Introduction:

Newton noted the interesting way in which a piece of glass can

break up light into different bands of color, but it was not until
1814 that the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered
the lines of the solar spectrum and laid the basis for spectroscopy.
The spectrograph consists of a slit, a collimator, a prism for
dispersing the light, and a focusing lens. The collimator is an
optical device that produces parallel rays from a focal plane source
,it gives the appearance that the source is located at an infinite
distance. The lines may be displaced to either the red end or the
blue end of the spectrum. This effect was first noted in 1842 by
the Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler.
Spectrum:
in optics, the arrangement according to wavelength of visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared light. An instrument designed for visual
observation of spectra is called a spectroscope; an instrument that
photographs or maps spectra is a spectrograph. Spectra may be
classified according to the nature of their origin, emission or
absorption.
Emission Spectrum:

When an atom absorbs energy, its electrons jump to higher orbitals

temporarily, then jump back down again. Electrons cannot jump
halfway up or down; each transition is discrete, defined and
associated with a particular wavelength of light. When atoms are
sufficiently energized, the up-and-down orbital changes generate
light that has a pattern called an emission spectrum. When you see
the light directly, it has characteristic tints and colors, but when it
passes through a prism or diffraction grating, it spreads into thin
lines of color. The pattern of lines and colors is unique for each
element.
Continuous Spectrum:

Hot objects such as the sun, volcanic lava and incandescent lamps
produce a continuous spectrum -- a band of colors that includes
the familiar colors of the rainbow. A continuous spectrum can
identify elements by the presence of dark bands, and it also tells
scientists how hot the object is: As the temperature goes up, the
spectrum has increasing amounts of green, blue and violet colors.
Relatively cool objects have a spectrum that has mostly deep red
or red and yellow.

Absorption Spectrum
An absorption spectrum is a continuous spectrum with some of the
colors interrupted with thin black lines. When a cloud of relatively
cool gas is situated between you, the observer, and a hot object
such as a star, atoms in the gas absorb energy from the light,
leaving the black lines. The dark lines in an absorption spectrum
coincide with the bright lines in an emission spectrum: You can
identify hydrogen, for example, because the lines, bright or black,
are in the same locations in either case.

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General methods of spectroscopy:

Production and analysis of a spectrum usually require the

following: (1) a source of light (or other electromagnetic
radiation), (2) a disperser to separate the light into its component
wavelengths, and (3) a detector to sense the presence of light after
dispersion. The apparatus used to accept light, separate it into its
component wavelengths, and detect the spectrum is called a
spectrometer. Spectra can be obtained either in the form of
emission spectra, which show one or more bright lines or bands on
a dark background, or absorption spectra, which have a
continuously bright background except for one or more dark lines.
Absorption spectroscopy :
measures the loss of electromagnetic energy after it illuminates the
sample under study. For example, if a light source with a broad
band of wavelengths is directed at avapour of atoms, ions, or
molecules, the particles will absorb those wavelengths that can
excite them from one quantum state to another. As a result, the
absorbed wavelengths will be missing from the original light
spectrum after it has passed through the sample. Since most atoms
and many molecules have unique and identifiable energy levels, a
measurement of the missing absorption lines allows identification
of the absorbing species. Absorption within a continuous band of
wavelengths is also possible. This is particularly common when
there is a high density of absorption lines that have been
broadened by strong perturbations by surrounding atoms.

emission spectroscopy:

uses some means to excite the sample of interest. After the atoms
or molecules are excited, they will relax to lower energy levels,
emitting radiation corresponding to the energy differences, ΔE =
hν = hc/λ, between the various energy levels of the quantum
system. In its use as an analytical tool, this fluorescence radiation
is the complement of the missing wavelengths in absorption
spectroscopy. Thus, the emission lines will have a characteristic
“fingerprint” that can be associated with a unique atom, ion, or
molecule. The atoms or molecules were excited by collisions with
electrons, the broadband light in the excitation source, or
collisions with energetic atoms. The analysis of the emission lines
is done with the same types of spectrometer as used in absorption
spectroscopy.
Spectrometer:
A spectrometer is a device which splits those colors apart, like a
prism, and measures the strength of each color. As used in
traditional laboratory analysis, a spectrometer includes a radiation
source and detection and analysis equipment. Different designs
allow study of various kinds of samples over many frequencies, at
different temperatures or pressures, or in an electric or magnetic
field.