CHINHOYI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CREATIVE ART AND DESIGN

DEPARTMENT OF CLOTHING AND TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY

CHALLENGES BEING FACED BY MOTHERS DURING USE OF DISPOSABLE

NAPKINS.

BY

MHLAHLO SAMANTHA

ACADEMIC YEAR 3 (2016)

SUPERVISOR: D.r T. DANDIRA

This project is submitted to the department of clothing and Textile Technology design
as a partial fulfilment of a Bachelor Of Science Honours’ Degree In Fashion And
Clothing Design

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 DEDICATIONS

This research study is dedicated to my parents Dr Mhlahlo and Mrs Mhlahlo who have been
very supportive throughout my education not forgetting my siblings Linda, Portia,
Tinashe,Precious and Brenda (Mhlahlo) who have been there with me through . They
provided all the support and assistance during every step of my academic journey and without
their support would have not seen this research study through.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Lord almighty for giving me strength and the privilege to conduct
this study successfully .Would also like to pass my gratitude to my supervisor Dr .T Dandira
for her guidance and assistance throughout the coarse of this research. The following people
contributed in providing assistance with their knowledge ,time, corporation, moral support
and generosity during my Work related Learning period; Chinhoyi University staff and
students, Mes Clothing staff to name a few Mr Nyaruvende ,Mr Mazanhi and Mrs Shava and
my friends Sibongubuhle Ndlovu and Marshal Mangwiro who have stood by me encouraging
me to work tirelessly to the end .

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 ABSTRACT

This research study sought to determine the challenges being faced by mothers with infants
during use of disposable napkins mainly those mothers within the less privileged
communities and it was a qualitative based research study whose research design was a case
study. Through conducting interviews and focus groups the researcher was able to gather
facts and vital information pertaining the area of study .The attained data was presented in the
form of tables, figures and narration. The findings were acquired from a population of fifteen
participants , ten of which attended to the interviews while five participated in a focus group.
Main findings of the study indicated that mothers with infants face problems of disposal,
accessibility and lack of knowledge during the use of disposable napkins. The study
recommends educational workshop that will provide mothers on how to use, manage and care
for their infants as well as provide them with other alternatives .

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table .2.1.Number of respondents .....................................................................30

Table .2.2.Age distribution for respondents........................................................31

Table .2.3.Marital status .....................................................................................31

Table .2.4.Number of children respondents have ..............................................32

Table.5.Educational Level ..................................................................................32

Table .6.Employement status .............................................................................33

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure .1. Factors mothers consider when choosing disposable napkins ..........................33

Figure .2.Problems encountered by mothers during use of disposable napkins.................35

Figure .3.Negative effects of disposable napkins on children ..........................................38

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 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix one: Letter to respondents..................................................................47

Appendix two: Interview guide ......................................................................48

Appendix three: Focus group questions...............................................................49

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………… i
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………. ii
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………… iii
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………... iv
List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………….. v
List of Appendices ………………………………………………………………………... vi

CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Back ground of study .................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the problem............................................................................................. 3
1.3 Research questions........................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Significance of study..................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Assumptions ................................................................................................................. 6

1.6 Delimitations................................................................................................................. 6

1.7 Limitation...................................................................................................................... 7

1.8 Definition of terms....................................................................................................... 7

1.9 Summary...................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 9

2.0 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 9

2.1 History of napkins ......................................................................................................... 9

2.2 Types of currently existing napkins............................................................................... 12

2.2.1Disposable napkin....................................................................................................... 12

2.2.2 Cloth reusable napkin................................................................................................. 13

2.2.3 Traditional cloth reusable napkins.............................................................................. 13

2.2.2 Modern cloth napkins................................................................................................. 13

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2.3 Effects of disposable napkins......................................................................................... 14

2.3.1 The positive effects of disposable napkins ................................................................. 15

2.3.2 Negative effects of disposable napkins........................................................................ 16

2.4 M ANAGEMENT OF DISPOSABLE NAPKINS.................... .................................... 18

2.4 .1 The Use Of Disposable Napkins ................................................................................ 18
2.5 COMPARISON OF DISPOSABLE NAPKINS ............................................................ 18

2.5.1 Cloth Napkins............................................................................................................... 18

2.5.2 Disposable Napkins...................................................................................................... 19

2.6 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 20

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 20

3.2 Research Approach......................................................................................................... 20

3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 20

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 22

3.4.1 Primary data ................................................................................................................ 22

3.4.2 Secondary data............................................................................................................. 22

3.5 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS....................................................................................... 23

3.5.1 Personal interviews ..................................................................................................... 23

3.5.2 Focus groups................................................................................................................. 24

3.6 Data collection procedures ............................................................................................. 25

3.7 Population....................................................................................... ................................ 25

3.8 Sampling …………………………………………………….…………………………..26

3.9 Sample size...................................................................................................................... 26

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3.10 Data sampling technique ...............................................................................................27

3.11D ATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ............................................................. 27

3.11.1 Data presentation........................................................................................................ 27

3.11.2 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 28

3.14 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................. 30

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 30

4.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF RESPONDENTS ........................................................... 30

4.1.2 Age distribution of respondents................................................................................... 31

4.1.3. Marital status............................................................................................................... 31

4.1.4. Number of children .................................................................................................... 32

4.1.5.Accademic qualifications ............................................................................................ 32

4.1.6. Employment status ..................................................................................................... 33

4.2. Factors mothers consider when buying disposable napkins .......................................... 34

4.3. Problems encountered by mothers during use of disposable napkins............................ 35

4.4. The negative effects of the disposable napkins on the infants .......................................38

CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................... 40

5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 40

5.1 Summary of Research Study ..........................................................................................40

5.2 Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 41

5.3. Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 42

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background of study, statement of the problem, research questions,

significance of study, assumptions,delimitations,limitations,definition of terms it will end

with a summary of the chapter.

1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Basing on observations Browne (2014),within a course of more than a century disposable

napkins also referred to as diapers have gradually displaced cloth reusable napkins , now

with their increase in popularity the common thought may be that the first disposable napkin

was invented to increase mobility among families or for convenience, but according to

Spurrier ( 2014) there was more to it. Disposable napkin then known as the boater was an

invention by Marion Donovan an American house wifein 1946 after the second world war

as a solution to deal with the problems of cotton shortages to manufacture full cloth diapers

and it so happened that this invention also accommodated convenience ,mobility as well as

served as a precaution against the safety pins that were and are still being used to fasten cloth

napkins. Garcia (2014) states that Marion Donovan’s first form of the disposable napkin

was made up of shower curtains which had a cloth napkin inserted in it, the disposable

napkin made use of plastic snaps which made it safer than the safety pins used to hold cloth

reusable napkins.During this period the disposable napkin did not completely displace the

cloth reusable napkin, in fact the disposable napkin became rather a luxury ,  thus was only

reserved for special occasions for instant vacation trips and visits elsewhere other than

home. Therefore seeing an infant in a disposable napkin was very rare however comparing

with day today seeing an infant in a cloth napkin is rather rare compared to a disposable

napkin.

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According to Bluter (2008) as years progressed by the 1970s the disposable napkin saw a

change in the brand, design ,efficiency as well as use, therefore it became common mainly

in developed countries such as countries in Europe , America and those Latin American

countries to name a few Mexico, Argentina and Chile.

Instead of this product being of temporary use or a luxury it was not long before mothers

discovered the practical daily profits of this product which saw it becoming a daily required

product.However by 1983 an environmental movement criticized the disposable napkin

industry , the argument being based onthe ecological difficulties brought about by the

implementation of the disposable napkins and their disposal. This was vibrant in places like

Europe , Canada and partially in the United States of America and other Latin American

countries.More movements against the effect of this product rose and still are in motion to

this day, some being against chemicals used to improve this product(Garcia 2014).

Despite the attacks on disposable napkins the disposable napkin industry has grown into a

highly competitive industry .Spurrier ( 2014) points out that disposable napkins have seen to

a number of changes which include more than a thousand brand names like the likes of

Huggies, Pampers, Natural Baby and Cuddles to name a few. This producthas grown in

popularity differing not only brand names or design but as well as the quality and their

pricing. Today, an estimate of 90% of the mothersaround the globewhich includes those in

African countries like Zimbabwe,use disposable diapers.

However in Zimbabwe the daily use of disposable napkin is rather a new practice which has

been on for a few years .This has indeed brought convenience and mobility amongst families

but the product’s, awareness , management , use, accessibility and safety to the environment

and infants are in question especially to those less privileged communities that have been the

last to adapt to the use of this product .Therefore bringing the focus of the research on the

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challenges being faced by mothers with infants in using the product. Therefore research

intends to unveil the challenges faced by Zimbabwean infants through wearing disposable

diapers , this will inform parents on the kind of risks they expose their children to and also

provide information on comparison of the disposable diapers and cloth reusable diapers thus

helping parents in choosing what is best for their infants .

1.2 STAMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Disposable napkins have increased in popularity and have gradually successfully managed to

displace cloth reusable napkins however mothers across Zimbabwe who have adopted the use

of disposable napkins seem to be less informed pertaining use of these products thus this has

seen the community as well as the infants using these napkins, disadvantaged. Thus the

research seeks to investigate the challenges being faced by mothers who use the disposable

napkins on their infants as they seem to be a mismanagement of disposable napkins. The

study also aims to find out ways of improving and dealing away with the challenges as well

as improving the use of disposable napkins by consumers.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.3.1.What factors do women consider when choosing disposable napkins?

1.3.2. What challenges are being encountered by the mothers in Mtapa suburb in Gweru

midlands, during use of disposable napkins on their children?

1.3.5.What are the negative effects of disposable napkins on infants?

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1.3.4What can be done to enhance the use of the disposable napkin by the Mtapa women in

Gweru urban?

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Findings from this research will be of great benefit to the following the researcher,mothers

with infants, the infants themselves, the E.M.A organisation, other researchers as well as

designers.

This research is be of great benefit to the researcher especially in acquiring solid research

skills, this research will assist the researcher in implementing certain learnt research

concepts to real life situations .The research will also assist the researcher in developing an

independent and critically thinking mindset thus allowing researcher to sharpen her problem

solving skills as well as acquire the ability to draw solid conclusions . As it is a partial

fulfilment of a Bachelor of Science Honors degree in Clothing Fashion Design this research

is bound to equip the researcher with skills on time,resources and finance management. That

is when it comes to time, since researcher is undertaking this research during industrial

attachment the researcher will earn skills on how to balance time between work and the

research as well as earn skills on how to manage pressure. Since all resources used during

this research are funded by the researcher the researcher will attain skills on how to acquire

and manage the required resources to carry out this research there for researcher will learn

how to manage such resources such as finance.

The studyfindings willalso be of benefit to the mothers with infants since mothers see to

every need of their infants they are the ones who are responsible for the purchase of

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disposable napkins therefore the research help mothers know how best the disposable napkins

should be managed for example the frequency at which they should be changed, including

their disposal. It will serve as an informative to the mothers on the importance of quality

when it comes to disposable napkins that is they will be informed on the importance of

considering the quality of the napkins as the quality of the product could have effects on their

children. This research will also provide information on other convenient substitutes for

disposable napkinsas well as provide comparison of the disposable napkins and traditional

cloth napkins thus this will help mothers on making a choice on which napkin is best for their

infants.The study findings will partially provide a breakdown of the components that make a

up a disposable napkin thus this will also help mothers with infantsto pay more attention to

components of the diaper products that they purchase thus giving them an idea of what to

avoid when it comes to disposable napkinsand making them knowledgeable in this area .

This research will also benefit infants. In this study infants are basically the main subjects

directly exposed to disposable napkins thus they have direct contact with these products

therefore this research will serve as a relief to them in the sense that once mothers are

informed they will, by all means work towards the correct use andmanagement of disposable

napkins thus helping them not to haveto go through challenges brought about by disposable

napkins for example health challenges .Comparisons of disposable napkins and other

alternatives provided in this research will help mothers make choices on which type of

napkin is best for their infants thus this will be of advantage to the infants themselves because

their mothers will make well informed choices with their infants in consideration. Finding

ways of dealing with challenges is also a priority of this research thus it will help infants as

their mothers will be informed therefore will know how best to meet convenience and also

cater for their infants’ health and comfort.

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The Standard (2011) states that the Environment Management Agency (EMA) waste

management team summoned that sanitary waste has suddenly become a serious threat to the

environment. Therefore this research by providing ways to improve challenges faced by

woman who use disposable napkins on their infants will help EMA with possible solution to

the environmental dilemma brought about by sanitary waste a well as by being aware of the

extent of knowledge these woman have pertaining use and management of disposable diapers

E.M.A will have better knowledge of where to start to solve the napkin problem.

This research will also serve as a foundation for other researches by other researchers as well

as contribute to the literature of other researchesin the sense that other researchers will be

able to recognise other areas of study from this research and thus will also be able to use

content from this research for their researches so to back up their theories .Therefore this

research will play out as a reference to other researches by other researchers.

According to www.webster.coma designer is one who devises and executes designs therefore

designers will benefit from this research as they would be able to identify problems from it

therefore design , and develop other products that will serve the same purpose and yet their

use have less consequences .

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS

Assumptions are women are facing problems during use of disposable diapers of which these

challenges are a concern for the infants as well as the environment.

1.6 DELIMITATIONS

The research is confined in Gweru urban to Mtapa a high density suburb in Midlands

Province in Zimbabwe as this is where researcher resides thus it is easily accessible and costs

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incurred and time taken will lessen compared to when research is carried out in another

area. The results from this research will have a reference of Mutapa a high density suburb in

Gweru.The study will focus on infants and their mothers.The research as mentioned before

will look into challenges faced by mothers with infants who make use of disposable napkins.

1.7 LIMITATIONS

The researcher anticipates the following challenges, inadequate finance, time and manpower

as this is an individually undertaken study finance time and money may not be enough to

fully exhaust the study to come up with a detailed and solid research. The researcher is also

likely to face problems with participants in this study, as some may not be willing to

cooperate with information pertaining this study. Thus to try and curb challenges the

researcher has chosen an area of research within close reach as well as will have a relatively

manageable sample size of fifteen women as the small sample helps to dealwith time and

manpower challenges.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Disposable napkin- www.websterdictionary.comdefinesa disposable napkin as a form of

underwear that permits defecating andurinating thus sees no need for a toilet and when soiled

requires change. Disposable napkins are mainly made use of by infants hence by children

who cannot make use of the toilet on their own .In this research disposable napkin refers to a

form of infants’ diaper or nappy which when soiled cannot be reused and has to be thrown

away after use.

Cloth reusable napkinwww.dictionary.com describe a cloth reusable napkin as a type of

diaper or underwear made from layers of say cotton fabric and can be washed and reused.

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In thisstudy cloth reusable napkin refers to the baby’s fabric diaper which is washable and

can be reused multiple times.

Infant www.dictionary.com defines an infant as a child during the early periods of its life. In

this research an infant refers to a child who is not yet developed enough to independently do

certain things by themselves like use the toilet thus uses napkins.

1.9 SUMMARY

This chapter presented the background of study,statement of the problem, research questions,

delimitations,limitations as well as definition of terms .The next chapter shall focus on

presenting the literature review relevant to this current study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of the literature review thus aims to review and critically unveil the

current existing knowledge, findings and analysis pertaining the area of study.Wanjohi

(2012) asserts that literature reviews hands out a solid background to support ones research

therefore plays a vital role in analyzing the existing literature thus giving justification as to

how one’s research complements current knowledge put in text . Taylor (2013) describes a

literature review as a narration of what has been disclosed by other accredited researchers and

academic scholars pertaining the area of study.This chapter consists ofhistory of

napkins,types of napkins in current use, effects of disposable napkins,and management of

disposable napkins as well as a comparison of the cloth reusable napkin and disposable

napkin and ends with the summary of the chapter.

2.1 HISTORY OF NAPKINS

According to Weisbrod and Van Hoof, (2011) the necessity of a baby napkin dates back as

far as the history of mankind thus even during the ancient eras mankind have always saw the

need for a baby napkin to collect baby waste. Garcia (2014) states that the need to contain

babies’ waste saw to some coming up with different alternatives of waste collecting baby

napkins for example leaves , animal skin, grass as well as moss all mainly natural

resources as they were the next best things available .

With an advance in time during the 1820 Industrial Revolution in Europe the working class

now saw the importance of containing their babies’ waste more carefully as they now had

valuable properties that they needed to protect from baby waste . Therefore late into this

periodwas the invention of progenitor warn by infants mainly in North America and Europe.

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Progenitor was in the form of a square or rectangle linen, cotton cloth, or stockinet which

folded into a rectangular shape and was kept in place with safety pins thusthe first napkin

was made from a fabric with a repeating rectangular pattern which was termed diaper.In

1887 Maria Allen peeved the way for the first mass produced cloth napkin and these were

first accessed by Europe and North America (Garcia 2014). Therefore the need to contain

babies’ waste became big a deal during the industrial revolution as those who took jobs were

buying property and felt they needed to protect their possessions from being spoiled by baby’

waste thus seeing to the introduction of first commercial diapers which due to its shape was

known the progenitor .

Dyer (2005) states that in human history the cotton cloth diaper’s period of ascendancy

stretched from the 19th century right up to the 20th century and it was not long until parents

realised the limitations of cloth diapers one of them being leakage. Due to the limitation of

the nappy that was available then, inventors and entrepreneurs were working on overcoming

these limitations and were searching for ways to develop a waterproof and convenient napkin.

The introduction of the cloth diaper saw a rise of a diaper commercial sector thus since the

cloth diaper had problems such as leakage entrepreneurs were now in competition of

providing the best diaper product.

Efforts to curve the leakage problem on napkins were not only by commercial sector but

households also tried to solve this problem themselves this is asserted by Kugan (2013) when

he statesthat keeping the baby dry and reducing leakages had always been a requirement thus

in the year 1946 came the waterproof baby cover which consisted of stuffing moss under

sealskin this was an idea by the Inuitsbut it was not that effective.

Kugan (2013) went on and mentioned that late within the year 1946 during the world war two

was not only a shortage of cotton but women took on industrial jobs as men had left work for

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the war.This new change left women’s time rather too cramped to hand wash cloth napkins

therefore there was need fora much more convenient napkin .Then a the diaper service was

introduced and it regularly collected soiled napkins while delivering new ones. This implies

that even after the cloth napkin had served its purpose of collecting waste however when

women entered the cooperate world they hardly had time to attend to these cloth diapers

which needed regular change and so had to be washed regularly thus seeing to the rise of a

new diaper company called the diaper service which took care of soiled diapers and providing

new fresh ones thus relieving mothers of certain diaper duties.

The diaper service may have came to the rescue but not quite as leakages still was a problem

and infants needed to be kept dry at all times thus this saw an invention of the first water

proof diaper by one of the women who had entered the cooperate world in support ofthe

notion Garcia(2012) highlighted that in the year 1946 was the new invention of the first

water proof cloth diaper by Marion O’Brien Donovan an American working mother who

had been tired of coming home to a crying wet baby and wet sheets. This being a successful

invention she sold her idea and over ten brand names were introduced and her idea gave birth

to a disposable diaper which was introduced by a British mother by Valerie Hunter Gordon.

The idea advanced with years.

Some disposable diapers were a two-piece combination which had a disposable cellulose

insert and a reusable . After 1950 was introduced the roll diaper which came in long rolls

that could be cut to insert in the reusable pant.In the year 1950 two designs were popular

those were the two piece diapers which were first used in Sweden followed by a one-piece

model pioneered by Johnson & Johnson whose popularity was slowly growing within the

United States (Dyer 2005)Mrion Donovan solved the leakage problem and from her idea

came so many ideas to improve napkins.Dyer (2005) states that over a few years after

Donovan sold her idea the disposable diaper design saw to many small changes and big

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names like P and G and in the 1980s was introduced to the two major designs on the product

which were tape and the super absorber gel. This marked the disposable diaper evolution.

2.2 TYPES OF CURENTLY EXISTING NAPKINS

Since the commercialisation of diapers they are a vast types of diapers both in terms of

design and brand name which are the cloth diapers and the one in question the disposable

diaper .To support this notion Spurrier (2014) states that since the introduction of the first

disposable diaper both cloth and disposable diapers have gone through many changes and

they now go under more than a thousand brand names all with unique special feature to

differentiate it from one another . To add on to the suggestion Zimbabwe even has its on

locally made disposable diapers for example theFarai baby diapers.

2.2.1Disposable Napkin

The disposable napkin /diaper consist of different composites that make it complete and

serve its intended purpose effectively in support of the assertion according to the

www.babycentre.comdisposable diapers may seem simple however consists of certain

materials and parts. Suprier (2014) states that contemporary disposable diapers and

incontinence products have a layered construction which facilitates the flow of urine to an

absorbent core structure where it is contained to ensure the baby remains dry for a long

period of timethe layers are as goes , the top sheet ,on this layer Suprier (2014) states that

this layer comes in direct contact with baby's skin . After the top sheet comes the absorbent

Core which serves to absorb fluids and this is made possible by Super Absorbent Polymer

(SAP) and fluff that are present in the layer. While the role of the fluff is to distributethe

fluid the SAP, the SAP is intended to absorb fluid and contain it keeping the baby dry.

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Suprier(2014) then stated the last waterproof Outer layer, on this she asserts that this layer in

most cases contain petroleum-based plastic or plastic-treated material which is intended to

avoid leakages.

2.2.2 Cloth Reusable Napkin

The cloth diaper comes in two main types and they also have more than a thousand brand

names on this www.diaper.comstates that traditional diapers may have been over shadowed

by the introduction of disposable diapers but while the traditional diaper is still in use

modern cloth diapers have followed directly from innovations initially developed from

disposable diapers .

2.2.3Traditional Cloth Reusable Napkins

According to Leah (2011) most traditional cloth diapers consisted of and still consist a folded

square or rectangle of cloth fastened with safety pins however with discovery to the risks

related with some safety pins today, most cloth diapers are fastened with hook and loop tape

in the form of Velcro or snaps.

2.2.4 Modern Cloth Napkins

Modern cloth reusable diapers come in a host of different shapes and designs thus there

being various types of cloth reusable diapers some consists of natural fibres synthetics while

some may consists of both natural and synthetics . Those from natural fibres include diapers

made from bamboo cloth, wool, and hemp while those from synthetics consists of a fluid

absorber from of microfibertowelling while some come with an outer waterproof layer of

polyurethane laminate (PUL) while some consists of a stay dry wicking liner made from

Polyester fleece and faux (www.babydiaper.com). Some modern cloth diaper by design

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appear to be an imitation of the disposable diaper that is some take the hour glass shape ,

inner elastic band ,for better fit identical to those from disposable diapers .

2.3 EFFECTS OF DISPOSABLE NAPKINS

Disposable diapers have stood out to be a mixed blessing, that is very helpful when it comes

to conveniencethis suggestion was supported by Suprier (2014) when she stated that though

disposable diapers where mainly a result of shortage of cotton it was not long before mothers

realized the practical every day benefits of using disposable diapers .According to the Herald

(17April 2014) from interviews with Zimbabwean women of the city Gweru some women

noted how grateful they were that technology has relived them off the diaper burden and

because of the introduction of disposable nappies they do not have to wash nappies on a daily

basis and with the shortage of water supplies in the city disposable diaper has been a very

convenient alternative .

While some have highlighted that the disposable diaper has benefits some strongly suggest

otherwise . NCBI ( 2012) mentioned that it is a fact with no doubt that disposable diapers

are of great convenience to mothers with babies of the diaper age, especially working mother.

Howevertheir safety for the babies is highly questionable and that most parents are not aware

of the danger they expose their children to when they make use of disposable diapers as well

as the long-term effects it causes to the surrounding. Thus disposable diapers may be

convenient but their impact on babies’ health as well as on the environment at large is in

question .

The Herald (2014) also went contrary to the idea of disposable nappies being entirely

beneficial by mentioning that amongst some women who were interviewed on disposable

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diapers some actually highlighted the fact that some researches state that disposable diapers

are a health hazard, could cause infertility in the children in later years as well as that they

have risen concern of being a source of environmental pollution.

2.3.1 The Positive Effects Of Disposable Napkins

Disposable nappies are quite compact less bulky thus they tend to be very portable to visit

around which is an advantage to the mothers as well as they are to the baby since they are

light weight they tend to be comfortable for the baby as they are not heavy. To support this

notion the New Yorker (2008) stated that apart from disposable diapers being ideal for travels

they tend to be comfortable for little ones due to the outer layer that comes in contact with

baby skin as it is given special treatment so it is soft on babies’ skin. Disposable diapers are a

great convenience in the modern world. (Spurrier 2014) pertaining portability of the

disposable diaper suggests that disposable diapers are a great convenience in the modern

world and have rather increased mobility among families thus in place of carrying around a

dirty diaper when travelling it is disposable and mothers are embracing the benefits of

disposable diapers .

Positive side of disposable diaper include its high absorbance thus they keep the baby on

this www.babycare.comstates that modern disposable baby diapers consists of a layered

construction which facilitates circulation of urine to an absorbent core where it is contained

the absorbent core it also comes with a polyethylene which prevents wetness and soil

transfer, an inner absorbent layer of a mixture as well superabsorbent polymers to ensure the

baby remains dry .

Disposable diapers tend to be a time conserver thus are very convenient for working mothers

The herald (2014) states that working mothers are highly grateful for disposable diapers for

they can balance work and other house chores without worrying about washing cloth

15
diapers.This also gives them time to attend to their other children .On this Chimpique (2014)

states that during the World War II there was an increase in number of working mothers

thus the need of a diaper service fresh diapers needed to be delivered on a daily basis and

with many of the great inventions like the diaper service and disposable diapers , it is not

clear who can be credited as they sure did give working mothers time to attend to other

things as well as rest without having to worry about washing diapers.

2.3.2 Negative Effects Of Disposable Napkins

Disposable diapers consisted of chemicals which are an effort to increase the efficiency of the

disposable diaper however these chemicals are not to the good of babies’ health to support

the claim Snyder (2015) states that most infant wear diapers for most part of their early

development years and diapers are constantly in contact with baby skin and mucus

membranes thus any chemicals used on diapers are most likely to end up in a baby’s

system. She went on and stated the chemicals within the diaper which include Dioxins,

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs),Sodium Polyacrylate (SAP),Dyes and Scents.

Woolston( 2015) goes on and explains the chemicals in detail and their effects as follows

dioxins – these are critical environmental pollutants that can cause a vast of health

complications such as developmental delays in children, weak immune system, hormonal

abnormalities and in some instances cancer. After disposal dioxins tend to end up in the

environment and if carelessly disposed they can become water pollutants and this could also

end up affecting the food supply thus affecting more than the baby but a whole community .

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) on these chemicals Woolston (2015) stated that many

disposable diapers release VOCs such as methylbenzene, toluene, and xylene which can lead

neurological problems, eye irritation, as well an ineffective immune system.

16
Sodium Polyacrylate (SAP)Woolston described these to cause a condition called Toxic Shock

Syndrome associated and this mainly occurs to the babies who are in direct contact with the

disposable diaper .SAP also is a skin irritant and may cause diaper rash .Dyes used to

decorate the diaper as well as Scents used to disguise odours were said to be a major cause of

respiratory problems in infants.  

Lehrburger (2011)mentioned that further study is a necessity to clearly measure the amount

of disposable napkin chemical emission causes infant respiratory distress. Asthmatic mothers

are urged to avoid exposure to these chemicals, as well as keep in mind the same for their

children Asthma rates are on a sharp incline worldwide, particularly among children form

less privileged societies .

Some of the worst side of the disposable diaper includes environmental problems. In

developing countries inadequacy of the supply of waste containers has left the probability of

waste being dumped in open areas and roadsides rather high ,dumping of used diapers at

illegal open dump sites has been reported to expose communities to diarrheal diseases and

obnoxious odours as well other health complications as some of the chemicals and waste are

washed down into rivers by rain as well as underground thus polluting food and water

supplies (Mutowo and Mzengi 2015).

17
2.4MANAGEMENT OF DISPOSABLE NAPKINS

2.4 .1 The Use Of Disposable Napkins

Use of disposable diaper encompasses the number of hours after which one should change

their disposable diaper www.diaper.comstates that babies should have a frequentchange of

diaper say five or more times a day and that when mothers travel for the day they should

carry as many diapers as possible to cater for their infants .The frequent change is highly

necessary because infants who wear diapers may experience skin irritation, commonly

referred to as diaper rash, due to continual contact with faecal matter, as faeces contains

ureasewhich catalyses the conversion of the urea in urine to ammonia which can irritate the

skin and can cause painful redness.In 1947 The disposable diaper was a “luxury” item then, 

used only for those special occasions like vacation trips, visits to the parents or the doctor.   It

was not common to see a baby wearing a disposable diaper thus mother should avoid they are

children getting in contact with diapers for most part of their development

stage(Garcia,2014).

2.5COMPARISON OF CLOTH DIAPERS OVER DISPOSABLE DIAPERS.

2.5.1 Cloth Napkins

Cloth diapers tend to come with more options for example they come in cotton, terry cloth

as well flannel, a cloth baby diaper also comes in a foldable piece of cloth that comes with

nappy liners while some can come with a structure similar to disposable diapers .Cloth

reusable diapers are also cheaper as compared to disposable diapers in the sense that they are

washable thus can be reused for months unlike disposable diapers which once soiled are to

be thrown away. Cloth reusable diapers like disposable diapers come with decoration except

that the dyes on cloth diapers are natural and rather permanent thus will not come off and

cause skin irritations on the infant. Cloth napkins are said to make the child more alert as they

18
grow up in the sense that they will be able to notice thus this will make it easy to potty train

the infants and reduce the time and period the infant will wear napkins.How ever according

to www.babyhealth.com cloth reusable napkins are rather messy compared to disposable

diapers which means more time is spent on laundry .

The Archives of Environmental Health (2010) stated that laboratory mice exposed to

various brands of disposable diapers recorded eye, nose, and throat irritation as well as

bronchoconstriction which is similar to asthma. However cotton napkins were tested as

welland no irritation or problems were recorded .

2.5.2 Disposable Napkins

On the other hand disposable napkins are rather convenient as compared to cloth reusable

napkins in the sense that they are rather easy to change due to fastening strips attached to

them .Disposable napkins also come in different sizes thus they cater for the baby’s weight.

With disposable napkins it is easier to travel with a baby as they can be thrown away

compared to cloth reusable napkins which need to be carried around as they need washing

after they have been soiled . As they do not need washing disposable napkins tend to save

time. However due to different chemicals in the disposable napkins babies are exposed to so

many risks. As they are to be thrown after soiled disposable napkins tend to be very quite

expensive (www.diapegeneration.com).

2.8 SUMMARY

This chapter highlighted the introduction,definitions ,history of napkins ,types of napkins in

current use, effects of disposable napkins ,management of disposable napkins as well as a

comparison of the cloth reusable napkin and disposable napkin. The next chapter , chapter

three shall present the methodology for this study.

19
 CHAPTER 3

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of the research approach, researchdesign, population sampling, sample

size, research instruments, data collectionprocedure,data sampling technique, data

presentation and data analysis followed the chapter summary.

3.1 RESEARCH APPROACH

In this research a qualitative research approach will be used.Qualitative research method

according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005) is research that involves an interpretive naturalistic

approach to the world that is it involves studying things in their natural setting and is an

attempt to interpret phenomena and it is generally based on a social constructivism

perspective thus making it none statistical .The researcher chose the qualitative research

approach because qualitative research looks in closely in the phenomenon at study thus

allows deeper understanding of the subject ,(Norman and Lincoln ,2009). Choice of the

qualitative research approach was also because it allows face to face close interaction with

the subjects thus promoting first hand data to be collected

(www.alexandertechniquecollege.com).

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the structuring of conditions for collection and analysis ofdata in a

manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose and it is determined by a

research inquiry of what ,when, why where how and how much

(Hillway1964).Diekman(1995) defines a research design as the conceptual structure within

which research is conducted and it constitutes the manner of collection, measurement and

analysis of data.,Therefore it is the plan of steps taken in the proceedings of the

20
research.Sarantakos (2005) states that research design constitutes of three types ,namely

exploratory and descriptive diagnostic research studies.Sarantakos (2005) goes on to explain

the two as follows (i)exploratory study can be termed as a formulative research study where

by a study problem is developed rather than recognised therefore a problem is formulated

form so to conduct a more precise investigation,(ii) Descriptive research study is associated

with the description of the characteristics of particularindividuals or a group and when

combined with diagnostics it also encompasses events in relation to variables ,this study will

conducted under a case study research design which falls under a descriptive research study.

A case study looks into as well as investigates current real life phenomenon through a

framework analysis of events ,conditions, behaviour and relationship

(Kemanusiaan2007).Yin (2012)defines the case study as an observational inquiry that

explores a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life situation .Thus case study deals

with natural subjects and real life situations none experimental or hypothetical .

The advantages of descriptive case studies include ,in depth research .Stake (2010) mentioned

that a case study allows observation and interaction participants thus can allowing the

researcher to explore into deeper grounds pertaining the study if subjects are highly

cooperative as well as allows one to incorporate their own perception pertaining the issue at

hand .

Zaidah (20012) points out that during a case study investigations can be conducted within

the context of its use therefore works well as a source of first hand information .Case studies

focus on direct and verifiable life experiences on this Pink (2009) states that information

produced from a case study is not assumed and definitely it is not hypothetical thus bases on

real life situations . The other advantage of a case study is that it can accommodate both none

statistical and statistical results can allow access to not only to the numerical information

21
concerning the strategies used, but also the reasons for strategy use, as well as how the

strategies can be applied in relation to other strategies(Zaidah 2012) .

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE.

In an attempt to acquire accurate information for a reliable and solid conclusion the

researcher will collect primary and secondary data .This will assist the researcher with

information on challenges being faced by women in Mutapa suburb who use disposable

napkins on their infants ,thus the information acquired will assist there searcher give viable

recommendations.

3.4.1 PRIMARY DATA

Primary data is information collected for the first time for a specific purpose , this can be

referred to as original data. The strengths of primary data include the researcher collects

data specific to the problem under study, as with primary the data collected is credible and

when necessary additional data pertaining the study being carried out ,can be collected,

(Sarantakos 2005).

However primary data has its weaknesses, Morgan(2013) states that primary data requires lot

of planning thus tends to be a lot of hassle at times in the sense that it requires the

investigator to plan on such things such as why, what, how, when to collect data all

encompassing facts such as ethical considerations .

3.4.2SECONDARY DATA

Morh (2006) describes secondary data as data that has already been collected by another

researcher hence has been analysed and published. Secondary data sources include journals,

newspapers as well and magazines , like primary data secondary data has its pros and cons as

well. Secondary data is advantageous in the sense that it has less processes since the data has

22
already been collected by someone else therefore it is not time consuming as compared to

primary data.Secondly secondary data is less expensive It is less expensive ,the investigator

is not personally responsible for the quality of .Thus due to the fact this data is not original

and fresh it involves less processes therefore tends to be less expensive .

The disadvantageof secondary data include that it is not precise thus one can only hope the

data is related to the research and that helpful information is available .As with secondary

data accuracy is not clarified thus one is not able to tell whether information is confirmable or

it has been fabricated as well as chances of getting additional data relevant to your study are

very limited (Jolley 2009).

3.5 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

A research instrument is any measuring tool whose purpose is to collect and extract data

during a research Kotler et al (2012) .During this research the researcher will utilize two

types of research instruments namely interviews and focus groups the use of more than one

data collection instrument is to accommodate triangulation.Triangulationrefers to the gaining

of multiple perspectives through two or more research instruments. To be termed

triangulated,one instrument must encounter the other so it challenges the weaknesses of the

other instrument for clarity and verifying accuracy of collected data so to ensure a solid

conclusion (Goffman2005).

3.5.1 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

According toBabour (2010) a personal interview is a face to face research based conversation

between the interviewer and interviewee whereby questions are asked by the interviewer and

answers are given by the interviewee .Ina bid to acquire information for the research, during a

23
personal interview information is transferred between the interviewer and interviewee. A

personal interview is therefore a way of collecting primary data.

Personal interviews do have their strengths which includes Accurate screening, Capture

verbal and non-verbal gestures,Keep focus and Capture emotions and behaviours .

Accurate screening on this Wyse (2014) states that personal interviews assists the researcher

with accurate screening that is due to the presence of the interviewer the interviewee is

unable to give false information about obvious things like gender and race.

Capture verbal and non-verbal gestures Wyse (2014) says personal interviews definitely

captures verbal and non-verbal gestures, in the sense that interviewer can monitor responses

and relate them to body language which can show reactions to questions such as discomfort

and enthusiasm . Keep focus on this Burgess(2005) asserts that there are less technological

disturbances in the sense that the interviewer is able to see when the interviewee is distracted

thus try to make interviewee gain back focus , he went on and added that personal interviews

allowscapturing emotions and behaviours therefore sometimes responded needs not to answer

but interviewer is able to tell what the respondent thinks pertaining the topic by seeing the

way he or she behaves .Personal interviews can accommodate a relatively small sample size

thus can be time and money conserving(Coffey and Atkinson (1996) .

3.5.2 FOCUS GROUPS.

According to www.research.com focus group is a set of individuals gathered to discuss a

particular idea thus are tusked to discuss a number of questions by the researcher

According by Alexis (2016) focus group allows a number of different responses to one

question and since it is a discussion and a joint effort solid, reliable information is expected

from focus groups .

24
3.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

During data collection the researcher will draw up interview guide and questionnaires .After

applying for permission from the local authorities to conduct data collection on the

challenges faced by women in Mtapa who use disposable napkins on their infants .After

permission has been granted the questionnaires and interview guides will be distributed

amongst selected participants. Questionnaires are to be submitted the next day this so to give

the participants which are the women with infants ,to thoroughly answer the questionnaire

rather than rushing through .As wise the interviews will be conducted the day of

questionnaire submission this so the participants can give thought to possible responses and

avoid unexpected questions .

3.7 POPULATION

Lather (2012) described a population as a set of elements may that possess a certain common

characteristic defined by the aim of the research .population is categorized into two that is the

target population and the accessible population .The target population is the set of elements

which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings on which in this research are

women with infants who use disposable napkins and are from less privileged communities

.According to Fay (2006) portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable

access to is the accessible population which in this research are women from Mtapa who have

infants.

The research’s target will be 20 women who have infants in the diapering stage and findings

will depend on the challenges faced by these women in using the disposable napkins on their

infants.

25
The population includes all individuals whom the researcher is interested in obtaining

information about and making interpretations on. The target population is the actual

population to which the researcher would like to make generalizations.

3.8 SAMPLING

Sudman and Blair (2006) state that sampling the process of selecting a portion of the group

of elements sharing common characteristics to represent the entire group. Thus this process

involves obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of the

group and its categorised in two that is probability and none probability sampling . On this

Hodges (2010) stated that sampling makes the data collection easy and manageable however

the researcher needs to the sample must allow collection of fairly accurate data to avoid

biased results .Hodges also mentioned that during sampling all members of the population

should have a chance of being selected .Sampling tends to save resources mostly both money

and time wise as well as and tend to be very convenient when test involves destruction of the

subjects under research. Soulpurpose of sampling is based on the assumption that the data

acquired from the sample will allow researcher to make an accurate estimation of the

population parameters.

3.9 SAMPLE SIZE

According to Maisel and Hodges (2008) sample size refers to the entire group of subjects

under study of which the sample size should be reasonable that is neither large nor small to

allow accuracy .In this study the sample size consists of 15 , 10 to attend to the interview

26
questions and 5 to participate in the focus group respondents whom are all women with

infants who use disposable napkins.

3.10DATA SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Maisel and Hodges (2008) state that a data sampling technique is the method of selecting an

element from which to collect data from within the population .Sudman (2009) asserted that a

good sampling technique should result in a truly representative sample, it must also have

very few sample errors for accurate results.

Purposive sampling technique is a sampling technique whereby researcher chooses sample

members who in his or her opinion are relevant to the research thus the choice of the

respondents is directed by the judgement of the investigator thus also terming purposive

sampling as judgemental sampling (Sudman and Blair 2005) .Purposive sampling tend to fall

under non-probability sampling thus selection of sample is based on investigators knowledge

of who can best provide the relevant information .

3.11DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS .

3.11.1 DATA PRESENTATION.

Becker (2007) states that data presentation is a processes of showing the data one has

collected during data collection. Data presentation owes to clarity , simplicity and

accurate .Clarity is in the senses that data should be presented in a clear manner as well as it

should be simple thatis should be easy to read as well as accurate so to conform to the results

.This research will make use of narrations, graphs and tables .

27
Narrations involve presentation of the collected data in word. A graph is a figure that that

offers a visual presentation of the results , graphs come in different forms like in separate

columns, bars and pictures thus this study will particularly make use of bar graphs, stacked

graphs , column graphs, picture and other appropriate and clear graphs. The choice of graphs

is because they are visual, clear and quite easy to read and easily interpreted . They tend to be

easy because different responses can be displayed in different colours to show thedifferences.

Tables are yet another way of presenting data and include univiriate , biviriate and

multivariate tables (Forster 2001)this research will mostly use multivariate tables which

consists of more than one variable. Choice of tables as a data presentation method is because

tables are very easy both to construct and read thus they are simple, easy to interpret and

clear.

3.11.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Data Analysis involves theexplanation, understanding and interpretation of thedata that has

been collected.

Derrida (2005) defines data analysis as measuring and calculation of relationships among

different data groups . When the data collection process is over the data is compiled put in

order thus presented in a clear manner which allows a solid conclusion to be drawn.

Wegner (2008) states that data analysis involves statistical and logical methods to critical

interpretation, breaking down, evaluation ,description as well as assertion of the collected

data. Before the actual data analysis ,the data is prepared that is it is put in order and

screened of which the screening involves screening of jotted notes and taking notes that are

relevant to the research as well as removing the incomplete questionnaires from those that

have been completed(Cook and Reinhard,2002).

28
In this research inductive and deductive data analysis will be used .Malick (1999) describes

inductive analysis is the type of analysis that pursues the existing facts about the phenomena

until all hypothesis on the phenomena is exhausted ,whiledeductive analysis is described as a

data analysis method that sees the common relationships amongst research theories it

involves taking on the conclusions that more specific to the area of study, thus involves

elimination of general facts. Deductive analysis involves the process of concluding based on

results from interpretation of the collected data .

Choice of these methods will be used because their flexible and allow the researcher though

exhaust different explanations pertaining the area of study.

3.14 SUMMARY

This chapter consisted ofthe research method ,research design ,research instruments, data

collection, data collection methods, population sampling ,sample size, data sampling

technique, data presentation, data analysis and presentation .The next chapter, chapter 4 will

look into data analysis and presentation.

29
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of the findings obtained from Mtapa high density suburb in Gweru

urban. Data was gathered using personal interviews and focus groups .In this chapter

collected data will be presented using graphs tables and as well as narration which referred

will give meaning to the collected data .This chapter aims to find answers to the research

questions which read

,1,What challenges are being faced by mothers during use of disposable napkins ?

.2.What factors are considered by mothers when choosing disposable napkins ?

.3. What arethe negative effects of disposable napkins on infants ?

4.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF RESPONDENTS

The table below table1 shows a total of 15 respondents all mothers with infants who still use

disposable napkins, 10 of which attended to the interviews with total of 67% of the

populationwhile 5 with a total of 33% of the population participated in a focus group .This

indicating that data was collected from individuals as well as from groups .

Table .1. Number of respondents

Respondents Frequency Percentage (%)

Interviewees 10 67

Focus group members 5 33

30
 Total 15 100

4.1.2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

The table below, table 2 shows the age distribution of the 15 respondents. 6 mothers were

between the age of 20 to 30 years, 5 were between the age of 30 to 40 years while 4 were 40

and above. Therefore, this indicates that 40% of the population were between the ages of 20

and 30 years, 33% were between the ages of 30 and 40 while 27% were 40 years. Thus this

indicates that respondents were from various age groups.

Table .2. Age distribution table

Age range 20-30 30-40 40 - above Total

Frequency 6 5 4 15
Percentage % 40 33 27 100

4.1.3. MARITAL STATUS

The table below presents the marital status of the respondents and it indicates that 8

respondents of the population were married while 7 of the respondents were single .This

indicates that they constituted 53 % and 47 %. This means that 53% were married mothers

while 47% were single mothers .Therefore the majority of the respondents were

married.Table .3. Marital status table

Marital status Frequency Percentage (%)

Married 8 53
Single 7 47
Total 15 100

4.1.4. NUMBER OF CHILDREN THE RESPONDENTS HAS

31
The table below shows the number of children recorded by each respondent and it reads that

3 respondents which 20% of the population has one child each, 4 respondents which

constitutes 27% of the population has 2 children each, 5 respondents constituting 33% of the

population has three children each while 3 respondents constituting 20% of the population

has 4 and more children . Therefore this means that the majority of the population oh has 3

children each.

Table .4. Number of children of respondents

Numberof children 1 2 3 4 and more Total

Frequency 3 4 5 3 15
Percentage 20 27 33 20 100%

4.1.5.ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS

Table 4 below shows the levels of education attained by the respondents .It indicates that 7

respondents respectively 47% of the population attained Ordinary level only , 5 respondents

respectively 33% of the population attained Advanced level whereas 3 respondents

respectively 20% of the population attained other educational levels .This meaning the

majority of the respondents did not excel Advanced level and above.

Table .5.Accademic qualification table.

Education level O’level A ‘level Other levels Total

Frequency 7 5 3 15
Percentage (%) 47 33 30 100

32
4.1.6. EMPLOYMENT STATUS

The table below, table 4 presents data collected about the respondents employment status and

it records that 6 respondents were employed while 9 were unemployed meaning 40% of the

population was employed while 60% of them were not employed thus the majority of the

population was unemployed.

Table .6. Employment status table

Employment status Frequency Percentage Total

Employed 6 40 15
Unemployed 9 60 100

4.2.Research question one sought to find out the factors considered by mothers when

choosing disposable napkins.

33
 50%

45%

40%

35%

30%
affordability
25%
quality
20% brand

15%

10%

5%

0%
affordability quality brand
Fig

.1.Factors mothers consider when choosing disposable napkins

The graph above fig 1 shows a recording of the factors the respondents consider when

choosing disposable napkins and it reads that 7 respondents respectively 47 % of the

population consider affordability which is the majority of the population .This data means

that those that consider affordability are single mothers as they have no assistance in the

caring of their children thus to save they choose affordability over other factors. It also

suggests that some of the unemployed mothers are the ones that consider affordability, as

they are not earning any income as a result consider price of the commodity first. On this

Garcia (2014) stated that during world war two there was an increase in the number of

working mothers that saw a increase in number of diaper services, this suggesting that

because those mothers that were employed could consider any factor other than affordability

when choosing disposable napkins . Recordings also suggests that some of the mothers who

consider affordability are those with more than one child to care for as they might not be able

to ignore costs due to the fact that they have more than just an infant to care for. When

choosing disposable napkins, 5 respondents respectively 33% of the population consider

34
quality when purchasing disposable napkins this also due to employment status in the sense

that those who are employed can afford to consider quality without worrying about the cost at

which it comes with. Some of those who consider quality may be because they are married

thus they have help form their spouses while some have less two to less children thus have

less responsibilities and can afford . 3 respondents respectively 20% of the population which

is the least of the population consider the brand name when purchasing disposable

napkins.The gathered data suggests that those that consider the brand name are not mindful of

quality, costs or negative effects of disposable diapers or affordability but are rather loyal to

the brand name, this also suggests their level of education is below advanced level and have

not enough knowledge on other factors to put in mind when purchasing any product.

4.3.Research question two sought to find out problems encountered by mothers during

use of disposable napkins .

35%

30%

25%

20% affordability
accessibility
15% knowledge
durability

10%

5%

0%
disposal accessability knowledge durability
Fig

.2. Problems encountered during use of disposable napkins

35
The graph above fig 2 shows that 5 respondents constituting 33% of the population which are

the majority of the population experience problems during disposal of the soiled disposable

napkins the reasons included inability of the municipality to collect bins regularly thus some

end up keeping the soiled napkins within their homes until the bins have been collect while

some resort to dumping them in nearby bushes .Some indicated that they resort to burning the

napkins but this is yet again another problem as the napkins due to waste will be wet and are

difficult to burn. According to the herald (2013) at a diaper disposal awareness campaign

launch in Mufakose, Zimbabwe and Zambia Huggies Diapers and Kotex Sanitary Pads

Customer Manager mentioned that residents should be educated on the correct management

that is use and disposal as they have gradually become a menace in the country.This

suggesting that the disposal of disposable napkins is a consistent problem women are facing

and needs immediate attention .To assist them the Environmental Management Agent can

conduct workshopsinformation disseminations especially for mothers and mothers to be so

that they are informed on how to manage and dispose napkins while the municipality can

assist by collecting bins regularly .

Data collected also shows 4 respondents constituting 27% of the population mentioned

accessibility as one of the problems they are facing during use of disposable napkins on this

Garcia (2014) stated that during the early evolution of disposable napkins, disposable napkins

were rather a luxury and used only on occasions that is only when they are travelling and

visiting either relatives or the doctor , this suggests that accessibility was a problem and still

is a major challenge to the unemployed mothers as they cannot access them regularly due to

unemployment as they do not have any income thus they cannot afford to use them regularly .

Again failure to access them is also due to the fact that some mothers are single and married

thus have no assistance in taking care of their children thus cannot accesses disposable

napkins regularly same applies to those with more than one child they because of multiple

36
responsibilities they cannot afford regular use of disposable napkins . To curb the problem of

accessibility mothers could always resort to alternating between disposable napkins and

reusable napkins.

Three (3) respondents constituting 20% of the population stated lack knowledge of on how

to use the disposable napkin on this The Herald (2014) stated that the environment is critical

and keeping it clean and protecting its habitants is vitaland providing awareness to the

residents on how they can correctly manage disposable napkins protects the environment and

community this meaning that most mothers are not aware of how to use disposable napkins

for example how regularly they should be changed some of the cause of this problem was

discussed during the focus group and it was mentioned that most of the disposable napkins do

not come with information on how long the napkin can hold the waste. Therefore at times

when it has exceeded its ability it tends to rapture leaving its contents and the waste exposed.

Thus to assist them awareness campaigns can be implemented where they can be taught all

they need to know about the available disposable napkins and how to handle them.

Another 3 constituting 20% of the population stated that they encounter problems of lack of

durability.Lack of durability meaning some of these disposable napkins tend rapture due to

poor quality thus they become an expense as they require constant change ,making them hard

to accesses them regularly and because they cannot be washed to be reused this strains the

mothers financially.

37
4.4. Research question three sought to find out the negative effects of disposable napkins

on infants.

45%

40%

35%

30%

25%
rashes
marks
20%
Column1
15%

10%

5%

0%
rashes marks discomfort

Fig .3. Negative effects of disposable napkins

The graph above fig 3 is a record of the negative effects of the disposable napkin the

respondents have noticed on their infants and it reads that 40% of the population which are 6

of the respondents have noticed rashes on their infants on this Garcia (2014) The frequent

change is highly necessary because infants who wear diapers may experience skin irritation,

commonly referred to as diaper rash, due to continual contact with faecal matter, as faeces

contains urease which catalyses the conversion of the urea in urine to ammonia which can

irritate the skin and can cause painful redness. This indicates that the disposable napkins do

have their negative effects and the rashes are one of them of which from the interview and

focus groups was said to appear when the weather is hot while some appear after the

disposable napkin has ruptured suggesting that the internal contents that make up the

disposable napkin once exposed and in direct contact with the infants skin can cause rash. On

this Cooper (2009)stated that disposable napkins have been said to cause different types of

38
rashes both minor ones while some need attention as they may irritate the infant and may be a

sign of major infections.

20% of the population who are 3 respondents which are the least of the population,noticed

marks around the waist of their infants . Marks noticed around the waist was suggested to

have been due to the constant use of the disposable napkin especially those with elastic they

tend to leave marks around the infant’s waist and to avoid this mothers could try and get the

correct size of disposable napkin for their infants as well as try to alternate the disposable

napkin and reusable napkin to avoid marks by elastic to become permanent .

Another 40% who are 6 of the respondents noticed the discomfort the disposable napkin

causes to their infant .While the discomfort noticed was suggested to have been due to the

heat as the disposable napkin offers no ventilation .The data collected from the interview and

focus groups also suggested that the discomfort was also caused by the elastic given that it is

too tight on the child , of which this happens when the supposedly right napkin size of the

infant is a small cut of the normal size which again the napkin packaging does not indicate.

Chapter for presented the answers to the research questions which are what factors are

considered by mothers when buying disposable napkins whose answers were quality,

affordability and brand name .Research two read what are the challenges being faced by

mothers during the use of disposable napkins and the answers to this research question

included , disposal, accessibility , lack of knowledge and durability . The last research

question read ,what are the negative effects of disposable napkins on infants and findings

included rashes , marks and discomfort .

39
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 INTRODUCTION

Chapter five present the summary of the whole research study research questions, ,research

question conclusions on; research questions, significance of the study and recommendation

and suggestions to solutions .

5.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH STUDY

Chapter 1 looked at the background of the study, statement of the problem, research

questions, significance of the study, assumptions, limitations, delimitations, definition of key

terms and ended with a summary of the whole chapter. While chapter two Chapter two

looked at current text by other academic scholars which recorded secondary information

related to the topic in study.

Chapter two presented the history of disposable napkins, types of currently existing napkins,

cloth reusable napkins, modern cloth napkins, effects of disposable napkins and gave a

comparison of the disposable napkin and the cloth reusable napkins.

Chapter 3 outlined research methods,research design, data collection procedures, research

instruments, data collection techniques used togather data, population thus touched on

sampling and sample size data collection data presentation and analysis.

Chapter 4 looked in on the presentation and analysis of data. Data was presented in the form

of tables and graphs and graphs. The presented and analysed data was on the demographic

information of the respondents .It also recorded the analysed data on the factors respondents

consider when buying disposable napkins which included affordability, quality and product

brand. The chapter also looked at the problems mothers experience during use of disposable

napkins which were said to be disposal in the sense that they don’t have consistent and proper

40
means of disposal napkins, accessibility in the sense that they cannot access the disposal

napkins regularly and lack of knowledge in the sense that they are not fully informed about

the disposable napkins. The chapter also highlighted the negative effects they have noticed

disposable napkins have on they infants which are they leave marks , cause rashes and

discomfort to their children. Suggested solutions to deal with the challenges where also

heighted in the chapter and they included educational workshops , constant bin collection as

well as communal incinerators were suggested .

5.2 CONCLUSION

In conclusion findings asserted that mothers consider quality which is influenced by level of

education in the sense that they are more informed on the importance of quality , marital

status in the senses that those that are married may consider quality the most as they have

assistance from their spouses thus can afford as well as if they are employed they can also

look at quality rather than the price . While some consider affordability and this also

influenced by their marital status in the sense that min most cases the single mothers tent to

turn to affordability as they have no assistance thus would rather save than consider quality ,

while on the other hand some consider affordability due to unemployment as they have no

income. Finding also recorded that brand is yet another factor considered by respondents this

mostly influenced by level of education in the sense that they are not well informed as some

just decide to stay loyal to their brand and ignore affordability and quality regardless of their

marital and employment status. However the majority consider affordability

Findings recorded that mothers face problems during use of disposable napkins which include

disposal as they have no consistent bin collection in their are thus at times they are forced to

keep soiled diapers until their bins are collected by the municipality while some when the

resort to burning they face difficulties as the soiled napkins are difficult to burn. Findings

41
also recorded that respondents have no regular access to the disposable napkins as some due

to lack of employment, more than one child and unmarried cannot afford disposable napkins

at all times . Lack of knowledge is yet another problem as they are less informed on the

proper use and management of the disposable napkins as well as durability as some diapers

tend not be strong thus they become an expense as they are warn for less hours compared to

regular napkins meaning more disposable napkins warn per day .

According to findings, negative effects by disposable napkins noticed on infants include

marks around the waist due to the tight waist elastic on them. Rashes are yet another negative

effect caused by heat trapped in the diaper as well as contents of the disposable napkin and

waste in the case that the disposable napkin has ruptured. While discomfort due to the heat at

tight waist elastic is another negative effect.

5.3. RECOMANDATIONS

This section presents the recommendations basing from the study findings.

 Mothers are not fully informed on what to consider when choosing disposable napkins

thus to curb this challenge the researcher recommends women with infants to put

much thought in the quality of the product before price and brand name as some

quality disposable napkins especially locally produced disposable napkins like Farai

diapers , which because they are not imported they are rather affordable.

 Mothers are facing problems such as disposal, accessibility and lack of knowledge

thus to overcome these challenges there researcher recommends E.M.A to come up

with programs that assist mothers , new mothers and mothers to be, on how to care

for their children as well as give them other alternatives that are convenient

42
 ,accessible to accommodate those who cannot afford or cannot access disposable

napkins. Community incinerators, this recommendation means that the municipality

or E.M.A should provide communities withincinerators as the incinerators tend to

burn sanitary waste better thus avoiding dumping of sanitary waste particularly

disposable napkins everywhere .

Researcher also recommends the municipality to keep the community informed

pertaining bin collections and advise them on what to do in the case that they are

unable to deliver services.

 Mothers have noticed rashes ,marks and discomfort caused by using disposable

napkins on their infants therefore to curb these negative effects disposal napkins have

on infants ,the researcher recommends mothers to carefully monitor the time their

infants spend wearing the disposable napkin and the number of times they change

their infants into knew napkins to avoid heating of waste and explosion of diapers

likely to cause discomfort and rashes on . Researcher also recommends mother to buy

the right napkin sizes to avoid marks caused by elasticised waist band or opt to use

the disposable napkins occasionally like when travelling , when the infant is sleeping

to avoid constant contact with disposable napkins.

43
 REFERENCES

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46
APPENDIX ONE
SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN CHINHOYI UNIVERRSITY OF TECHOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CLOTHING AND TEXTILE DESIGN P.BAG 7724

CHAIRPERSON::E.MUTUNGWE .CE-G.T.C;BED-HE(UZ);MED-EAPPS(ZOu)CHINHOYI

263 772 853 840 ZIMBABWE

e-mail :emutungwe@cut.ac.zw TEL:263-67-24082

TO WHO IT MAY CONCERN

This serves to certify that ..................................................registration number ..........................

is a registered student at Chinhoyi University of Technology .He/she is pursuing a Bachelor
of Technology (Hons) Degree in Clothing Fashion Design.

Inherent in the training is a research project .This student’s topic is as follows

......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................

May you please assist her/him with any data and other services as she /he goes through this
research .

Your assistance in this regard will be greatly appreciated

Thank you

Dzikite C.(Dr)

Attachment Coordinator.

47
Demographic data

My name is Samantha Mhlahlo a Chinhoyi University of technology student carrying out a

research on Challenges being faced by Zimbabwean women who use disposable diapers on
their infants ,this in partial fulfilment to the attainment of a Bachelor of Science Degree in
Clothing Fashion Design. Responses given will be treated with confidentiality as it will also
be used for academic purpose thus your cooperation will be greatly appreciated.

Instructions to the respondent;

Kindly complete the questionnaire by placing a tick in the boxes provided to indicate your
response.

1. Marital status married single

Marrie
d
Single

2. Employment status

Employed

Unemploye
d

3. Number of children.

1
2
3and
mor
e

4. Educational level attained .

Advance
d level
Ordinary
level
Others

48
APPENDIXTWO

Interview Questions

1. What factors do you consider during use of disposable

napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.

2. What challenges are you encountering during the use disposable

napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
...............

3.What are the negative effects of disposable napkins have you noticed on your
infant? ..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..

4 .What do you suggest can be done to help you overcome challenges faced during use of
disposable
napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
...............

49
APPENDIX THREE

Focus group questions

1. What factors do you consider during use of disposable

napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.

2. What challenges are you encountering during the use disposable

napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
...............

3.What are the negative effects of disposable napkins have you noticed on your
infant? ..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
..

4 .What do you suggest can be done to help you overcome challenges faced during use of
disposable
napkins? .......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
...............

50