitamin D needed for o Nail plate normal bone and tooth development o Nail bed ●Keratinocytes - produce substance that stimulate o Lunula development of some white blood cells ●Sweat Glands(sudoriferous glands) - originate in ●Layers of Skin: deeper in dermis or hypodermis; ●Epidermis - keratinized; ;lacks blood vessels; rests ●Sebaceous Glands - holocrene glands; secrete on basement membrane; stratified squamous sebum(oil); associated with hair follicles epithelia ●Hypoxemia - blood inadequate o Thinnest on palm (0.5 mm) ●Hypoxia - tissue inadequate o Thickest on sole (4mm) Regulation of Body Temperature 5 Layers of Epidermis - vitally important because even slight shifts can o Stratum corneum disrupt metabolic reactions. o Stratum lucidum ●Heat - a product of cellular metabolism; o Stratum granulosum Active body cells and heat producers: o Stratum spinosum o Skeletal Muscle o Stratum basale o Cardiac Muscle ●Heredity and environment determine skin color o Cells of certain glands like liver ●Genetic Factors - varying amounts and size of ●Radiation - primary means of heat loss melanin; albinos lack melanin ●Hypothermia - abnormally low body temp. ●Environment Factors - sunlight, x-rays, UV light from ●Hyperthermia - abnormally high body temp. sunlamps; darkens melanin ●Inflammation - normal response to injury or stress ●Physiological Factors - dilation and constriction of Inflamed skin may be: dermal blood vessels; accumulation of carotene; o Reddened, Swollen, Warm, Painful jaundice ●Types of Burns ●Dermis(1.0-2.0 mm) - binds epidermis to underlying o First Degree - superficial; partial thickness tissue; nerve cell process; specialized sensory o Second Degree - deep; partial-thickness receptors; blood vessels, muscle cells, glands, hair o Third Degree - full-thickness follicles Rules of Nine for Adults (÷ 2 for infants) 2 Layers of Dermis Perineum - 1% o Papillary Layer - thin, superficial; dermal Posterior Anterior papillae Head 41 2 % 41 2 % o Reticular Layer - 80% of dermis; cleavage, tension of Langer’s lines located Trunk 18% 18% ●Hypodermis or Subcutanous Layer (superficial Upper 41 2 % 41 2 % fascia) - Major blood vessels present; adipose tissue extremities present Lower 41 2 % 41 2 % Accessory Structures of the Skin extremities -originate from the epidermis Chapter 5 – Skeletal System ●Hair Follicles - epidermis to dermis; tube-like •Skeletal System – internal framework of the body; depression; arrector pili muscle system of protection and support composed primarily ●Necrotic - death of cells or tissue of bones and cartilages. 3 Parts of Hair Follicles: •Skeleton – Greek word “dried up body” o Hair Root •Bones – warehouse for calcium, iron and energy. o Hair Shaft •206 bones – total number of adult’s bones (20% of o Facial Bones body mass; kg × 0.20) ‧ Vomer bone Functions of the Bones ‧ Mandible •Support – bones form the body’s internal framework ‧ 2 Maxilla bones which supports and protects organs. ‧ 2 Zygomatic bones •Protection – bones protect soft body organs. ‧ 2 Nasal bones •Allow movement – tendons attached to bones help ‧ 2 Palatine bones make movement. ‧ 2 Inferior Nasal Conchae •Storage - stores fat in marrow; serves as store ‧ 2 Lacrimal bones house for minerals (calcium & phosphorus) •Hyoid bone – horseshoe-shaped, with body and •Blood Cell Formation – “hematopoiesis” – occurs horns and about 2 cm within certain marrow cavities of bones. • Auditory Ossicles – smallest bones Classification of Bones o Stapes •Compact bone – dense, looks smooth o Incus •Spongy or Cancellous bone – spiky, open o Malleus appearance like a sponge •Vertebral Column(Spine) – 26 vertebrae; extends Types of Bones from skull to pelvis •Long bone – support body’s weight; mostly compact o Cervical (Neck) – 7 vertebrae; C1 – C7 bone (femur, humerus, metacarpals) ‧ Atlas – C1, has no body •Flat bone – thin, flattened, usually curved (skull, ribs, ‧ Axis – C2, pivot for rotation sternum) o Thoracic(Chest) – 12 vertebrae; T1 - T12 •Short bone – cubed or round; mostly spongy bone o Lumbar (lower back) – 5 vertebrae; L1 – L5 (tarsal, carpal) o Sacral – 1 vertebrae o Sesamoid bone – form within tendons ‧ Ala – articulate with hip bone (patella) •Irregular bone – doesn’t fit the preceding categories ‧ Median Sacral crest – midline (vertebrae) surface Layers of the Bone ‧ Sacral Canal – vertebral canal •Periosteum – covers the diaphysis; thin, dense, continuation contain nerve and blood vessels ‧ Sacral hiatus – large inferior •Compact bone – smooth, very hard opening •Spongy bone – looks like sponge o Coccyx (tailbone) – 1 vertebrae •Bone marrow – like a thick jelly •Intervertebral discs – flexible fibrocartilage between o Yellow bone marrow – stores fat or adipose vertebrae tissue •Scoliosis – lateral direction o Red bone marrow – produce blood cells •Kyphosis – posterior position (bako) •Lordosis – anterior direction (like preggy) Two parts of the Skeletal System •Thoracic Cage – sternum and ribs •Axial Skeleton – 80 bones; skull, vertebral column, •Features of the vertebrae: thoracic cage o Body or Centrum – disclike; facing anterior •Appendicular Skeleton – 126 bones; limbs, pectoral, pelvic girdle o Vertebral arch – arch connects the laminae Axial Skeleton and pedicles •Skull – 22 bones (8 cranium, 14 facial bones) o Vertebral foramen – canal where spinal cord o Cranium passes ‧ Occipital bone o Transverse processes – two “horns” from ‧ Frontal bone vertebral arch ‧ Ethmoid bone o Spinous process – single “horn” in the ‧ Sphenoid bone middle ‧ 2 Temporal bones o Superior and Inferior articular process ‧ 2 Parietal bones •Sternum (breastbone) – flat bone attached to first 7 ribs o Manubrium ‧ Pisiform o Body o Metacarpals – palm; 5 bones o Xiphoid process o Phalanges – fingers; 14 phalanges each o Jugular notch hand (proximal, middle, distal) o Sternal angle •Pelvic Girdle – formed by 2 coxal or hip bones o Xiphisternal joint o Ilium – superior bone of pelvis •Ribs – 12 pairs o Ischium – “sit bone” inferior bone of hip o True Ribs – first 7 pairs attached to sternum o Pubis – most anterior bone of the hip o False Ribs – next 3 pairs not attached to •Thigh – Femur; parts of the Femur: sternum o Greater and Lesser trochanter o Floating Ribs – last 2 pairs o Intertrochanteric line o Intercostal Spaces – spaces between the o Gluteal tuberosity ribs o Medial and Lateral Condyle Appendicular Skeleton o Intercondylar fossa •Shoulder Girdle – also called pectoral girdle o Patellar surface o Clavicle – collarbone •Leg – Tibia and Fibula o Scapula – “wings” or shoulder blades o Tibia – medial; shinbone •Arm – Humerus; parts of the humerus: ‧ Interosseous membrane – connects o Anatomical neck the tibia and fibula o Intertubercular sulcus ‧ Medial and Lateral Condyle ‧ Greater tubercle ‧ Patella – kneecap ‧ Lesser tubercle ‧ Tibial tuberosity o Surgical Neck ‧ Medial malleolus o Deltoid Tuberosity o Fibula – lateral o Radial Groove ‧ Lateral malleolus o Trochlea •Foot – Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges o Capitulum o Tarsals o Coronoid and Olecranon fossa ‧ Calcaneus o Medial and Lateral epicondyle ‧ Talus ‧ Cuboid •Forearm – Radius and Ulna ‧ Navicular o Radius – lateral bone; thumb side ‧ Medial cuneiform ‧ Interosseous membrane – connects ‧ Intermediate cuneiform the radius and ulna ‧ Lateral cuneiform ‧ Styloid process – distal end of o Metatarsals – sole; 5 bones radius and ulna o Phalanges – toes; 14 phalanges (proximal, ‧ Radial Tuberosity - o Ulna – medial bone; pinky finger middle, distal) Joints ‧ Coronoid process • Joints or Articulations – where two or more bones ‧ Olecranon meet ‧ Trochlear Notch Functionally: •Hand – Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges o Synarthroses – immovable joints o Carpal – 8 bones o Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints ‧ Trapezium ‧ Trapezoid o Diarthroses – freely movable joints ‧ Capitate Structurally: ‧ Hamate o Fibrous joints – united by fibrous tissue ‧ Scaphoid o Cartilaginous Joints – united by cartilage ‧ Lunate ‧ Synchondroses – immovable ‧ Triquetrum ‧ Symphyses – slightly movable o Synovial Joints – contains synovial fluid Chapter 6 – Muscular System ‧ Articular Cartilage – covers the end •Muscular System – organ system consisting of of bones forming joints skeletal muscles and their connective tissue ‧ Articular Capsule – a layer of attachments. fibrous tissue in line with synovial •muscle – Latin word mus – “little mouse”; to contract membrane or shorten; responsible for all body movements; ‧ Joint Cavity – contains the synovial “machines” of the body. fluid Muscle Types ‧ Reinforcing ligaments – reinforces •Skeletal Muscle – muscle composed of cylindrical the fibrous layers of the capsule multinucleate cells with obvious striations; the •Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial muscles attached to the body’s skeleton; skeletal, membrane containing a thin film of synovial fluid. striated, voluntary •Tendon Sheath – an elongated bursa that wraps •Skeletal muscle fibers – packed into organs called completely around a tendon. skeletal muscles; large cigar-shaped multinucleate •Dislocation – when a bone is forced out of its normal cells; largest muscle fibers position Also known striated muscle – obvious stripes •Reduction – process of returning the bone to its Also known as voluntary muscle – only proper position muscle type subject to conscious control •Types of Synovial Joints on Shape •Endomysium – thin connective tissue surrounding o Plane joint – Intercarpal and Intertarsal joints each muscle o Hinge joint – Elbow and Interphalangeal •Perimysium – connective tissue enveloping bundles joints of muscle fibers called fascicle o Pivot joint – between the radius and ulna •Epimysium – sheath of fibrous connective tissue o Condylar joint - knuckles surrounding a muscle o Saddle joint – carpometacarpal of the thumb •Tendon – cord of dense fibrous tissue attaching a o Ball-and-socket joint – shoulder and hip joint muscle to a bone. •Bursitis – “water on knee” •Aponeurosis – fibrous or membranous sheet •Sprain – torn away from the bone or excessive connecting a muscle and the part it moves. stretching of ligaments or tendons •Smooth Muscle – muscle consisting of spindle- •Arthritis – (arth = joint; itis = inflammation) shaped, unstripped muscle cells; involuntary muscle; inflammation of the joints visceral, nonstriated, involuntary •Osteoarthritis – chronic degenerative that affects the •Cardiac Muscle – specialized muscle of the heart aged. with striations and intercalated disc; involuntary •Rheumatoid Arthritis – chronic inflammatory disorder muscle; cardiac, striated, involuntary •Gouty Arthritis – uric acid accumulates in the blood Muscle Functions and may be deposited as needle-shaped crystals in •Produce Movement – responsible for our body’s soft tissues of the joints. mobility including all locomotion and manipulating Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton things with your upper limbs; enable us to respond •Fontanels – fibrous membranes connecting the quickly to changes in our environment. cranial bones •Maintain Posture and Body Position – Maintain an •Osteoporosis – bone-thinning disease erect or seated posture, even when we slouch, •Deficiency of Vitamin A – retard bone development despite the never-ending pull of gravity. • Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones •Stabilize Joints – Muscles and tendons are extremely • Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets; osteomalacia important for reinforcing and stabilizing joints that •Insufficient Growth Hormone - dwarfism have poorly articulating surfaces. •Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism; acromegaly •Generate Heat – muscle activities generates body •Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth heat as a by-product. Skeletal muscles accounts for •Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate at least 40% of body mass. bone ossification of epiphyseal plates •Additional Functions: •Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth o Dilate and constrict eyes’ pupils o Make up the arrector pili for “goosebumps” •Graded Responses – a response varies directly with o Enclose and protect fragile internal organs the strength of the stimulus Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles o Changing the frequency of muscle •Sarcolemma – cell membrane of a striated muscle stimulation fiber cells. o Changing the number of muscle fibers •Myofibrils – contractile organelles found in the stimulated one at a time cytoplasm of muscle cells •Muscle twitch – single, brief, jerky contractions •Sarcomeres – smallest contractile unit of muscle; •Unfused or Incomplete Tetanus – a muscle extends from one Z-disc to the next contraction in which the muscle doesn’t completely •Myofilaments – filaments composing of myofibrils relax between stimulation; causes an increase in o Actin – thin filaments; force because individual twitches are added together. o Myosin – thick filaments; split ATP to release •Fused or Complete Tetanus – a completely smooth, the energy used for muscle contraction sustained muscle contraction resulting from rapid •Sarcoplasmic Reticulum(SR) – very important stimulation with no time for relaxation between muscle fiber organelle; specialized smooth stimulation events. endoplasmic reticulum found in muscle cells that Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction stores and releases calcium during muscle o As a muscle contracts, the bonds of ATP contraction molecules are hydrolyzed to release the Skeletal Muscle Activity needed energy. •Muscle fibers’ several function properties: Working muscles use 3 pathways to regenerate ATP: o Irritability/Responsiveness – ability to receive •Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate and respond to a stimulus – creatine phosphate is found in muscle fibers which o Contractility – ability to forcibly shorten when interacts with ADP when ATP is depleted. adequately stimulated •Aerobic Pathway – Aerobic respiration in which o Extensibility – ability of muscle fibers to oxygen is consumed and glucose is broken down stretch entirely; water, carbon dioxide, and large amounts of o Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume their ATP are final products. Slow and requires continuous resting length after being stretched delivery of oxygen and nutrients. •Motor unit – one neuron and all the skeletal muscle •Anaerobic glycolysis – a process in which glucose is fibers it stimulates broken down in the absence of oxygen, resulting in •Axon – neuron process that carries impulses away formation of 2 ATP molecules and lactic acid. from the nerve cell body; efferent process Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit •Axon Terminal – one of the multiple ends of axon •Muscle fatigue – inability of muscle to contract even that brand from the motor neuron axon; interacts with while being stimulated; the sarcolemma of different muscle cells to form •Oxygen Deficit – the volume of oxygen required after neuromuscular junctions exercise to oxidize the lactic acid formed during •Neuromuscular junctions – the region where motor exercise. Occurs during prolonged muscle activity. neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal Type of Muscle Contractions muscle •Isotonic – “same tone”; muscle shortens as it •Neurotransmitter – chemicals released by neurons contracts and movement occurs. that may, upon binding to receptors of neurons or •Isometric – “same length”; muscle generates tension effector cells, stimulate or inhibit them. but doesn’t shorten, no movement occurs. •Acetylcholine or ACh – chemical transmitter •Muscle Tone – sustained partial contraction of a substance released by a certain nerve endings muscle in response to stretch receptor inputs; keeps •Synaptic cleft – the fluid-filled space at synapse muscle healthy and ready to react. between neurons. •Flaccid Paralysis – decrease muscle tone •Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis(ALS) - motor neurons o Flaccid – soft, flabby degenerate over time, resulting in paralysis that o Atrophy – waste away gradually worsens. •Spastic Paralysis – increase muscle tone until the Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole muscle is no longer controllable. Effect of Exercise on muscle •Number of origins •Aerobic exercise or Endurance exercise – flexible o Biceps - two muscles with greater resistance to fatigue; help reach o Triceps - three a steady rate of ATP o Quadriceps - four •Resistance exercise or Isometric exercise – pit •Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion – named muscles against an immovable object for their attachment sites Muscle Movements, Roles and Names •Shape of the muscle – have a distinctive shape Types of Body Movements o Deltoid - triangular o Origin – attached to immovable or less •Action of the muscle – named for their actions movable bone o Flexor - flex o Insertion – attached to movable bone o Extensor - extend • Flexion – decrease the angle of joint or bring two o Adductor - adduct bones closer together Arrangement of Fascicles •Extension – increase the angle •Circular – fascicles are arranged in concentric rings o Hyperextension – greater than 180 ° •Convergent – fascicles converge toward a single •Rotation – around longitudinal axis insertion tendon; triangular or fan-shaped •Abduction – moving a limb away medial •Parallel – length of fascicles run parallel to the long •Adduction – moving a limb toward medial axis of muscle; straplike •Circumduction – combination of flexion, extension, o Fusiform – spindle-shaped with expanded abduction and adduction belly •Dorsiflexion – upward movement of foot •Pennate – “feather”; short fascicle attach obliquely to •Plantar flexion – downward movement of foot a central tendon •Inversion – sideward movement of foot o Unipennate – fascicle insert only into one •Eversion – opposite of inversion side of the tendon •Supination – turning backward of hand o Bipennate – fascicle insert to opposite side •Pronation – turning forward of hand of tendon •Opposition – tips of thumb and other fingers touch o Multipennate – fascicle insert from several together Interaction of Skeletal Muscles different sides •Prime movers – muscles that has major responsibility Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles for causing particular movement Head and Neck Muscles Anterior •Antagonist – muscles that oppose or reverse a •Frontalis – frontal bone; from cranial aponeurosis to movement eyebrows where it inserts •Synergists – help prime movers by producing the •Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle on temporal bone; same movement or by reducing undesirable inserts into mandible movements (syn = together; erg = work) •Zygomaticus – from corner of mouth to cheekbone; •Fixators – specialized synergist; holds bone still or “smiling” muscle stabilize the origin of a prime mover to move the •Buccinator – horizontal across cheek and inserts into insertion bone orbicularis oris Naming Skeletal Muscles •Orbicularis Oris – circular muscle of lips; “kissing” •Direction of the Muscle fibers – named in reference muscle to an imaginary line •Orbicularis Oculi – circular around the eyes o Rectus – straight •Masseter – from zygomatic process to mandible •Platysma – covers the neck; from chest and inserts o Oblique – at a slant to the area around the mouth •Relative size of the muscle •Sternocleidomastiod – 2-headed muscle; one found o Maximus – largest on each of the neck, one from sternum, one from o Minimus – smallest clavcle o Longus - long Anterior Trunk Muscles •Location of the muscle – named for the bone with •Pectoralis Major – covers the pectorals or chest which they are associated •Intercostal Muscles – deep muscles between the ribs •Serratus Anterior Head and neck Muscle Posterior •Rectus Abdominis – “abs”; from pubis to ribs •Occipitalis - •External Oblique – paired superficial muscles that •Trapezius – superficial muscle of posterior neck make up the lateral walls of abdomen Posterior Trunk Muscles •Internal oblique – paired muscles deep to the •Latissimus dorsi – two large, flat muscles that cover external oblique the lower back •Transversus Abdominis – deepest muscle of the •Erector Spinae – deep paired muscles of the back abdominal wall o Longissimus Muscles of the Anterior Upper Limbs o Iliocostalis •Deltoid – fleshy, triangular that form the rounded o Spinalis shape of shoulder •Quadratus Lumborum – fleshy muscles form the •Biceps brachii – bulges when elbow is flexed; two posterior lumbar heads from shoulder girdle; lifts radius Muscles of the Posterior Upper Limbs •Triceps brachii – three head from shoulder girdle and •Triceps brachii proximal humerus •Brachialis •Brachialis – deep to biceps brachii; lifts ulna •Brachioradialis •Brachioradialis – fairly weak muscle from humerus to •Extensor carpi radialis longus distal forearm •Flexor carpi ulnaris •Flexor carpi radialis •Extensor carpi ulnaris Muscles of the Anterior Lower Limbs •Extensor digitorum •Iliopsoas – from iliac bone to pelvis, 2 fused muscles: Muscles of the Posterior Lower Trunk o Iliacus - •Gluteus Maximus – superficial muscle of the hip o Psoas Major •Iliotibial Tract •Adductor Muscle – medial side of each thigh •Gluteus Medius – from ilium to femur •Sartorius – thin, straplike; superficial muscle of thigh •Hamstring Group •Quadricep group o Biceps Femoris o Rectus Femoris o Semitendinosus o Vastus Lateralis o Semimembranosus o Vastus Medialis •Adductor Muscle o Vastus Intermedius •Gastrocnemius •Extensor digitorum Longus – lateral to tibialis anterior •Soleus •Tibialis Anterior – superficial muscle of leg; from tibia •Fibularis Longus to tarsal •Calcaneal (Achilles) Tendon •Fibularis muscle – lateral part of leg Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System o Longus •Muscular Dystrophy - A group of inherited muscle- o Brevis destroying disease that affect specific muscle group o tertius o Duchenne’s Muscular Dystrophy – most •Gastrocnemius – 2-bellied muscle that forms the calf common and serious form, almost exclusive •Soleus – deep to the gastrocnemius for boys.