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Design Solutions Guide: Helping Make Products Better
Design Solutions Guide: Helping Make Products Better
Solutions
Guide
Topic Part/Page
Welcome! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–2
BASF Product Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–2
Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
Design Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
CAD/CAE Capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . II
Parting Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–2
Draft Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–3
Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–3
Fillets and Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–3
Bosses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–4
Ribs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–4
Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–5
Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–5
Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–5
Vents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–6
Potential Knit Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II–6
Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–2
Stress-Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–2
Normal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–3
Shear Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–3
Torsional Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–4
Bending Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–5
Section Properties of Various Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Explanation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Formulas for Common Beams in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–7
Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–8
I, T and L Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–9
Formulas for Flat Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–10
Flat Plate Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–10
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–11
Thermal Expansion and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–12
Impact Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–13
Stress Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–14
Rib Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–15
Design for Equivalent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–18
Topic Part/Page
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–2
BASF Product Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–2
Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
Design Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
CAD/CAE Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I–3
WELCOME!
Part I: Welcome!
c) maximum functionality
Recycling
process. Recycling is part of an all-important global drive toward
reducing contamination, landfill volume and saving natural
resources. Recycling is good business too, since
in many cases, it results in reduced product lifestyle
costs. Recycled plastic materials can often be specified into
less-demanding applications.
I-2
WELCOME!
Safety
When designing parts, a factor of safety should be used to
manage the risk of catastrophic, premature and short-term
failures. The factor is contingent upon numerous
conditions, including type of application, temperature, lack
of material homogeneity, unforeseen overloads,
unknowns, etc.
I-3
Part II
Design Considerations for Injection
Molded Parts
II-2
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts
Draft Angles Fillets and Radii
Draft is necessary for the ejection of the parts from the Sharp corners should be avoided. They are the number
mold. Always design with draft angles. Recommended one cause of part failure, stress concentrations, poor flow
draft angle is normally 1° with 1/2° on ribs. Some draft patterns and increased tool wear (see Figure II-5).
angle is better than none and more draft is desirable if the
design permits. Where minimum draft is desired, good Indicate radii at all inside and outside corners to the
polishing is recommended and feature depth should not maximum which a design will allow.
exceed .5in.
Wall Thickness
The number one rule for designing plastic parts is uniform
wall thickness. Uniform walls aid in material flow in the
mold, reduce the risk of sink marks, molded-in stresses
and differential shrinkage.
Z 3Z
Min.
Figure II-4
R = .5T Min.
T
R = 1.5T Min.
Figure II-4
II-3
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts
Bosses Ribs
Bosses are usually designed to accept inserts, self-tapping Ribs should be used when needed for stiffness and
screws, drive pins, etc., for use in assembling or mounting strength or to assist in filling difficult areas.
parts.
In structural parts where sink marks are of no concern, rib
Avoid stand-alone bosses wherever possible. Bosses base thickness (t) can be 75–85% of the adjoining wall
should be attached to walls or ribs by means of ribs or thickness (T).
gussets for structural stability (see Figures II-5 & 6).
For appearance parts, where sink marks are objectionable,
rib base thickness (t) should not exceed 50% of the
NOT RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED
.5T AT BASE
adjoining wall thickness (T) if the outside surface is textured
and 30% if not textured. Sink marks are also dependent
on the material.
SINK .7 T
MARK
R = .020in
2.5-3.0 T Min.
.5T R = .25T T
T
Figure II-6
t
II-4
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts
Openings Gating
When an opening is desired in a part (such as to The gate connects the part to the runner system. It is
accommodate a snap-fit), and is to be formed without usually the thinnest cross-section in the entire system. The
core pulls, a 5° angle mating of the core and cavity is design of the gate is dependent on tool design, part
required (see Figure II-8). geometry and the material selection.
II-5
Design Considerations for Injection Molded Parts
Vents Potential Knit Lines
Vents are regions in the mold where clearance is used to Knit lines are areas in the molded part where two or more
permit trapped air and gases to escape. Lack of proper flow fronts converge. This area generally has lower strength
venting can cause excessive injection pressure, short than the other areas of the part. One should anticipate knit
shots, burn marks and splay. A cavity can be considered lines, which show up well in flow analysis programs, and
adequately vented when plastic can be injected at high direct them away from anticipated high stress areas of the
rates without showing signs of burn marks. part where possible. Knit lines generally form on the
opposite side of obstacles which are in the way of the
There are many ways to vent a mold. Typically, this is normal flow path, such as pins that form holes in the part or
done by machining numerous shallow channels at the bosses designed to accept inserts.
parting line. The dimensions of the channels are
dependent on the material injected. Contact BASF
Technical Services for this information. Other ways
to vent a mold are ejector pins, vent pins and runners.
Flow analysis can identify areas needing specific venting for
best results.
II-6
Part III
Structural Design
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–2
Stress-Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–2
Normal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–3
Shear Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–3
Torsional Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–4
Bending Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–5
Section Properties of Various Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Explanation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Beam Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–6
Formulas for Common Beams in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–7
Formulas for Torsional Deformation and Stress . . . . . . . . . III–8
I, T and L Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–9
Formulas for Flat Plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–10
Flat Plate Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–10
Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–11
Thermal Expansion and Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–12
Impact Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–13
Stress Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–14
Rib Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–15
Design for Equivalent Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III–18
Structural Design
Part III: Structural Design
STRESS
F Brittle Plastic
Ductile Plastic
L A
F
A
F
C
A
F
F
III-3
Structural Design
Torsional Stress Example for solid circular shaft:
When a part is in torsion (T), twisted along its longitudinal
A 5in long solid circular shaft of .5in diameter, is subjected
axis, there is, at any point on the plane of the section, a
to a torque of 8 in–lb. Calculate the shear stress and angle
shear stress (τ) (see Figure III-6). The maximum shear
of twist.
stress of a shaft in torsion is calculated by:
Using Ultramid• 8267 resin (40% mineral/glass), at room
__
τ = Tc K temperature and dry as molded (DAM):
4
K = 1 πR 4 = π (0.25) = 0.006136in4
2 2
C
τ = (8in-lb)(0.25in)
4 = 326 psi
.006136in
(8in–lb)(5in)
θ = (411,111psi)(.006136in4
)
= .0158 rad
(b) U
T
T = θKG
L
III-4
Structural Design
Bending Stress Example for cantilever beam:
When a simply supported structural member is in flexure,
The I-beam shown has applied force of 20lb (see Figure III-
the top section will be in compression and the bottom
8). Once the moment is calculated, then the bending
surface will be in tension.
stress can be calculated. The chosen material is Ultramid
The center of the member is the neutral axis (N.A.), and is a 8267 (40% mineral/glass), tensile strength at room
region of zero stress. The maximum stresses will occur at temperature and dry as molded (DAM) is 20,000 psi.
the extreme fibers (a and b). Bending stress is expressed
F = 20 lb
as:
Mc
σ= t = .1
I
d = .2 .4
where M is the bending moment, c is the distance from w = .15
Compression F
Figure III-8.
Cantilever I-Beam Cross-Section
a
N.A.
III-5
;;;;;
Structural Design
Section Properties of Various Cross- I-Beam, C channel and Hollow Rectangle
Sections (Straight Beams) t t t
Explanation of Variables y y y
()
1/
d +t
y = __ I
r = __
2
Beam Sections 2 A
Rectangle
Figure III-12
A = bd 1 bd 3
I = __
12
y U channel, T section and L section
d
d
y = __ r = 0.2887d
w/2 w w
2
d d d
b
Figure III-9
y y y
t t t
Solid Circle b b b
R
A = πR2 π R4
I = __
4 b (d + t)3 – _
d_ (b - w) - 9Ad + t - y)2
3
y
A = tb + wd I = __
3 3
R
r = __
1/ 2
y=R
2 y = bt 2 + wd (2t + d)
2(tb +wd) A
I
r = __
()
Figure III-10
Figure III-13
Hollow Circle
Side T section, cross-section and H section
R1 π (R 4- R 4)
A = π(R 2- Ri2) I = __ i
y 4 w w w
2
1
r = __
y=R √
R
2
+ Ri2 y y y
2 d t d t d t
R
Figure III-11 b b
b
2
I = wd + bt
3 3
A = wd
12
d
y = __
2
I 1/2
r = __
A ()
Figure III-14
III-6
;;
;
;;;
Structural Design
Formulas for Common Beams
in Bending
The following equations can be utilized to determine the
maximum moment, Mmax; displacement at a point, y; max-
imum displacement, ymax; and maximum stress, σmax, of
many commonly used beam structures; c = distance from
centroid of cross-section (Figures III-15 through III-22).
Cantilever Beam End Load
o
Y
x
L
o
Y
W
L
a
W
X
y max
y max
o
Y
x
L
W
y X
y max
Mmax = WL
Figure III-15
I
2
y = –Wx (3L – x)
6EI
ymax = –WL
3EI
3
σmax = WLc @ x = 0
Mmax = W(L–a)
Figure III-16
I
6EI
3
σmax = W(L–a)c @ x = 0
w = load/unit length
2
Mmax = wL @ x = 0
y= –wx
24EI
2
2
4
2 2
(6L –4Lx+x )
2 3
Fixed Beam, Center Load
o
Y
Y
a
L/2
y max
o
Y
W
L
x
L
W
y max
y max
X
X
X
Mmax = WL @ x = _L_
2
48EI
Figure III-19
Mmax = Wa (L–a)
2
L2
Figure III-20
8
y = –W (3Lx –4x )
2 3
3
2
3EI(L+2a)
w = load/unit length
24EI
σmax =
Figure III-21
wL
12
2
2
Mmax = wL @ x = 0,L
y = wx (2Lx–L –x )
2
c
12I
4
2
2
@ x = 0,L
ymax = –wL @ x = 0
8EI
L Mmax = WL @ x = L
2
4 2
σmax = wL c @ x = 0 W
2I L/2
y = –W(3L x-4x ) for O ≥ x ≤ L
2 3
2a
K = 1πR4
2
2R 2T K = 2.25a4
τ max = @ boundary
πR 3
τmax = 0.601T @ midpoint of each side
a3
Figure III-23
Figure III-26
1
Ri
K = − π (Ro4 − Ri 4 )
2
2TRo
R0
τmax = @ outer boundary
π (Ro4 − Ri4 )
Figure III-24
III-8
Structural Design
I, T and L Sections T Section
For sections I, T and L, the maximum shear stress occurs K = K1 + K 2 + α D4
where the largest inscribed circle, D, touches the a
4
I Section D
d (
D = 2 d + b + 3r – 2(2r + b)(2r + d) )
for b < 2(d + r)
K = 2 K1 + K2 + 2α D 4
D b K2 = 1 cd 3 Figure III-29
3
r
d
c
α = t (0.15+ 0.1r )
t1 b
b
d2
(b + r) 2 + rd + 4
a D=
2r + b
Figure III-27
III-9
Structural Design
Formulas for Flat Plates Rectangular Plate, Uniform Load, Simply Supported
W = w πr 2
ymax
Figure III-32
−3 3 +1
ymax
Figure III-33
Figure III-31a
-3W(m2–1)r2
4
Figure III-31b
III-10
;
Structural Design
Pressure Vessels The critical or the highest-stressed area of a pressure
vessel is the knuckle or transition section, located at the
Pressure vessels, containers, or tanks can be analyzed by juncture between the end cover and the shell or body of
the use of shell theory because of their shell-like shape and the vessel (see Figure III-35).
symmetrical loading. To distinguish between thick and
thin wall shell or cylinders, the relationship of the wall
thickness (t) to the radius (r) must be considered:
σ= ,
(ro − ri )
2 2
ri P
ro
III-11
Structural Design
Pressure Vessels (cont.) Thermal Expansion and Stress
Example:
Thermal stresses are typically not of significant concern
Design a cylinder container to withstand an internal except in the case of dissimilar materials in an assembly
pressure of 50 psi if the diameter is to be 12in. Material which sees temperature variations. This occurs when a
has been selected to be Ultramid • 8233 (33% glass thermoplastic part is fixed to metal.
reinforced nylon 6). The wall thickness, for molding
If the plastic is clamped to the metal, then the material with
convenience, has been set at 0.250 in maximum.
the greater expansion would tend to buckle from the
Test for wall condition•Thin or Thick? resultant compressive loading. To eliminate this potential,
the allowable stress of the larger expanding material must
10t be less then the compressive stress developed due to
(10)(.250in) = 2.5in expansion. Euler’s critical buckling load (Pe ) equation
r = 12/2 = 6in allows one to calculate the critical compressive stress.
2.5 in < 6in
Pe = 4p2 EI
Therefore, thin wall approach is acceptable. L2
(50psi) (6in )
σ = Pr = = 1200 psi ∆L
t (.250
. in ) L
∆L = (α1 - α2)∆TL
where α1 = coefficient of thermal expansion of material 1
α2 = coefficient of thermal expansion of material 2
∆L = change of length
∆T = change in temperature
L = length between fixed points
KD = 1 + 1+ 2h
ystatic
KD= 1 + 1 + y2h
static
Figure III-37
III-13
Structural Design
Stress Concentrations Example:
M = Fd
3
B ner
= (10lb) (2in) (.20in)(.25in)3
o r ak I = bh
__ = ______________
E arpC A Bre Load
= 20in–lb 12 12
Sh
F F h
C = __ = 2.6 x 10 -4in4
2
O T = 0.125in
R E
E R Wrong Way Right Way
σ = ___
Mc σ = K ___
Mc
Sharp Corners Concentrate Stress Break Due to Stress Concentration I I
= (20in–lb)(.125in)
________________ R = .05in = .2
__
t .25in
2.6 x 10 -4in4
K = 2.5
Figure III-38 σ = 9600 psi
σ = 2.5(9600 psi)
σ = 24,000 psi
In many instances it is difficult to accurately compute the
actual stress, but good information does exist which
provides for a reasonable estimate. Figure III-39 shows a The design and load shown should be expected to
graph for a given configuration. When the corner radius is experience a stress of 24,000 psi. Note that changing
small compared to the wall thickness, a high stress the radius to .25in changes the expected stress
concentration factor results. concentration to 12,500 psi.
Stress Concentration Factor
3.5
R Load
Stress Concentration Factor (K)
3.0
2.5
T
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
R /T
Figure III-39
Illustration credit: Peterson, R.E., Stress Contribution Factors.
III-14
Structural Design
Rib Design EQUIVALENT THICKNESS-DEFLECTION
1 1.5 2
When designing a part, it is often necessary to determine 12
Draft
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
H/W
H EQUIVALENT THICKNESS-STRESS
1
12
11 1.5
W 2
10
T
9
S 3
S/W
8
4
Figure III-40. Ribbed Plate With Draft 5
7
6.5
W equiv 8
6
Where W = Wall thickness W 10
T = Base rib thickness 5
S = Distance between ribs 15
4 20
H = Height of rib 30
3 40
Figure III-40 shows the geometric parameters used in this 50
method. The following curves (Figure III-41) have been 2 70
generated for a plate with ribs having 1/2° draft per side 100
1
and a T/W = .75. There are numerous other similar curves
for other variations.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
H/W
III-15
Structural Design
To use these charts a few ratios need to be calculated. We must now choose a value for two of the following:
To convert an aluminum part to thermoplastic of equal nominal wall thickness (W), rib height (H), or distance
rigidity, it is necessary to calculate the equivalent thickness between the ribs (S). For this exercise, let us make
of the plastic part without ribs. Next, a nominal W = 0.125in and H = 0.725in.
thermoplastic wall thickness must be selected along with
either the rib height or number of ribs. Therefore:
Using the curves, the appropriate rib pattern can be Wequiv 0.339
determined. This process can be reversed as well if = = 2.712
W 0.125
there is a desire to determine displacement or stress for a
ribbed member. It basically reduces the ribbed member to H 0.725
= = 5.8
a simple flat plate. .
W 0125
Example: T
= 0.75∴T = (0.125)0.75
The following shows the conversion of a flat aluminum W
plate of 6in x 10in with a thickness of 0.125in to a typical = 0.094in
glass reinforced nylon plate with ribs and having equivalent
stiffness. For flat plates of equal rigidity the following ratio Since we are interested in equivalent deflection, we can
is valid: (see page III-15.) find the curve that corresponds to these 2 ratios and
EA tA3 = EP t 3P find that S/W = 20, therefore S = (0.125)20 = 2.5in. This
(see page III-18)
means that for a plate of 6in x 10in, we will need 3 and 4
knowing: ribs respectively. The equivalent plate would look like
Figure III-42.
Ealuminum = 1.0x10 7psi
10in
Eplastic = 5.0x10 5psi
6in
then
1 0.125in 0.725in
EA tA 3 3
tP =
EP
1
1.0 x 107 (0.125) 3 3 Figure III-42. Equivalent Plate Using Cross-Ribbing
=
5.0x10 5
NOTE: To lower stresses in the plate, it is recommended
tP = Wequiv = 0.339in
that generous radii be placed at the base of the ribs.
This is the thickness that the thermoplastic part would Table III-1 further illustrates the weight-to-stiffness
need to be if no ribs were present. Since this wall advantage of various rib heights.
thickness is thicker than desirable for injection molding, the
addition of ribs is an alternative.
III-16
Structural Design
Effect of 1/8in Thick Rib of Various Heights on the Strength of a 2in x 1/4in Beam
Case Rib Rib Height/
Number Shape Size Wall Thickness % Increase in Weight % Increase in Stiffness
2 in
0 T
N/A N/A N/A N/A
1 2T
N/A N/A 100 700
T = Thickness = 1/4in
Table III-1
III-17
Structural Design
Design for Equivalent Stiffness Sections of Equivalent Stiffness in Bending:
Aluminum Zinc
In order to replace metal parts with plastic, the equivalent
stiffness of a plastic part can be determined. When the
two parts are of equivalent stiffness, deflection is the same. .457 .789
Deflection is inversely proportional to the rigidity modulus
(R): .620
.620
R = EI
E = 10.3 x 106 psi E = 2.0 x 106 psi
I = 0.0049in4 I = 0.0254in4
where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the moment of
EI = 5.08 x 104 lb–in2 EI = 5.08 x 104 lb–in2
inertia. (The moment of inertia will vary for each geometry.
A = 0.283in2 A = 0.489in2
See Figure III-43.) Therefore, by equating the modulus of
rigidity of the metal and plastic parts the condition of Nylon 33% GF Nylon 33% GF
equivalent stiffness will be satisfied.
.100
E aluminum I aluminum = E plastic I plastic .898
1.142
.100
For solid shape of equal width;
.620
E aluminum h3aluminum = E plastic h3plastic .620
Figure III-43
III-18
Part IV
Design Examples
Potential Reasons
for Part Failure: a) Material
A
b) Processing
Steel Part
c) Design
B
Analysis: Simple Cantilever Beam (Closely
similar to the end-use condition).
(Note actual outlined part.)
B X Section XX
F
Present Plastic Part
h
C
X b
L
Part fixation
C
Redesign Figure IV-2. Rigidity Modulus, R = EI
Figure IV-1. Cruise Control Bracket
E = Modulus of Elasticity I = Moment of Inertia
R can be increased by increasing E or I
IV-2
Design Examples
NOTE: The small section was analyzed because the left Conclusion:
portion of the part, which is basically clamped, has a large a) A material change would not be effective enough; it
section modulus and is therefore much stiffer than the could increase the cost and require new approvals.
middle of the part.
b) Processing was not determined to be the problem
Since I = bh3/12, a small change in h will result in a cubed by lab analysis.
effect or a large increase in R, a very effective change.
c) Redesign was implemented with successful results.
Example: If h is doubled, it will increase the R by a
factor of 8!!!
To make the plastic part more rigid than the steel part,
EI plastic => EI steel (lb. in2.)
Figure IV-3
IV-3
Design Examples
Design Example #2 .010
Application: COVER CAP
Customer Input: 0
1) The parts were initially inspected, approved by Q. C. 0 20 40 60 80 100
and placed into stock. Percent Relative Humidity
C = 2 x πx r
or
C = πx D
Where:
r = radius
D = diameter
IV-4
Part V
Assembly
Y
Y
2
V-2
Assembly
Short Cantilever Design 8.0
ON A BLOCK 0.0
(SOLID WALL) 1 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
ON A PLATE
(THIN WALL)
2 4
3 5
V-3
Assembly
New Formulas Example:
B B
GIVEN:
t
P MAXIMUM STRAIN
t
P Material: PETRA 130
W W
(PET)
∈O = 1.5 -• •tY
L2 Q
Y Y t = 0.10in
L = 0.50in
B = 0.25in
α α E = 1,300,000 psi
µ = 0.2
L L α = 30.0°
∈O = 1.5%
Figure V-5 Figure V-6
Where: DETERMINE:
∈O = Maximum strain at the base
t = Beam thickness a) THE MAXIMUM DEFLECTION OF SNAP
Y = Deflection b) THE MATING FORCE
L = Beam length SOLUTION:
Q = Deflection magnification factor
(refer to graph for proper Q values) a) THE MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION OF SNAP
V-4
Assembly
Press-Fit Assembly PLASTIC RADIAL DEFORMATION
( )( )
b
Two parts can be assembled by press-fitting them c2—
δ=b∈ — - b—
2 c—
—
2
+ b-2+v
2 —
together (see Figure V-7). Although this is a common c +b
2 2
c - b2 PL
METAL
assembly method in metals, a good design is more
WHERE:
critical for thermoplastics. Since plastics creep (or stress
c δ = Radial deformation
relax), the designer must allow for a large reduction of the
∈ = Strain
initial press-fit clamp force. A good design will minimize
vPL = Poisson’s Ratio.
the strain on the plastic (see Figures V-8 & V-9), take
tolerance stack-up into account and estimate the final Figure V-9. Press-Fit a Metal Shaft into a Plastic Hub
residual clamp force due to plastic creep relaxation.
Figure V-7 NOTE:
1. Radial deformation, δ, must be doubled for the total interference fit
on a diameter.
2. b and c are radii, not diameters.
3. Formula assumes zero deformation of the metal shaft.
4. Creep must be fully analyzed.
EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION:
c2—-—
(
b2—
)(c—c —+- b—b—- + vPL)
2 2
d=b∈ —
c2 + b2 2 2
RADIAL DEFORMATION
= (.250)(.02)(————————) (———————- + .35)
.375 - .250
2 2
.375 + .250
2 2
NOTE:
1. Radial deformation, δ, must be doubled for the total interference fit
on a diameter.
2. a, b and c are radii, not diameters.
3. Formula is only valid when the shaft and hub are the same material.
4. Creep must be fully analyzed.
V-5
Assembly
Adhesive Bonding Epoxies – High strength, high temperature resistance,
two parts (usually), poor impact resistance, long cure times,
Another method for assembling parts is by applying and usually needs to be fixtured.
an adhesive. Two similar or dissimilar materials can be
assembled together in a strong leak-tight bond. Various Cyanoacrylates (example: Krazy Glue)• – High strength,
joint designs are shown in Figure V-10. very fast cure time, one part, limited service temperature
(about 200°F), poor impact resistance, and limited
The choice of the adhesive depends on the application moisture resistance.
and its end-use environment. Details of some adhesives,
which can be used with Basf Ultramid and Petra products, Silicones – Low strength, very high heat resistance, two
are highlighted in Table V-1. parts (usually), good low temperature flexibility, good impact
resistance, good sealing capability, very long cure times,
Polyurethanes – High strength, good impact resistance, usually needs to be fixtured, and very high material cost.
good low temperature flexibility, two parts (usually), limited
*3M, Structural Adhesive Guide for Industrial Product Design and Assembly.
moisture resistance, long cure times, and usually needs to
be fixtured.
V-6
Assembly
V-7
Assembly
Bolts, Nuts, and Machine Screws STRESS RELAXATION ON A PLASTIC PART
1.0
Standard metal fasteners are also used to assemble
thermoplastic components, although self-tapping screws So=5000 psi
0.9
are more common. Bolts and screws are used to join So=15000 psi
plastic to metal or plastic to plastic. Care must be taken to
0.8
prevent excessive compressive stress on the plastic. S/So
0.7
• Assembly must be limited to a prescribed torque level
and controlled. Rapid application of torque should be
So=15000 So=5000
avoided since most thermoplastics are rate sensitive. 0.6
• A larger head screw or addition of a large diameter SHAKEPROOF STEM BOLT ASSY.
metal washer under the bolt head and/or nut will (STEM WASHER ATTACHED)
SHOULDER BOLT
increase the contact area and reduce stress. Figure V-11 STEM WASHER
SPRING WASHER
illustrates this concept. PLASTIC PLASTIC
• Flat head screws and rivets should be avoided in plastic METAL METAL
applications. These conical shaped fasteners cause a
wedging action which results in high hoop stress and
possible failure of the part.
Option 1 Option 2
• As stress relaxation occurs, the clamping force and
STEM (WASHER ATTACHED)
torque retention drop and the fastener will loosen. FLAT WASHER
A spring washer can be used to maintain acceptable (OPTIONAL)
force and torque levels. Figure V-12 shows various
PLASTIC
options to help counteract stress relaxation. Options 1
& 2 use a shoulder washer or bolt in combination with METAL
the spring washer. The main clamping is metal
to metal while a smaller force holds the plastic.
Option 3
V-8
Assembly
Molded-In Threads
One of the advantages of injection molded parts is the
ability to mold in many kinds of functional features such as
threads. These can be traditional forms or specially
modified versions tailored to specific applications. Coarse
threads are generally preferred due to their higher strength
and torque limits. For applications requiring high pullout or
subject to high pressure loads, A• cme• or B
• uttress• thread
forms can be used.
V-9
Assembly
Self-Tapping Screws Guidelines for self-tapping fasteners:
There are two main types of self-tapping fasteners used in 1. Thread engagement length should be 2.5 times the
plastic parts: thread cutting and thread forming. screw diameter.
Thread cutting screws are generally used only on brittle 2. Boss diameter should be at least 2 times the pilot
plastics, such as thermosets and highly filled (+50%) hole diameter.
thermoplastics. They cut threads by means of a slotted 3. Pilot hole diameter should be based on 50%-70%
shank. Because they actually remove material when thread engagement. This can vary with the material
inserted, thread cutting screws should not be reinstalled and the type of fastener (check with your Basf design
and a chip reservoir should be added. representative).
Thread forming screws are generally preferred for most 4. Cored holes should have 1/4° to 1/2° draft/side.
thermoplastic applications. These types of screws can be
5. Holes should be counterbored or chamfered to a depth
reinstalled a limited number of times (3-7). For repeated
of .020in to aid alignment and reduce the chance of
assembly and disassembly, some form of metal insert
boss cracking.
should be used. There are several styles of thread forming
screws designed specifically for plastics. Three of the 6. Strip to drive torque ratio should be at least 3:1, but the
more widely used are: difference in strip to drive torque is more important than
the ratio.
Plastite™
These screws have a trilobular cross-section which roll 7. Seating torque should be no more than 2/3 strip torque.
threads by moving material out of the way as they are
installed. After installation, the material fills back around
the shank, lowering the residual stress in the screw boss.
This feature also gives the Plastite• screws excellent
resistance to loosening due to vibration. Higher hoop
stress is produced with these screws.
D
PT™
Figure V-15. Bosses for Self-Tapping Screws
This thread design has a single 30° included angle which
reduces hoop stress in the boss and also provides a high
strip torque to drive torque ratio.
V-10
Assembly
Inserts Self-tapping
Inserts of various types are used with plastics. The most These inserts have an external self-tapping screw thread
common are threaded metal inserts; either internally and are driven into the hole using low cost equipment.
threaded nuts or externally threaded studs. (See Figure V-7.)
Threaded metal inserts are used when the assembly Press-fit and Expansion
application requires repeated assembly and disassembly or This type of insertion is not normally desirable.
the assembly needs to resist creep and compressive The insert is pressed in with an interference fit. The
relaxation. There are several methods of installing inserts: expansion insert is designed to expand into the side walls
of the boss with a tool. Both methods impart a high stress
Ultrasonic to the boss and they have lower mechanical performance.
This method uses the same equipment as ultrasonic
welding. The high frequency horn vibrations cause Molded-in
frictional heat between the insert and plastic, thereby This method is often used for large or special inserts. As
melting it into the boss. This process takes under the name implies, these inserts are placed in the mold
5 seconds and features low residual stress and excellent cavity and the plastic is injected, thereby encapsulating
pullout strengths. them. The need to place the insert in the mold increases
cycle time and mold damage can occur.
Thermal
This is similar to ultrasonics in that the insert is melted into
the boss but the insert is heated by a device like a
soldering iron. This method is relatively slow and also
yields a low stress assembly with good pull out strengths.
V-11
Assembly
Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding is a quick and reliable way to assemble DEPTH
OF WELD
the same or very similar thermoplastic parts. Electrical .25 in
Shear Joint
A shear joint is more commonly used on semi-crystalline
materials such as nylon* and polyester. Due to their sharp
melting points, semi-crystalline resins often do not achieve
strong welds with energy director joints. The molten
material flowing from the weld area quickly resolidifies
before welding to the opposite interface.
V-12
Assembly
Energy Director
W
An energy director is a raised triangular bead molded 2
3° to 5° DRAFT ANGLE
W W
8 64
W W
CLEARANCE
W
8
3W
W
8
8
W*
4
W
BEFORE WELD AFTER WELD
*Minimum of .024 in
V-13
Assembly
Vibration Welding A proper holding fixture is critical in achieving a good weld.
Vibration welding is a preferred method for assembling Care must be taken when designing fixturing to prevent
large structural parts of the same or very similar unsupported part walls from flexing during welding. A new
thermoplastic parts. In this process, frictional heat is method called orbital vibration welding makes welding
developed by moving the two parts relative to each other unsupported walls easier by producing a constant circular
under pressure. Strong hermetic bonds can be achieved motion so no wall is ever perpendicular to the weld
using this process. direction.
Depending on the equipment (Figure V-20), welding Some common joint designs are shown in Figure V-21,
frequency is either 120 Hz or 240 Hz with weld peak to including flash traps to provide for a cosmetic appearance.
peak amplitudes being .060in–.140in and .030in–.065in, The flash trap must accommodate the melt area (shaded
respectively. Allowance for this amplitude must be built areas are basically equal in volume).
into the joint. Weld time is generally 2–3 seconds. The
welding cycle is described in more detail below.
STATIONARY ELEMENT
V-14
Assembly
Other Assembly Techniques Spin Welding
Spin welding is a fast and practical assembly technique for
Thermoplastic Staking joining circular parts or surfaces. Most thermoplastics can
Staking (including ultrasonic, heat and hot gas) is a be spin welded, particularly rigid resins. Welds are made
common assembly technique to join two dissimilar by rotating one part against the other fixed part at high
materials. A stud configuration or boss molded into one of speed and under pressure. Frictional heat melts both
the plastic parts protrudes through a hole or matching surfaces. Rotation is stopped and pressure is maintained
configuration in the second part. A specially contoured until the weld solidifies. Strong, permanent and hermetic
horn contacts and melts the top of the stud, forming a welds can be obtained but accurate orientation between
head and locking the second part in place. Staking is the parts is difficult. Cycle times are generally 1 to 2
simple, fast and permanent. It produces a tight assembly seconds and ordinary machinery equipment can be used.
with a variety of head contours to choose from (Figure Part configuration or a keying feature is needed for rotating
V-22 shows a dome configuration). a part.
Steel t CLEARANCE
.002in a
d
c
1.5 t
Plastic
1.2 t b
a
rib rib
t • .015in – .02in
Where:
Figure V-22. Dome Stake
t = wall thickness of the part
V-15
Assembly
Electromagnetic Welding .267
in (Min.)
Electromagnetic welding provides a simple, rapid .097in
and reliable assembly technique to produce a strong .112in
.077in
.092in
EMAWELD
STRAND
BEFORE WELD
PROVIDE
STOP
.218in
AFTER WELD
Figure V-24
Credit: Emabond Systems.
V-16
Part VI
Plastic Materials
Plastics are man-made materials. They are made up of Classification of Plastic Materials
long chains of large molecules. Each molecule consists General classification of plastic materials is shown
of many units of organic chemicals, thus called a polymer in Table VI-1.
(many units), or macromolecules. At room temperature, the
material is solid and rigid and it can withstand significant
PLASTIC MATERIALS
structural load. Some of the materials retain rigidity at
relatively high temperatures and can replace metallic THERMOPLASTIC THERMOSET
components in such high temperature environments as
automobile underhood applications. CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS EPOXY
MELAMINE
The material can be formed into a finished shape by PP PC PHENOLICS
molding, extruding or shaping under high temperature PE PS UNSATURA
conditions. POLYESTER
PET PPS BUTYL RUBBER
PBT PPO
NYLON (PA) PVC
ACETAL (POM) ABS
SAN
POLYSULFONE
POLYARYLATE
POLYETHERIMIDE
PMMA (ACRYLICS)
VI-2
Plastic Materials
c.
M
O
Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastic Thermoset with Transition
D
U
L
U
S
1.00
temperature (Tg ) until they become liquid in the higher
0.96
temperature regions. Amorphous
0.92
Figure VI-2 shows the temperature dependence of the
modulus for various classes of plastics. 0.88 Typical Nylon 6
0.84
100% Crystalline
0.80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300˚C
32 100 200 300 400 500 572˚F
Temperature
Figure VI-3.
Volume vs. Temperature Behavior of Nylon 6
VI-3
Plastic Materials
Molecular Weight Distribution The weight averaged value (Mw) of the molecular weight
Molecular chain length in plastic materials varies from very distributions affects important physical properties, such as
short to very long, and the distribution of such chain melt viscosity and part strengths.
lengths, or molecular weight, creates a form of
The full spectrum of molecular weight distributions can be
bell curve, as shown in Figure VI-4.
obtained through an analytic lab technique called Gel
Molecular Weight of Polymers Permeation Chromatography (GPC). However, this
Chain Length Population method is rather time consuming and costly. A simple
I1 n1
I2 n2 method to evaluate relative value of a given polymer is to
•
•
•
•
•
•
use the Melt Index (MI) method. Molten plastic is placed in
• •
In
•
nn
a heated capillary chamber and it is pushed through a
n2 nozzle by placing a specified weight on a plunger. The
amount of plastic collected at the bottom of the capillary in
a given time is called MI, and this number is related
n1
Population N
Figure VI-4.
Molecular Weight Distribution of Polymers
VI-4
Plastic Materials
Physical Properties Thermal Expansion
Plastic materials have significantly different physical Plastic materials change dimensions significantly with
properties compared to metallic materials. Some key temperature. Therefore, the product design engineer
properties are compared against metallic materials in should calculate dimensional changes over the service
the following topics: temperature range, to verify that critical dimensions will
remain within acceptable limits. Figure VI-6 compares the
Density thermal expansion coefficient of various materials.
Plastic material is significantly lighter than most metallic
materials, as shown in Figure VI-5. Plastic materials Care must be taken when joining materials having different
replace metals in many applications where product weight coefficient of thermal expansion for buckling, tensile and
reduction is desired. shear stress, etc. Large parts are also more of a concern
than smaller parts.
Specific Gravity Thermal Expansion
Relative Comparisons Relative Comparisons
8 7.75
50
7
40
6
5
30
4
3 2.77 20
2 1.49
1.13 10
1
0 0
Unfilled G/Filled Aluminum Steel Unfilled G/Filled Aluminum Steel
Nylon Nylon Nylon Nylon
VI-5
Plastic Materials
Thermal Conductivity
Plastic materials do not conduct heat well and are about two
orders of magnitude less conductive than the metals.
Plastic is then a good thermal insulator. This thermal
characteristic can be a positive or negative factor depending
on the application. Figure VI-7 shows thermal conductivities
of various plastic materials as compared to other materials.
400
Copper
200
Aluminum 1.0
.9
100
80 .8
Zinc (solid)
60
.7
Sodium (liquid)
40
Low Carbon Steels Iron Zinc (liquid) .6
Potassium (liquid)
20 30% Glass Filled
.5 PBT
Alloy Steels
10
8 High Alloy Steels .4
Lead (liquid)
6
Thermal Conductivity Btu hr -1 ft -1 F -1
4
Magnesite Brick .3
30% Glass Filled
Nylon
2
Ice
1.0 Silica Brick
0.8 .2 ABS
Polyethylene
0.6 Missouri Firebrick
0.4 Acetal
Water Polypropylene
Nylon
0.2
PLASTICS
Polycarbonate
0.1
0.08 .1
0.06 .09 Polystyrene
Diatomaceous Earth
0.04 .08
10 lb/ft3
.07
0.02 Air
Carbon Dioxide .06
Methane
0.01
Benzene (gaseous) .05 Polyvinyl
0.008
Chloride
0.006
0.004 .04
200 400 600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000
Absolute Temperature °R
Figure VI-7. Thermal Conductivities of Solids, Liquids and Gases with Temperature
“ onvection Heat Transfer,“ Addison-Wesley.
Illustration credit: Arpaci, Vedal S., C
VI-6
Part VII
Physical Properties
The Mechanical Properties of Plastics Test specimens used for some standard test methods are
The mechanical properties of plastic materials can vary shown in Figure VII-1. The material properties, however, can
depending on the service environments, the duration of be affected significantly by the following factors:
the service loading, types of loading, part configuration,
Notches
etc. So the short-term properties cannot be applied to
Notches or sharp corners introduce stress concentrations
long-term applications. Therefore, design engineers
and can induce premature failures, especially during
should obtain property data that is applicable to the
impact. Sudden change of cross-sections are to be
service conditions and life expectancy of the product.
avoided when designing with plastics.
Definitions of various physical properties and terminologies
are listed in Appendix I, at the end of this guide. Resistance of material to the combined effects of notches
and impact is measured by the Notched Izod Impact Test.
Short-Term Properties The notched Izod specimen geometry is shown in Figure
VII-2. The influence of the notch radius on the impact
Standard mechanical properties are normally obtained by
resistance is shown in Figure VII-3 and it indicates the
test methods as specified by the American Standard
notch sensitivity of materials. Impact resistance of
Testing Materials (ASTM) or by the International Standard
materials is better measured by drop weight impact
Organization (ISO) methods. These two standards are
loading (see Figure VII-4 for testing method). It produces
cross referenced in Appendix II. You can find these
significantly different ranking of materials compared with
properties for individual resins listed in Basf’s product data
those obtained by the notched Izod test method, as
sheets. (Product data on all our individual resins is also
shown in Figure VII-5.
available via the Internet. Call Basf for details.)
Rate of Loading
Higher rates of loading tend to reduce elongation of a
TENSILE IMPACT
plastic material, and it can result in brittle failures. Some
materials are more resilient to such rapid loading effects
than others.
DROP WEIGHT
IMPACT
TENSILE TYPE I I
VII-2
Physical Properties
.400
Top Weight
1.250
Detail
2.500 45°
Tube
(Cross - Section)
.010 R
.500
Cross Section
Figure VII-2. Impact Specimen Specimen/Ring
Specimen
Top View
12
.C.)
Ring
%M
Izod Impact ft–lb/inch of notch
(2.5
10
)
RY
202
3 (D
SE 8
M
LY
PO
L PU
O
6 IDC
AM
Drop Weight IZOD
ERA
TR
UL RY)
(ft-lbs) (ft-lbs/in notch)
GEN
20 2 (D
4 SE 8
RPO Polycarbonate >180 Polycarbonate 12.0
RA L PU
GENE Nylon 6 135 Modified Nylon 6/6 3.0
2 GLASS REINFORCED NYLON (DRY) Modified Nylon 6/6 125 Nylon 6 Copolymer 2.5
Nylon 6 Copolymer 125 Modified PPO 1.9
PBT 95 20% GR Polycarb 1.8
O Nylon 6/6 75 30% GR PBT 1.3
O 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 Nucleated Nylon 6 75 30% GR Nylon 6 1.3
Notch Radius, 1/1000 inch 30% GR Nylon 6 3.0 PBT 0.8
20% GR Polycarb 2.0 Nylon 6/6 0.6
30% GR Nylon 6/6 1.5 Nylon 6 0.5
Figure VII-3. Izod Impact Strength vs. Notch Radius 30% GR PBT 1.0 Nucleated Nylon 6 0.4
VII-3
Physical Properties
Temperature
Properties of plastics change significantly with
temperature. Typical property changes with temperature DIAL
INDICATOR
are shown in Figure VII-6. Property values corresponding
to the service temperature should be used for designing a LOAD
THERMOMETER
plastic part. Deflection Temperature Under Load (DTUL) is
sometimes used for screening high temperature grade
materials. The test apparatus is illustrated in Figure VII-7.
However, this test method is based on a specific deflection
during test rather than a total time history. Results should
be used in combination with other inputs.
SPECIMEN
-40° C (-40°F) HEATED
LIQUID MEDIA
TENSILE STRESS (psi)
23° C (73°F)
149° C
(300° F) Thermal Aging
Plastic degrades under extended exposure to high
STRAIN (% ELONGATION ) temperature environment. Figure VII-8 shows the effect of
heat aging on an Ultramid nylon product. And Figure VII-9
shows how extensive heat aging affects thermoplastics.
Figure VII-6. Tensile Stress-Strain Curve of
Petra 130 at Various Temperatures
VII-4
Physical Properties
Moisture
125
Effect of heat aging on tensile strength of ULTRAMID 8233G HS BK-102
Nylon 6 or 6/6 absorb moisture from the air and
environment. Mechanical properties and dimensions
will change depending on the amount of the absorbed
% Retension Tensile Strength
100
moisture. Figure VII-10 shows the flexural modulus
75 change due to temperature and moisture. (See
D
• imensional Considerations • Moisture Absorption•
50 in Part VII of this guide.)
25
400
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
100
10
0
100 200 300 350
8
Temperature (°F)
Key: DAM
50% R.H.
6
Stress, Kpsi
0
1E3 1E4 1E5 1E6 1E7 1E8
Number of Cycles to Failure
Key: As Molded
Heat Aged 650 Hrs at 400°F
VII-5
Physical Properties
Dimensional Considerations (Moisture Dimensional Changes
Absorption) Nylon parts will expand with exposure to moisture, as can
be seen in Figure VII-12. These changes are small and
Effects of Moisture need only be considered for applications with very large
dimensions or very tight tolerances.
All nylons are hygroscopic. The amount and rate of
moisture absorbed from the atmosphere depends upon the
8233
ambient humidity and temperature. A study performed by
Figure VII-11 10 10
5 5
MOISTURE CONTENT
MOISTURE CONTENT
0 in
60
in 0.06
2 0.0 2
5 in
2 5 in 0.12
1 0.1 1 0
0 0.25
0.5 0.25 0.5
0.2 0.2
Figure VII-13
VII-6
Physical Properties
Process Induced Property Variations
FIBER ORIENTATION Fiber orientation, introduced during molding, creates
Glass-Reinforced Polymers
different directional property characteristics: stronger in the
GATE
Stronger flow direction and weaker in transverse direction. (See
Weaker Figure VII-14.) A typical property profile of an injection
LONGITUDINAL
(Flex Bar)
molded Petra 130 shell structure is shown in Figure VII-15.
GATE The molded part will also be very weak at a weld line,
especially for glass reinforced material (see Figure VII-14).
Stronger Excessive amounts of regrind will reduce strength as well.
Weaker Improper preparation, such as poor drying of the resin,
and improper processing, will degrade the resin, thereby
reducing physical properties.
Hole Formed
by Mold Pin Weld Line
TRANSVERSE
(Plaque)
Figure VII-14
25 8
(ft-lbs/inch of notch)
Flexural Strength
Flexural Modulus
1.0
IZOD Impact
20
(x 103 psi)
(x 105 psi)
6
15
4
0.5 10
2
5
0 0 0
L T L T L T
Figure VII-15. Property Variations With Fiber Orientation in a Molded Petra 130 Shell Structure
Where:
L -Longitudinal Direction
T -Transverse Direction
VII-7
Physical Properties
Additives (Color) Chemicals
Carbon black or colorants do affect strength. The influence Certain chemicals attack plastics and reduce their physical
of colorants varies, depending on the ingredients and properties. Each polymer behaves differently when
quantity used to achieve a specific color. exposed to various chemicals. A design engineer should
refer to the chemical resistance table for each material (See
Ultraviolet (UV) Light the Chemical Resistance Guide) to make sure the service
Ultraviolet light affects the polymer structure chain and environment is not harmful to the plastic material being
reduces the physical properties of plastics. Most of the used, and testing is recommended.
degradation is localized to the outermost layer so the overall
strength decay is minimal. However, the surface
appearance can be significantly affected. Special UV
resistant grades are available from Basf. These grades are
formulated to extend the surface appearance and therefore
service life of the material.
VII-8
Physical Properties
Long-Term Properties
Creep, Stress Relaxation and Service Life
When a load is applied on a plastic part, the part will
elongate or collapse with time. The amount of the
elongation depends on the magnitude of the load,
duration, and if the load is constant or diminishing with
time. Such time dependent change is called creep. The
creep phenomenon is illustrated in Figure VII-16(a).
Lo Lo + ∆ L Lo + ∆ L + ∆c Lo Lo + ∆L Lo + ∆L
∆L ∆L ∆L ∆L
∆c = Creep
Initial Strain
(short-term
creep)
w Force Force
Gage Gage
Time = 1 Min. Reading Reading
w
Time = 1 Min. Time = T
Time = T
a) Tensile Creep b) Stress Relaxation
(Sustained Load) (Diminishing Load)
VII-9
Physical Properties
The creep strain is added to the initial elastic strain to arrive The rate of the stress decay takes place faster with
at a total strain. Elastic strain can be recovered immediately a higher initial stress level, as shown in Figure VII-18.
upon release of the load. Creep strain does not recover Based on this principle, reducing stress in a
immediately but takes time to recover after the load is mechanical fastening application reduces the clamping
removed. Generally, a significant portion of the creep strain force decay.
is unrecoverable. The amount of the creep strain and the
rate of elongation depends on the applied load. The higher The amount of deformation and failure time depends on
the load or stress, the higher the strain the stress level. If the failure time is plotted against the
and the faster the rate. See Figure VII-17. applied stress level on a log-graph, an approximate
linear relationship can be found. One can now predict
the service life of a part under sustained loading.
Extrapolation of a curve for more than one decade in the
time scale is not recommended. Examples of the service
life prediction scheme are shown in Figures VII-19 and 20.
Log, Creep Strain
Increasing Stress
1.0
2
1
.9
St /S0
3 2 1 .8
.6
Figure VII-17. Creep Strain Showing 0 50 100 150 200
Stress and Time Dependency Time (Hours)
VII-10
Physical Properties
Log Stress (σ1000) Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction COF, (µ) is defined in ASTM D-
;;
1894 as •the ratio of the frictional force (F) to the force,
usually gravitational, acting perpendicular to the two
surfaces in contact (N).• Therefore, µ = F/N, and is
dimensionless. The COF is a measure of the relative
101 102 103 104 105 difficulty of one surface moving over another. Static
Time (Hours) COF (µs) relates to the force required to initiate the
movement. Kinetic COF (µk) relates to the force
Figure VII-19. Extrapolation of a Creep-Rupture required to sustain the movement. µs is generally
Curve for Service Life Prediction greater than µk. The lower the COF value, the easier
it is to move one part relative to another.
1000
The following COF data was generated by ASTM D-1894,
in which a sled of one material was pulled over a plane of a
second material (See Figure VII-21). This test is very
ULTRAMID 8267 ULTRAMID 8233
sensitive to surface irregularities, imperfections and
100
• • specimen warpage. Although the data presented in Table
•• • VII-1 are believed to be representative, a conservative
Pressure, psi
10
W
N=W
Figure VII-20. Pressure vs. Time to Rupture
F = µN
Curve of Wheel Assemblies (Air Filled) @ 73° F
Figure VII-21
VII-11
Physical Properties
POLYMER-TO-POLYMER POLYMER-TO-STEEL
PRODUCT
STATIC KINETIC STATIC KINETIC
ULTRAMID®
VII-12
Part VIII
Gas Assist Molding
;;
Gas assist molding is used to partially core out thick Hollow Molding
sections. It produces large, dimensionally stable parts with This method is normally used to core out parts like chair
good surface and mechanical properties. The process arms and various types of handles, including those found
can also lower costs because it reduces cycle times and on chain saws, cars and large appliances. The final cross-
uses less material. section is determined by part geometry, gas and resin
flow, material type, and filler content. Some common
Gas assist molding is a form of injection molding in which
cross-sections are shown in Figure VIII-1. The maximum
the mold cavity is partially filled with molten plastic followed
circular area is generally limited to 1.25in.
by injecting an inert gas, usually nitrogen, into the melt.
Depending on the process, the gas can be introduced (A) A circular core is
through the machine nozzle, into the runner, or into the produced during
part itself. The gas pressure is maintained until it is vented Phase 2 Flow that
just prior to part ejection. In this way, the gas takes up the retains its form during
volume shrinkage of the plastic as it cools, packing out Phase 3 Packing.
sink marks and greatly reducing molded-in stress that can
cause the part to warp.
1. Hollow Molding
2. Short Shot
(B) A rectangular form
3. Full Shot
produces thicker
sections on shorter
sides.
Phase 2 Flow
Figure VIII-1
Reference: ‘‘Application of Gas Injection Technology’’ by Matthew Sayer, Cinpress,
Ltd.
VIII-2
;;
; ;;;
;;;; ;;;
Gas Assist Moldings
Short Shot Molding E. Channels Created Using Form
This version is normally used for structural parts where
heavy ribs are desired for stiffness. The gas channels are
generally positioned so the gas will flow along the base of
ribs and under bosses, thus packing out sink marks. They
can also be run along the base of the side walls to help
stiffen the part and prevent warpage. Some design
examples of these channels are given in Figure VIII-2.
A. Vertical Rib
Figure VIII-2
Reference: ‘‘Design Tips for Gas-Assisted Injection Molding,’’ diagram of rib
designs by Indra Baxi of Sajar Plastics, Plastics Design Forum, (July/August, 1990)
C. Sidewall
D. Sidewall
VIII-3
Part IX
Finishing
Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX–2
Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX–2
Printing/Hot Stamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX–2
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX–3
Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX -3
Finishing
Part IX: Finishing
Electroplating Painting
The mineral reinforced nylon 6 material (Ultramid 8260), Most plastics accept paint systems well, especially the
which is designed to accept plating, results in excellent amorphous resins. With special preparation of the surface
plating adhesion and appearance. Plating can be used to for better adhesion (cleaning is essential), even the more
enhance conductivity, shielding and/or aesthetics. An difficult plastics, i.e., PE, PP and Acetal, which have more
electrolytic pre-plating process of copper or nickel slippery surfaces and chemical resistance, can be painted.
prepares the surface for final electroplating of copper,
nickel and chrome in that sequence. Other plating Basf materials will accept paint systems well. Nylon and
materials can also be used where desired. Good design PET are excellent resins for paint applications, especially
practice for an effective end product includes: where high-temperature curing is required. Their ability to
tolerate high temperatures for long periods of time without
a) avoiding deep cavities or sharp corners softening is a key advantage.
b) application of abundant radii to avoid
plating build-up. Printing/Hot Stamping
All known printing methods are effective when using Basf
Deep pockets can be expected to be void of plating. materials. Occasional surface preparation may be needed
Special surface preparation may be needed in some for improved adhesion quality. A well-cleaned surface is
cases. The total thickness of plating is in the range of the most important preparation for quality adhesions.
.001in to .005in. Refer to Basf’s Finishing Manual for more
detailed information.
IX-2
Finishing
Machining Surface Treatment
Nylon and PET are readily machinable using conventional A designer can chose from a variety of surface treatments
metal-cutting equipment. Cutting techniques for plastics and plastic colors. Both can be molded into the plastic
are different than those for metals, and special part and require no further finishing operations. The
preparations should be taken. When cutting, you should injection molding process will accurately duplicate the
remember to: mold surface. Part function and/or aesthetics usually
• Provide for cooling during the cutting process. dictate the surface requirements. A smooth, uniform
surface is often preferred for plating and painting, and high
• Maintain a sharp tool with relief after the cut, gloss is popular on many consumer applications.
especially for reinforced resins. However, matte or textured surfaces are also attractive,
are less slippery, provide contrast, hide sink marks, and
• Provide good support at the cutting area. disguise wear and abuse.
• Apply low cutter forces. Specifying mold finish has often been arbitrary or
• Use carbide where possible. neglected completely. A practical guide to surface finish
selection is the SPI Mold Finish Guide which is available
• Use cutting points with a radius. from the Society of the Plastics Industry. The finish should
be specified by SPE/SPI number where possible.
IX-3
Part A1
Appendix I: Physical Properties
and Terminology
Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Ductility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Friction and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Isotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Lubricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–2
Mold Shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Notch Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Plasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Toughness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Warpage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Water Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1–3
Physical Properties and Terminology
Appendix I: Physical Properties and Terminology
Density, specific gravity, mold shrinkage, water absorption, Friction and Wear
elasticity, plasticity, ductility, toughness, brittleness, notch Friction is resistance against change in the relative
sensitivity, tribological (lubricity and abrasive resistance) positions of two bodies touching one another. If the plastic
properties, anisotropy and isotropy are crucial physical in the area of contact is loaded beyond its strength, wear
properties determining the usefulness and durability of a or abrasion will take place. Although plastics may not be
plastic. These terms and others are defined below. as hard as metal, their resistance
to abrasion and wear may still be excellent.
Anisotropy
Anisotropic material properties depend on the direction in Hardness
which they are measured. Glass and mineral reinforced Hardness is closely related to wear resistance, scratch
thermoplastics have a high degree of property resistance, strength, stiffness, and brittleness. The various
dependence on orientation of fiber reinforcement. hardness tests provide different behavior characteristics
for plastics:
Brittleness
—the resistance of a material to indentation by
Brittleness is the opposite of toughness. As a rule, an indentor;
reinforced thermoplastics show higher stiffness and lower
impact properties, or more brittleness than —the resistance of a material to scratching by another
unfilled plastics. material;
AI-2
Physical Properties and Terminology
Mold Shrinkage Warpage
Mold shrinkage is the amount of contraction from mold Complex shapes of the finished part promote varying
cavity dimensions that a molded part exhibits after removal contraction rates relative to molded part dimensions and
from the mold and cooling to room temperature. Mold can cause internal stress to build up during the cool-down
shrinkage starts the very moment plastic is injected into process while molding. This can cause warpage.
the cavity of a closed mold, so optimum mold design will
choose the best gate(s) position, runner diameter, cycle The warpage and plastic part-distortion can be caused by
times, and the smoothest flow path to prevent excessive internal stresses generated by non-uniform shrinkage. Part
shrinkage or differential shrinkage across the whole part. warpage can be significantly greater than the in-plane mold
shrinkage value.
For a given material, mold shrinkage can vary with design
and molding variables, such as part walls thickness, flow Water Absorption
direction, and injection molding conditions. Mold Water absorption is the percentage of increase in the
shrinkage is very important for concurrent design, for weight of a plastic part during its immersion in water, or
material substitution (plastic for metal; plastic for plastic) exposure to a humid air environment. Plastic parts
and for specific applications. (materials) can be either absorbent (hygroscopic) or non-
absorbent (non-hygroscopic). Most engineering plastics
Notch Sensitivity show absorbent tendencies in their dry conditions
Notch sensitivity is the ability of crack propagation through (DAM–dry as molded). Plastic parts absorb water by direct
a plastic from existing stress concentration areas (sharp exposure or from airborne water vapors at a rate specific to
corners, grooves, holes, abrupt changes in the cross- each material. Standard test specimens of a material
sectional area). In evaluating plastics for a particular whose physical property values would be appreciably
impact or cyclic loading condition, design variables (stress affected by exposure to high temperatures in the
concentration areas) are quite important. neighborhood of 110°C (230°F), shall be dried in an oven
for 24 hours at 50°C (122°F), cooled in a desiccator, and
Plasticity immediately weighed to the nearest 0.0001g. Generally,
Plasticity is the ability of material to preserve the shape and the rate of water absorption is measured when a material is
size to which it is formed. Plasticity occurs when the exposed to 50% relative humidity air (50% RH). Saturation
stress goes beyond yield strength on the stress-strain is given by percentage of part dry weight. The presence of
curve for plastic. Increases in temperature affect plasticity water (water absorption) in the plastic part influences its
of plastic materials. physical, mechanical and electrical properties, as well as
dimensional stability. Moisture in
the resins before molding, unless removed by drying
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) prior to processing, can cause serious degradation of
The specific gravity (relative density) is the ratio of the mass physical properties.
in air of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of the
material at 23°C (73°F) to the mass in air of equal density of
an equal volume of gas-free water at same temperature.
Toughness
Toughness refers to the ability of plastic to absorb
mechanical energy without fracturing. This process is
done with both elastic and plastic deformation. Material
toughness is often measured as the area under the stress-
strain curve. As a rule, unfilled resins have excellent
toughness. Sometimes the toughness is measured by the
amount of energy consumed to generate unit area of a
fracture surface.
AI-3
Part A2
Appendix II: ISO and ASTM
Test Methods
ISO and ASTM Test Methods
Appendix II: ISO and ASTM Test Methods
2 Mechanical Properties
* For each applicable ISO method, corresponding ASTM methods are provided for reference. These methods may not
be technically equivalent.
A2-2
ISO and ASTM Test Methods
Property Number SI Units SI Units U.S. Units
in ISO ISO ASTM for for for
10350:1993 Property Standard Standard ISO Test ASTM Test ASTM Test
3 Thermal Properties
3.1 Melting 11357-3 D3418 C C F
temperature
3.3 Temperature of 75-1& 2 D 648 C C F
deflection at 1.8 MPa
3.4 Temperature of 75-1& 2 D 648 C C F
deflection at 0.45 MPa
3.7 CLTE*, flow 11359-2 E228 or 831 E-4 1/K 1/C 1/F
direction, 23-55°C
3.8 CLTE*, transverse 11359-2 E228 or 831 E-4 1/K 1/C 1/F
direction, 23-55°C
3.9 Flammability at 1.6mm 1210 (UL94) class (as HB, V-2, V-1, V-0)
Thickness (UL94) mm mm mm
3.11 Flammability•5V 10351 (UL94) class class class
Thickness (UL94) mm mm mm
3.13 Limiting Oxygen 4589 D 2863 % % %
Index
4 Electrical Properties
4.1 Relative permittivity, IEC 250 D 150
100Hz
4.2 Relative permittivity, IEC 250 D 150
1MHz
4.3 Dissipation factor, IEC 250 D 150 E-4
100 Hz
4.4 Dissipation factor, IEC 250 D 150 E-4
1MHz
4.5 Volume resistivity IEC 93 D 257 ohm cm ohm cm ohm cm
4.6 Surface resistivity IEC 93 D 257 ohm ohm ohm
4.7 Electric strength IEC 243-1 D 149 kV/mm kV/mm V/mil
4.9 Comparative IEC 112 -
tracking index
5 Other Properties
5.1 Water absorption 2 D570 % % %
24 hr immersion/23°C
5.2 Water absorption 62 D570 % % %
saturation at 23°C
• Water absorption 62 - % % %
at 23°C/50% RH
5.3 Density 1183 D792 g/cm3 g/cm3 lb/ft3
• Specific gravity 1183 D792
Structural Control
Beer & Johnson, Mechanical Material.
Assembly
“• Designing Parts for Ultrasonic Welding,” ©Branson Utrasonics Corporation, Danbury, CT.
Holtz, Richard, “Vibration Welding: Fast, Quiet, Efficient,” Assembly Engineering, Hitchcock Publishing.
1987 SPE ANTEC, Chul S. Lee, Alan Dubin and Elmer D. Jones, ‘‘Short Cantilever Beam Deflection Analysis
Applied to Thermoplastic Snap-Fit Design,’’ Held in Los Angeles, California, USA.
3M, “Structural Adhesive Guide for Industrial Product Design and Assembly.”
Plastic Materials
Arpaci, Vedal S., “Convection Heat Transfer,” Addison-Wesley.
Forward Technology Industries, “Joint Designs.”
Emabond Systems, “•Emaweld, Electromagnetic Welding System for Assembling Thermoplastic Parts.”
“• Design Tips for Gas-Assisted Injection Molding,” diagram of rib designs by Indra Baxi of Sajar Plastics,
Plastics Design Forum.
BI-2
English/Metric Conversion Chart
To Convert To Multiply
English System Metric System English Value by. . .
DISTANCE
inches millimeters 25.38
feet meters 0.30478
MASS
ounce (avdp) gram 28.3495
pound gram 453.5925
pound kilogram 0.4536
U.S. ton metric ton 0.9072
VOLUME
inch3 centimeter3 16.3871
inch3 liter 0.016387
fluid ounce centimeter3 29.5735
quart (liquid) decimeter3 (liter) 0.9464
gallon (U.S.) decimeter3 (liter) 3.7854
TEMPERATURE
degree F degree C [(F)-32] / 1.8 = (C)
PRESSURE
psi bar 0.0689
psi kPa 6.8948
ksi MN/m2 6.8948
psi MPa 0.00689
VISCOSITY
poise Pa s 0.1
BENDING MOMENT
OR TORQUE
ft lb Nm 1.356
DENSITY
lb/in3 g/cm3 27.68
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.0185
NOTCHED IZOD
ft–lb/in J/m 53.4
IMPORTANT: WHILE THE DESCRIPTIONS,
DESIGNS, DATA AND INFORMATION
CONTAINED HEREIN ARE PRESENTED IN GOOD
FAITH AND BELIEVED TO BE ACCURATE, IT IS
PROVIDED FOR YOUR GUIDANCE ONLY.
BECAUSE MANY FACTORS MAY AFFECT
PROCESSING OR APPLICATION/USE, WE
RECOMMEND THAT YOU MAKE TESTS TO
DETERMINE THE SUITABILITY OF A PRODUCT
FOR YOUR PARTICULAR PURPOSE PRIOR TO
USE. NO WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EITHER
EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE
MADE REGARDING PRODUCTS DESCRIBED OR
DESIGNS, DATA OR INFORMATION SET FORTH,
OR THAT THE PRODUCTS, DESIGNS, DATA OR
INFORMATION MAY BE USED WITHOUT
INFRINGING THE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
RIGHTS OF OTHERS. IN NO CASE SHALL THE
DESCRIPTIONS, INFORMATION, DATA OR
DESIGNS PROVIDED BE CONSIDERED A PART
OF OUR TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF SALE.
FURTHER, YOU EXPRESSLY UNDERSTAND AND
AGREE THAT THE DESCRIPTIONS, DESIGNS,
DATA, AND INFORMATION FURNISHED BY
BASF HEREUNDER ARE GIVEN GRATIS AND
BASF ASSUMES NO OBLIGATION OR LIABILITY
FOR THE DESCRIPTION, DESIGNS, DATA AND
INFORMATION GIVEN OR RESULTS OBTAINED,
ALL SUCH BEING GIVEN AND ACCEPTED AT
YOUR RISK.
Ultramid®, Nypel®, Petra®, and UltraTough® are registered trademarks of BASF Corporation BASF Corporation
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