Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153

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Marine Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

Luminescence dating of beach ridges for characterizing multi-decadal to centennial

deltaic shoreline changes during Late Holocene, Mekong River delta
Toru Tamura a, b,⁎, Yoshiki Saito a, Mark D. Bateman b, V. Lap Nguyen c, T.K. Oanh Ta c, Dan Matsumoto a
a
Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Central 7, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305‐8567, Japan
b
Sheffield Centre for International Drylands Research, University of Sheffield, Winter Street, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
c
HCMC Institute of Resources Geography, VAST, 1 Mac Dinh Chi St., 1 Dist., Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Empirical understanding of decadal- to centennial-scale deltaic shoreline changes in the past is essential for
Received 12 March 2012 understanding the fate of coasts in the coming decades and centuries. We tested the effectiveness of quartz
Received in revised form 14 August 2012 optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of beach ridges to constrain shoreline changes of the Mekong
Accepted 14 August 2012
River delta over the last 3500 years. Forty-seven OSL ages have been analyzed from the Tra Vinh delta plain, cen-
Available online 25 August 2012
tral Mekong River delta. The Tra Vinh beach ridges are recurved and branching, showing the hierarchy of shore-
Communicated by J.T. Wells line changes, which include discontinuous shifts c. 5 km seawards caused by the emergence and elongation of a
delta-front bar/island, and subsequent downdrift accretion of spits. The spit accretion is interrupted by changes
Keywords: of shoreline orientation. Each of the discontinuous shifts resulted in a cluster of beach ridges, which is referred to
delta as ridgeset. The beach ridge sediments were found to have excellent luminescence properties resulting in low
Mekong River age uncertainties of c. 5%. The OSL chronology agrees well with shoreline changes over recent decades and
monsoon with radiocarbon ages of tidal flat sediment underlying the beach ridges. The chronology clearly illustrates the
OSL dating coastal progradation from 3500 years (relative to AD 2010) onwards. Two main types of beach ridge are present:
sediment discharge
recurved and trunk ridges. OSL ages of recurved ridges are consistently younger both downdrift and seawards,
Vietnam
documenting decadal- to centennial-scale shoreline migration especially over the last 1500 years. Trunk ridges
in contrast have less systematic ages because a trunk ridge is formed where the sediment is likely to have
been reworked by waves. Ages of updrift trunk ridges characteristically show relatively young ages in each
ridgeset, representing the extensive erosion and resedimentation of the updrift coast. Major changes in shoreline
orientation occurred around 400–500 years, suggesting strengthening of the northeasterly winter monsoon at
the beginning of the Little Ice Age. The rate of progradation of the Tra Vinh delta plain is described in two
ways: frequency of the discontinuous shift, and growth rate of the delta plain area. Both suggest the coast has
expanded regularly over the last 1000 years. A decrease in sand supply to the coast in the last few decades
due to river dam construction and fluvial sand dredging is inferred, possibly affecting the behavior of the modern
and future shorelines, which can be compared with the less human-influenced, centennial- to decadal-scale past
shoreline changes reconstructed in this study.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Better understanding and prediction of coastal changes in the coming

Knowledge of past coastal changes is essential to a better under-
standing and to prediction of the present dynamics of coasts within
the context of long-term fluctuations. Changes to the depositional
coasts occur in relation to many factors, including sea level, sediment
supply, climate, and human activity. Past changes related to fluctua-
tions in these factors, if known precisely and accurately, are expected
to suggest a range of phenomena that potentially occur in the future
coasts.
⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +81 29 861 3747.
E-mail address: toru.tamura@aist.go.jp (T. Tamura).
decades and centuries necessitate a long-term perspective on continuous
shoreline histories with a comparable time resolution. Unlike European
coasts, where observations have been recorded for the last several hun-
dred years (e.g., Ballarini et al., 2003), knowledge of historical changes is
generally limited along much of the world's coast. Southeast Asian river
deltas are typical regions with limited historical observations, but have
clearly been subject to significant coastal changes as a result of the
high sediment discharge. Although changes to the deltaic shoreline
have critical impacts for the now densely populated deltaic lowlands,
they are affected by complex interplays of waves, tides, and river dis-
charge (Galloway, 1975), along with additional factors, including climate
variations and basement configuration. These interplays are not easily
represented by numerical prediction. The millennial-scale shoreline
changes of large Asian deltas during the Holocene have been relatively

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 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
well documented on the basis of their stratigraphy, coupled with radio-
carbon dating (e.g., Allison et al., 2003; Storms et al., 2005; Ta et al.,
2005; Tanabe et al., 2006; Tamura et al., 2009). In contrast, centennial-
to decadal-scale shoreline changes of these deltas are generally limited
both in the historical or geological past, which prevents comprehensive
assessment of the present coasts characterized by increasing human
activities.
Beach ridges are the most evident marker of past sandy and/or
gravelly shorelines during the Holocene (e.g., Woods and Leahy,
1986; Mason, 1993; Tamura, 2012). The most significant problem in
using beach ridges as a past shoreline indicator was the scarcity of
datable material (e.g., Isla and Bujalesky, 2000), except on
carbonate-rich coasts. However, reliable direct dating of beach ridges
has been enabled since optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dat-
ing has been greatly improved by a single aliquot regenerative-dose
(SAR) protocol (Murray and Wintle, 2000). Over the last few decades,
many case studies have been practiced using quartz SAR OSL dating
for beach-ridge chronology (e.g., Murray-Wallace et al., 2002;
Ballarini et al., 2003; Argyilan et al., 2005; Nielsen et al., 2006;
Roberts and Plater, 2007; Brooke et al., 2008a, 2008b; López and
Rink, 2008; Nott et al., 2009; Forsyth et al., 2010; Rink and López,
2010; Reimann et al., 2011; Tamura, 2012). While the majority of
these attempts have been applied to beach ridges on coastal barriers
and strand plains, detailed dating of deltaic beach ridge complexes has
never been undertaken despite the potential to establish high-
resolution characterisation of rapidly prograding deltaic shorelines.
In this paper, we attempt high-resolution quartz OSL dating of
beach ridges in the Mekong River delta. The Mekong River delta, an
excellent example of a mixed tide- and wave-dominated delta
(Galloway, 1975), has prograded more than 200 km seawards since
c. 8000 years (Tamura et al., 2007, 2009). Tamura et al. (2012),
based on 31 OSL ages of beach ridges on several delta plains of the
Mekong delta coupled with sediment drill cores and their radio-
carbon dates (Ta et al., 2005), clarified the multi-centennial to
millennial-scale, three dimensional evolution of the delta. In the
Tra Vinh delta plain, central Mekong delta, the beach shoreline was
initiated c. 3500 years (Tamura et al., 2012) and has prograded,
resulting in a huge delta plain with beach ridges extending up to
50 km inland from the present shoreline. Here we present 32 new
OSL age determination from the Tra Vinh delta plain which when
combined with the 15 ages reported by Tamura et al. (2012) are
used to demonstrate the effectiveness of OSL dating for constraining
multi-decadal to centennial-scale shoreline changes during the Late
Holocene. We further discuss causes of reconstructed changes, and
examine implications for the modern shoreline.
2. Study area
2.1. The Mekong River and delta
The Mekong River rises in Tibet and flows 4600 km from its source
(National Astronomical Observatory, 1999; Hori, 2000) through six
countries before draining into the South China Sea (Fig. 1A). Its an-
nual water discharge and sediment discharge are 470 km 3 and
1.6 × 10 8 t, respectively tenth and ninth largest among the world's
rivers (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992). The huge sediment supply to
the coast has resulted in an extensive delta plain with an area of
5.0 × 10 4 km 2 (Hori, 2000). The delta apex lies just north of Phnom
Penh, Cambodia, more than 200 km inland from the present river
mouth (Tamura et al., 2007, 2009), from which the delta fans out to
the southeast (Fig. 1A). South of Phnom Penh, the Mekong River
bifurcates, forming two main channels called the Bassac and Mekong
rivers, respectively. The Mekong River then further branches into sev-
eral distributaries. The southernmost distributary and the Bassac
River bound the Tra Vinh delta plain.
141
The South China Sea coast of the Mekong River delta is mesotidal,
and is exposed to moderate- to low-energy waves. Along this coast,
the tide is semi-diurnal with an upper mesotidal range (Gagliano
and McIntire, 1968); in Vung Tau (Fig. 1A), the mean tidal range is
2.6 m, and the spring and neap tidal ranges are 3.3 and 1.9 m, res-
pectively (Tamura et al., 2010). Waves and tides along the coast of
the Mekong River delta have resulted in the formation of bar-trough
(ridge and runnel) beaches. A subtidal delta-front platform, which
occurs from the low tide level to −4 m (relative to mean sea level),
extends from just below the beach to 5–10 km offshore, beyond
which occurs the northeast-striking delta slope (Fig. 1B). The delta
plain of Tra Vinh occupies the central South China Sea coast of the
delta. The 40-km-long shoreline of Tra Vinh extends from northeast
to southwest, and is slightly convex to the southeast. It is studded
with arcuate beach ridges and inter-ridge swales from the shoreline
to 50 km inland. Beach ridges are generally less than 5 m high
relative to the mean sea level (Fig. 2C), and are composed of well-
sorted fine sand, whereas inter-ridge swales are characterized by a
muddy substrate.
Clear differences exist in the river discharge and coastal wave
conditions between the wet summer and dry winter monsoons
(Gagliano and McIntire, 1968; Mekong River Commission, 2008;
Tamura et al., 2010). The maximum discharge rate in the wet season
is about ten times higher than the average rate in the dry season.
Waves associated with the summer monsoon are weaker and southerly
to south-westerly, whereas the winter monsoon enhances relatively
strong waves from the north‐northeast. Spring and autumn are transi-
tional periods, and their wave directions are bimodal. The dominance
of the winter monsoon leads to a south-westward net sediment drift
(Tamura et al., 2010). An annual cycle of sediment characteristics occurs
along the updrift portion of the Tra Vinh coast as mud and very fine sand
are deposited on the beach during the wet season and then reworked
and transported south-westwards during the following dry season
(Tamura et al., 2010). Waves on the Tra Vinh coast are not energetic.
Tamura et al. (2010) reported 0.5–1.0 m high breakers observed during
the dry season of 2005–2008. High offshore waves exceeding 4 m occur
only in the dry season, but such high waves are likely attenuated over
the wide and shallow delta-front platform (Tamura et al., 2010).
Sediment drill cores and seismic surveys of the delta plain and
its coastal sea, coupled with radiocarbon dating, have revealed the
Holocene sedimentary evolution of the Mekong River delta
(Nguyen et al., 2000; Ta et al., 2002, 2005; Tanabe et al., 2003;
Tamura et al., 2007, 2009; Proske et al., 2010, 2011; Tjallingii et
al., 2010; Xue et al., 2010). Early Holocene transgressive deposits
exist in the incised valley that extends from the modern shelf to
southern Cambodia (Ta et al., 2005; Tamura et al., 2009; Tjallingii
et al., 2010). The maximum flooding of the sea occurred
c. 8000 years after a period of rapid sea-level rise, and was recorded
in the brackish-water tidal flat sediment occurring between fresh-
water facies (Tamura et al., 2009). The Mekong delta then has
prograded seawards to result in the extensive delta plain during
the relative sea-level highstand (Fig. 3). Ta et al. (2002, 2005) com-
piled many radiocarbon-dated sediment cores, clarifying the
sediment architecture and temporal evolution of the regressive
delta succession. Beach ridges generally occur in the lower delta
plain, rather than the upper delta plain, although several ridges
occur at Cai Lay (Fig. 1B), which is characterised by a shallower
pre-Holocene basement (Nguyen et al., 2000; Proske et al., 2010,
2011). The beach ridge distribution suggests that the sandy beaches
characterize only the later progradation of the central Mekong River
delta. In the Tra Vinh delta plain, the beach shoreline initiated
c. 3500 years by aggradation on basement shoals (Tamura et al.,
2012). The delta plain propagated laterally later, evolving from river
mouth bars. While the Tra Vinh delta plain has prograded consistently
over the last 3500 years, the majority of other delta plains in Ben Tre
and Tien Giang have prograded since 1500 years (Fig. 1B).
142 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153

Fig. 1. A) Map of the Mekong River delta showing locations of sediment drill cores reported by previous studies. Cores KS, PK, and PSG are from Tamura et al. (2009), core GGM from
Proske et al. (2010), cores DT1 and BT2 from Ta et al. (2002, 2005), and cores 69‐2, 70‐2, 72‐2, and 72‐3 from Tjallingii et al. (2010). B) Geomorphology of the Mekong River delta
and bathymetry of the coastal sea relative to mean sea level (Nguyen et al., 2000; Ta et al., 2005) showing beach-ridge OSL ages (Tamura et al., 2012). The delta-front platform
extends from the shoreline to 4-m-deep isobath, offshore of which occurs the delta-front slope. The delta-front slope grades offshore into the prodelta and shelf at depths of
18–20 m. Sediment cores TA and GGN are from Proske et al. (2011), and other cores are from Ta et al. (2002, 2005). OSL and radiocarbon ages are expressed relative to AD 2010.

2.2. Recent changes to the Tra Vinh coast
Recent changes to the Tra Vinh coast were reported by Tamura et
al. (2010), who analyzed historical maps and satellite images and
conducted a series of field surveys to clarify changes of the beach
profile (Fig. 2). The Tra Vinh shoreline shows asymmetric changes
between its north-eastern and south-western parts. The north-
eastern Tra Vinh coast is divided into two parts by a creek (Fig. 2A).
South of the creek, the shoreline prograded seawards up to 600 m
between AD 1936 and 2001 (i.e., 74 and 9 years before AD 2010,
respectively) to form a strand plain with beach ridges sub-parallel
to the present shoreline and trending from the north to south
(Fig. 2C). This strand plain narrows southwards. In contrast, the
coast north of the creek retreated by up to 400 m from AD 1936 to
2001. After AD 2001, coastal erosion apparently propagated south-
wards across the creek, causing the shoreline over 2 km south of
the creek to retreat. In the southwest, shoreline changes are caused
mainly by the south-westward accretion of a recurved, 2–3-km-long
spit (Fig. 2B). The spit accreted 15 km downdrift between AD 1936
and 2001, which increased the area of the coastal plain by 20 km 2.
After AD 1981 (29 years), the accretion rate decreased to 50–70%
of that before AD 1981. The spit accretion resulted in a series of
recurved beach ridges. Meanwhile, the shoreline was partly eroded
between AD 1981 and 1989 (21 years), but by AD 2001, the eroded
portion had recovered.
An elongate bar is recognized on the delta-front platform about
5 km offshore from the north-eastern Tra Vinh coast in a QuickBird
satellite image taken on 14 April 2006, when the tide level was
0.6 m below mean tide level (Fig. 2A). The exposed bar was 1 km
wide, and extended 3 km roughly parallel to the shoreline. In anoth-
er, unpublished QuickBird image taken two months previously at
high tide, the bar was not exposed but its position was marked by
breaking waves. Thus, the bar emerged only at low tide in AD 2006
(4 years). Surf was also seen slightly seaward of the bar in a Landsat
image taken in AD 1989, suggesting that the bar has been present at
least since AD 1989.
3. Methods
The chronology of beach ridges developed on the Tra Vinh delta
plain was determined in order to decipher past shoreline changes that
they record. Beach ridges are formed within or adjacent to the beach,
and are subsequently isolated from active nearshore process due to
further beach progradation, at which point they are preserved as relict
elongate mounds. Geometry and depositional age of beach ridges thus
generally indicate past shoreline position and shape (e.g., Woods and
Leahy, 1986; Mason, 1993; Otvos, 2000; Tamura, 2012). We sketched
the axis of each beach ridge on a Landsat image taken in 1989 (Fig. 4),
as distinguished by the denser vegetation than in the surrounding
marsh of the inter-ridge swale. Landform classifications adopted by
 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
A Age (yr before AD 2010)
B preparation for the OSL dating was entirely performed under controlled
C 2002) and a 90Sr/90Y beta source for laboratory irradiation. Measurement
+5
+4
+3
Elevation (m)
+2 1-7
1-6 HTL
+1
0 MTL
-1
-2 LTL
-3
600 400 200 0 100
Distance from the shore (m)
Fig. 2. A) QuickBird image taken on 14 April 2006 when the tide level was 0.6 m below
mean tide level showing shoreline changes in the updrift Tra Vinh coast since AD 1936
(74 years before AD 2010), compiled using historical maps and satellite images. An
elongate offshore bar is recognized near the upper right corner. B) Landsat image of AD
1989 showing shoreline changes in the downdrift Tra Vinh coast. Locations of images
are shown in Fig. 1B. C) Cross section across the beach ridge plain in the updrift Tra
Vinh coast, measured in November, 2006. Location of the section is shown in Fig. 2A.
Gagliano and McIntire (1968) and by Nguyen et al. (2000) were also
considered in the identification of beach ridges.
Quartz optically-stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating was
performed on quartz sand sampled from beach ridges. Forty-seven
samples were collected from boreholes deeper than 60 cm that
were drilled with a sand auger at 46 sites (Table 1) in April and
November 2010. Light-tight stainless steel tubes 30 cm long and
6.5 cm in diameter were hammered into the bottom of boreholes
to sample sand unexposed to light for luminescence dating above
or just around the ground-water table. We avoided areas of human
disturbance and aeolian dunes (often found on beach ridge crests)
so that the OSL ages reflect the timing of sediment deposition at
the shoreline. All samples were measured at the Sheffield Centre for
143
1000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
+5
Elevation (m)
-10
-20
-30
Fig. 3. Relative sea-level curve of the Mekong River delta during the Holocene (Ta et al.,
2002; Hanebuth et al., 2011).
International Drylands Research luminescence laboratory. Sample
red light that does not affect the quartz OSL signal. Approximately 2 cm
of sediment was discarded from tube ends as it may have been exposed
to sunlight during sampling. This sediment was used for establishing
moisture content and sample dose rates. Quartz grains 125–180 μm in
diameter were cleaned and extracted from the bulk of sample following
the method of Bateman and Catt (1996). A monolayer of quartz was
mounted on a disc 9.8 mm in diameter to form an aliquot. Aliquots
were measured using TL-DA-20 automated Risø TL/OSL reader equipped
with blue light emitting diodes for stimulation (e.g., Bøtter-Jensen et al.,
of OSL was filtered with a Hoya U-340 filter.
The single aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol was used to de-
termine the palaeodose (De) using the OSL response to a 5.6 Gy test
dose to monitor and correct for sensitivity changes (Murray and
Wintle, 2000). OSL measurements were made at 125 °C with a stimula-
tion time of 80 s. Dose recovery preheat plateau tests (using a four re-
generation point SAR protocol and a range of preheat temperatures of
between 160 °C and 260 °C in 20 °C increments) were carried out for
sample Shfd10087 to experimentally determine the most appropriate
preheat to apply within the SAR protocol, and 260 °C preheat was cho-
sen (see Supplementary information for further details). A preheat time
of 10 s was used in all cases. A 160 °C cutheat for the OSL response to
the test dose was used for all samples. For the data used in the final
age calculation, five regeneration points were measured including
0 Gy and a replicate of the first regeneration point which was used to
check whether the sensitivity correction procedure, through calculation
of a recycling ratio, was performing adequately (Supplementary infor-
mation). Rangefinder tests and IR tests (Stokes, 1992) were performed
for each sample to determine regeneration points and to see if there is a
significant feldspar contamination. Resultant OSL shine down curves
showed that the sand had a high OSL sensitivity so that even relatively
young sample had sufficiently bright natural OSL signals (Supplementa-
ry information). Intervals of 0–1.6 s and 64–80 s after the start of stim-
ulation were used for initial OSL signal integration and background
subtraction, respectively.
A minimum of 20 replicates were measured for all samples. Data
from aliquots were rejected if recycling values fell beyond 1.0 ± 0.1.
Statistical outliers were also removed using a criterion that removes
aliquots with De that falls outside the 25th and 75th percentiles
from the mean De value (Boulter et al., 2010). In this way, it was
hoped to exclude any poorly behaved aliquots or those with a signif-
icant poorly/less-well bleached component. If retained, these aliquots
144 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
A sands, respectively. Samples collected in October were water-saturated
10 km
B (Figs. 4, 5). Ridgesets are defined as consisting of a trunk, which orig-
10 km
Fig. 4. A) Landsat image of the Tra Vinh delta plain, and B) line drawing of beach ridges
based on the image. The delta-front bar is submerged during the high tide, when the
Landsat image was taken, and its occurrence is shaded to be distinguished from the
supratidal land and island.
would lead to an age under- or over-estimation. All samples showed a
unimodal De distribution (see Supplementary information for further
details). Over dispersion (OD) values were generally low and thus are
considered to have been well bleached prior to burial. As such, aver-
age De values for each sample were derived using the Central Age
Model (Galbraith et al., 1999).
Both naturally-occurring radioisotope contribution and cosmic
radiation were considered for determining environmental dose rate.
Concentrations of potassium, uranium, thorium, and rubidium were
quantified by inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS),
and were converted into dose rate based on data from Adamiec and
Aitken (1998) and Marsh et al. (2002). Past moisture content should
have drastically changed seasonally, as suggested by measurement of
samples taken in April and October, which are ends of dry and wet sea-
sons, respectively. According to measured values for samples, moisture
contents were assumed to be 7% and 20% for unsaturated and saturated
but should be unsaturated during dry seasons as they were collected
just around the water table in the rainy season. Their average moisture
was thus assumed to be the mean of 7% and its measured value. Shallow
unsaturated samples taken in April, the end of dry season, have mois-
tures lower than 20%. It is assumed that these samples were saturated
during wet seasons, and their annual moisture was calculated from the
mean of 20% and its measured value. For deep samples collected close
to the water table in April, the measured values were used. Past changes
of moisture content are not predictable, so an absolute error of 5% was
applied to the assumed annual value to account for them. Cosmic dose
rate was estimated based on Prescott and Hutton (1994).
To obtain an age for a sample, the final De value was divided by the
calculated environmental dose rate for each sample. All results are
shown in Table 2. All ages are expressed relative to AD 2010, when
the sampling was carried out.
4. Results
4.1. Beach ridge architecture
The beach ridges exhibit the architectural hierarchy, which is
characterized by a ridgeset, sub-ridgeset, and individual beach ridge
inates at or near the bank of the distributary that bounds the north-
eastern end of the Tra Vinh delta plain, and have branches that
originate from the trunk. The branches form a series of recurved beach
ridges, generally 1–2 km long, and have an arcuate shape convex to-
wards the south. Recurved ridges accrete downdrift (south-westwards).
Some trunks further bifurcate to define sub-ridgesets. We identified
eleven ridgesets (numbered 1–11 with increasing distance from the
shoreline; Fig. 5). Each ridgeset is associated with up to five
sub-ridgesets, each of which was assigned a character a–e from the sea
to land in addition to the ridgeset number (e.g., the sub-ridgeset b in
Ridgeset 5 is Sub-ridgeset 5b). The width of beach ridge is generally
1–2 km, while the muddy inter-ridge swales are c. 5 km wide on
average.
A typical beach ridge in general gradually recurves away from the
trunk. However, in some places, the trunk and branch ridges contact
at a higher angle (e.g., the updrift part of Sub-ridgeset 5c; Fig. 5).
Updrift trunk ridges exhibit seaward accretion of subparallel ridges
(e.g., Ridgeset 8 and Sub-ridgeset 1b). In places, there are breaks of
trunk ridge (e.g., Sub-ridgeset 3a). Several ridges occur subparallel
to the distributary near the updrift end (e.g., Ridgeset 2).
Ridgesets show variations in internal and external shapes. Recurved
ridges are more pronounced in ridgesets 1–6, and in Ridgeset 9 that has
well-defined recurved ridges in its updrift part. Ridgesets 3, 4, and 7 are
partially located in the updrift part, and their shapes are more promi-
nent seawards. Ridgeset 2 appears to have enclosed the downdrift lee
of ridgesets 3 and 4. The area and width defined by the ridgeset and
its landward swale are also variable as summarized in Table 3.
4.2. OSL ages
Forty-seven OSL ages were determined for beach ridges at 46 sites
in the Tra Vinh delta plain (Tables 1, 2). Each sample site was
assigned a number within an individual ridgeset as reflecting the in-
ferred order of deposition (Fig. 5). The depositional order was deter-
mined assuming that a seaward sub-ridgeset is younger and that
within a sub-ridgeset the beach ridge grows from the updrift to
downdrift parts. Three types of beach ridges were recognized. Twenty
and twenty-six OSL ages were obtained for recurved and trunk ridges,
respectively. An OSL age was determined for the ridge sub-parallel to
the distributary at the updrift end of Ridgeset 2 (site 2–5).
OSL ages of ridgesets are consistently older with increasing distance
from the shoreline, clearly illustrating the age structure of a prograded
 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153 145

Table 1
OSL samples of the beach ridges in the Tra Vinh delta plain: site number and location, distance to the present shore, depth, contents of radionuclides, and annual average moisture.

Site no. Lab no. Latitude Longitude Distance to Depth K U Th Rb Moisture

(degree N) (degree E) shore (km) (m) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%)

Ridgeset 1
1-1 Shfd 10196⁎ 9.5464 106.4367 1.3 0.8 1.4 1.23 6 64.9 15
1-2 Shfd 10198 9.5858 106.5139 1.9 1.0 1.3 1.38 6.2 59 14
1-3 Shfd 10197⁎ 9.6188 106.5323 2.5 1.0 1.2 5.88 28.1 59.1 13
1-4 Shfd 10195 9.6288 106.5607 0.4 0.7 1 2.22 11.1 49.2 14
1-5 Shfd 10194 9.6443 106.5666 0.5 0.8 1.1 5.21 23.2 58.2 14
1-6 Shfd 10193 9.6746 106.5791 0.0 0.8 1.1 1.52 6.3 50.2 13
1-7 Shfd 10192⁎ 9.6746 106.5757 0.4 1.4 1 1.67 6.2 48.5 13
Ridgeset 2
2-1 Shfd 10090⁎ 9.5997 106.3864 9.0 1.3 1.1 1.29 6 57.8 18
2-2 Shfd 10141 9.6098 106.4425 8.0 1.2 1.4 1.77 9.3 74.2 20
2-3 Shfd 10140 9.6386 106.5024 6.8 1.9 1.1 1.26 6 56.9 19
2-4 Shfd 10089 9.6580 106.5056 7.6 1.9 1.1 2.14 10.9 58.5 21
2-5 Shfd 10136 9.8099 106.5052 10.6 1.3 1.1 1.27 5.7 55.4 19
Ridgeset 3
3-1 Shfd 10139⁎ 9.6630 106.4194 14.8 1.5 1.5 1.24 6 72.8 22
3-2 Shfd 10161 9.6793 106.4868 10.8 1.7 1.1 1.73 8.5 55.6 17
3-3 Shfd 10138 9.6907 106.4948 10.1 1.7 1.2 1.29 6.3 58.3 13
3-4 Shfd 10087 9.7317 106.5217 8.4 1.1 1.2 1.42 6.4 58.1 13
3-4 Shfd 10088 9.7317 106.5217 8.4 1.9 1.1 1.52 7.2 53.9 20
3-5 Shfd 10142 9.6744 106.4111 16.4 1.2 1.6 1.48 6.6 80.8 14
3-6 Shfd 10091 9.7076 106.4909 11.3 1.8 1.2 1.69 7.8 59.2 15
3-7 Shfd 10144 9.7144 106.4863 12.3 0.9 1.2 1.95 10.4 57.4 13
3-8 Shfd 10137 9.7835 106.5048 10.0 1.9 1.1 1.77 7.7 56.6 12
Ridgeset 4
4-1 Shfd 10143 9.6311 106.3064 14.7 0.9 1.3 1.42 6.5 61.4 20
4-2 Shfd 10145⁎ 9.7505 106.4870 13.5 0.8 1.2 2.82 12 60.2 12
Ridgeset 5
5-1 Shfd 10148⁎ 9.6694 106.3509 19.1 0.9 1.3 1.67 7.8 74.8 14
5-2 Shfd 10146 9.7186 106.4277 18.3 1.2 1.3 1.77 7.9 61.8 12
5-3 Shfd 10094⁎ 9.6767 106.2912 21.8 0.8 1.5 1.48 8.2 72 14
5-4 Shfd 10093 9.7536 106.4174 21.4 1.7 1.2 1.56 6.9 56.3 18
5-5 Shfd 10147 9.7842 106.4506 18.7 0.9 1.4 1.17 5.6 68.5 11
5-6 Shfd 10092⁎ 9.7825 106.4397 20.3 1.7 1.1 1.56 7.1 53.4 17
Ridgeset 6
6-1 Shfd 10153 9.7001 106.2164 27.4 1.9 1.4 1.44 6.6 77.6 22
6-2 Shfd 10151 9.7250 106.3153 27.4 1.6 1.5 1.3 6.4 75.9 22
6-3 Shfd 10149 9.7709 106.3755 26.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 6.4 67.7 13
6-4 Shfd 10150 9.8042 106.4078 24.5 1.3 1.2 1.71 6.4 66.4 22
6-5 Shfd 10152⁎ 9.8462 106.4096 27.3 1.6 1.5 1.22 5.9 75.5 16
Ridgeset 7
7-1 Shfd 10162 9.9223 106.3622 31.0 1.1 1.2 2.59 11.5 63.1 19
Ridgeset 8
8-1 Shfd 10097 9.7272 106.1913 31.4 1.4 1.4 1.76 8.8 75 17
8-2 Shfd 10096 9.7685 106.3228 31.1 1.6 1.4 1.5 6.8 67.9 14
8-3 Shfd 10163 9.8751 106.3483 33.7 1.9 1.3 1.22 5.6 66.1 21
8-4 Shfd 10095⁎ 9.8740 106.3407 34.7 1.4 1.5 2.02 9.7 74.9 18
Ridgeset 9
9-1 Shfd 10155 9.7950 106.1693 42.4 1.3 1.4 1.74 8.6 70.6 21
9-2 Shfd 10154 9.9080 106.3237 37.7 1.5 1.5 1.31 5.9 81.3 14
9-3 Shfd 10211 9.8747 106.2200 47.1 1.2 1.2 2.48 11.9 60.8 13
9-4 Shfd 10160⁎ 9.9179 106.3218 38.0 1.1 1.5 2.02 9.2 85.9 20
Ridgeset 10
10-1 Shfd 10199⁎ 9.9045 106.2099 50.1 0.8 1.3 2.33 9.6 62.1 12
Ridgeset 11
11-1 Shfd 10157⁎ 9.9034 106.0733 59.2 1.5 1.3 1.44 7.2 61.6 13
11-2 Shfd 10156 9.9619 106.1891 55.3 0.8 1.4 2.31 10.1 81.2 16
11-3 Shfd 10099⁎ 10.0753 106.1899 57.6 1.4 1.8 1.34 6.2 89.9 25
⁎
OSL age reported by Tamura et al. (2012).

shoreline (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 6). These ages are comparable with recent
shoreline changes (Fig. 2; Tamura et al., 2010) and with reported radio-
carbon ages of sediment cores (Fig. 7; Ta et al., 2002; Tanabe et al.,
2003). Shoreline positions since AD 1936 (74 years before AD 2010)
provides an independent age evidence for Ridgeset 1. Sites 1–1 and
1–7 are located between shorelines in AD 1936 and 1981 (29 years),
and their OSL ages are accordingly within a range of 29–74 years. Site
1–6 is suggested to be younger than AD 1989 (21 years), but it has an
age of 33 ± 4 years, and thus is slightly overestimated. This may be
due to the uncertainty in the past shoreline position as the Landsat
image used for showing AD 1989 shoreline has a spatial resolution of
c. 30 m. Sites 1–2, 1–4, and 1–5 are located landward of the AD 1936
shoreline, and their ages are concordantly older than 74 years. Radio-
carbon ages of molluscan shells in subtidal to intertidal flat facies of
sediment drill cores TC1 and TV1, from ridgesets 9 and 3, are 2957–
2810 cal years BP and 760–678 cal years BP (equivalent to 3017–
2870 years and 820–738 years relative to 2010 AD), respectively
(Figs. 5, 7). Tidal flat facies lie below beach ridges, and thus should be
older than the beach ridge occurring above or seaward of it. The upper-
most part of the tidal flat facies in core TV1 is older than OSL ages of
Ridgeset 3 (Table 2), and nearly identical to or slightly older than
Ridgeset 4. OSL ages of Ridgeset 9 are also younger than the age of
146 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153

Table 2
Type of dated beach ridge, dose rate, numbers of aliquots measured and aliquots used for De determination, palaeodose, over dispersion, and OSL age. OSL ages with standard error
exceeding 10 years are rounded to the nearest decade.

Site no. Lab no. Ridge type Dose rate Aliquots measured Aliquots used De OD Age
(mGy/a) (mGy) (%) (years)

Ridgeset 1
1-1 Shfd 10196⁎ Recurved 1.944 ± 0.099 40 27 75 ± 10 0 39 ± 5
1-2 Shfd 10198 Recurved 1.916 ± 0.095 20 18 299 ± 7 6 156 ± 9
1-3 Shfd 10197⁎ Trunk 4.150 ± 0.196 20 20 740 ± 9 3 178 ± 9
1-4 Shfd 10195 Recurved 2.155 ± 0.098 20 17 339 ± 9 20 157 ± 8
1-5 Shfd 10194 Recurved 3.616 ± 0.169 20 18 522 ± 8 3 144 ± 7
1-6 Shfd 10193 Trunk 1.813 ± 0.087 40 34 60 ± 7 23 33 ± 4
1-7 Shfd 10192⁎ Trunk 1.745 ± 0.082 32 28 120 ± 7 25 69 ± 5
Ridgeset 2
2-1 Shfd 10090⁎ Recurved 1.630 ± 0.103 20 20 477 ± 9 3 290 ± 20
2-2 Shfd 10141 Recurved 2.115 ± 0.102 20 18 790 ± 9 12 370 ± 20
2-3 Shfd 10140 Trunk 1.594 ± 0.078 20 16 505 ± 8 0 320 ± 20
2-4 Shfd 10089 Recurved 1.996 ± 0.107 20 19 792 ± 13 9 400 ± 20
2-5 Shfd 10136 Along channel 1.594 ± 0.077 20 18 505 ± 8 6 320 ± 20
Ridgeset 3
3-1 Shfd 10139⁎ Recurved 1.844 ± 0.096 20 18 962 ± 12 7 520 ± 30
3-2 Shfd 10161 Trunk 1.880 ± 0.089 20 20 1065 ± 14 5 570 ± 30
3-3 Shfd 10138 Recurved 1.826 ± 0.091 20 18 1110 ± 11 4 610 ± 30
3-4 Shfd 10087 Trunk 1.889 ± 0.093 20 17 409 ± 9 6 220 ± 10
3-4 Shfd 10088 Trunk 1.689 ± 0.081 20 17 340 ± 11 48 200 ± 10
3-5 Shfd 10142 Recurved 2.197 ± 0.114 20 15 1366 ± 11 11 620 ± 30
3-6 Shfd 10091 Trunk 1.951 ± 0.112 20 19 1476 ± 15 7 760 ± 40
3-7 Shfd 10144 Recurved 2.231 ± 0.105 20 20 1672 ± 13 3 750 ± 40
3-8 Shfd 10137 Trunk 1.953 ± 0.093 20 18 1153 ± 11 6 590 ± 30
Ridgeset 4
4-1 Shfd 10143 Recurved 1.813 ± 0.089 20 18 1526 ± 14 7 840 ± 40
4-2 Shfd 10145⁎ Trunk 2.563 ± 0.119 20 17 1960 ± 18 6 770 ± 40
Ridgeset 5
5-1 Shfd 10148⁎ Recurved 2.089 ± 0.101 20 18 2019 ± 22 7 970 ± 50
5-2 Shfd 10146 Trunk 2.146 ± 0.104 20 17 2141 ± 20 6 1000 ± 50
5-3 Shfd 10094⁎ Recurved 2.245 ± 0.112 20 17 2491 ± 20 5 1110 ± 60
5-4 Shfd 10093 Recurved 1.810 ± 0.100 20 19 2525 ± 22 4 1400 ± 80
5-5 Shfd 10147 Trunk 1.985 ± 0.102 20 19 1877 ± 23 15 950 ± 50
5-6 Shfd 10092⁎ Recurved 1.759 ± 0.101 20 15 2796 ± 20 4 1590 ± 90
Ridgeset 6
6-1 Shfd 10153 Recurved 1.818 ± 0.092 20 18 2969 ± 34 19 1630 ± 80
6-2 Shfd 10151 Recurved 1.866 ± 0.096 20 16 3393 ± 39 7 1820 ± 100
6-3 Shfd 10149 Trunk 2.024 ± 0.103 20 18 3628 ± 21 3 1790 ± 90
6-4 Shfd 10150 Trunk 1.729 ± 0.083 20 19 3039 ± 30 5 1760 ± 90
6-5 Shfd 10152⁎ Trunk 1.972 ± 0.103 20 18 3187 ± 32 5 1620 ± 90
Ridgeset 7
7-1 Shfd 10162 Trunk 2.255 ± 0.105 20 17 4611 ± 45 6 2050 ± 100
Ridgeset 8
8-1 Shfd 10097 Recurved 2.138 ± 0.104 20 16 4338 ± 26 5 2030 ± 100
8-2 Shfd 10096 Trunk 2.063 ± 0.104 20 17 3857 ± 36 5 1870 ± 100
8-3 Shfd 10163 Trunk 1.683 ± 0.085 20 15 3847 ± 39 6 2290 ± 120
8-4 Shfd 10095⁎ Trunk 2.295 ± 0.112 20 19 4776 ± 34 8 2080 ± 100
Ridgeset 9
9-1 Shfd 10155 Trunk 2.026 ± 0.099 20 18 4732 ± 67 14 2340 ± 120
9-2 Shfd 10154 Trunk 2.043 ± 0.106 20 16 4304 ± 55 5 2110 ± 110
9-3 Shfd 10211 Recurved 2.451 ± 0.114 20 19 4861 ± 72 7 1980 ± 100
9-4 Shfd 10160⁎ Trunk 2.208 ± 0.108 20 17 5121 ± 50 6 2320 ± 120
Ridgeset 10
10-1 Shfd 10199⁎ Trunk 2.381 ± 0.113 20 18 6627 ± 86 7 2780 ± 140
Ridgeset 11
11-1 Shfd 10157⁎ Trunk 2.004 ± 0.099 20 20 6670 ± 74 5 3330 ± 170
11-2 Shfd 10156 Trunk 2.377 ± 0.113 20 19 6740 ± 77 5 2840 ± 140
11-3 Shfd 10099⁎ Trunk 2.016 ± 0.107 20 18 7193 ± 66 6 3570 ± 190
⁎
OSL age reported by Tamura et al. (2012).

tidal flat in core TC1. These consistencies with other age evidence indi-
cate the OSL age estimates are robust overall. Isochronous lines in a
shore-normal cross section (Fig. 7) define the progradation of the delta-
ic clinoform that extends from the beach ridge to deeper deltaic sedi-
ment facies (Tamura et al., 2012). The isochronous lines suggest that
the progradation of the beach shoreline and delta front initiated
c. 3500 years, and that the clinoform steepened towards the present
coast (Fig. 7).
There are variations in the range of OSL ages of an individual
ridgeset. Ridgesets 1–6 do not have any OSL ages overlapping with
those of adjoining ridges except for ages from the site 3–4 (Fig. 6).
OSL ages highly overlap in ridgesets 7–9, which exhibit large uncer-
tainties relative to OSL ages in younger ridgesets. OSL age uncertainties
increase in proportion to the absolute age. There is in contrast a more
than 1000 years difference between ridgesets 9 and 11. The only
sample from Ridgeset 10 has an age slightly younger than those of
Ridgeset 11. The range of the ridgeset age varies, ranging from
110 years (Ridgeset 2) to 600 years (Ridgeset 5). Ridgeset 5 has ages
of 950–1590 years, and apart from this, ridgesets 1–4 and 6–8 show
average recurrence interval of c. 200–250 years as 4 and 3 ridgesets
 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153 147

Fig. 5. Definition of the hierarchy of beach ridges on the Tra Vinh delta plain, and locations of sampling sites for OSL dating. Even-numbered ridgesets are shaded to enable distinc-
tion of adjacent ridgesets.

formed in 0–1000 and 1600–2300 years, respectively. In contrast, The internal age structure of a ridgeset is systematic when consid-
ridgesets 9–11 formed in 1600 years between 3570 and 1980 years, ering only recurved ridges. Ages of relatively younger recurved
and their average recurrence interval is 500–600 years. ridges, from sites 6–2 to 1–1, consistently agree with the inferred
order of deposition (Fig. 6). Ages of trunk ridges in contrast are
more scattered. The updrift trunk generally exhibits much younger
ages than the rest of ridgeset (e.g., 1–6, 1–7, 3–4, 3–8, 5–5, 6–5).
Table 3 Ridgesets 7–11 have few recurved ridge ages, and ages of their
Area of the ridgeset and its landward inter-ridge swale, cumulative delta plain area
trunk ridges are highly scattered and apparently not systematic.
after Ridgeset 11, and representative OSL age of the past shoreline marked by each
ridgeset.
5. Discussion
Ridgeset Area Cumulative delta Shoreline age
(km2) plain area (km2) (year before
AD 2010) 5.1. Shoreline change characterization
1 238.3 1815.7 –
2 137.7 1577.4 200 ± 10 Integration of the architecture and OSL ages of beach ridges suggests
3 106.5 1439.7 520 ± 30 the hierarchical shoreline changes of the Tra Vinh coast during the last
4 94.2 1333.2 770 ± 40 3500 years (Fig. 8). Ridgesets generally indicate cyclic discontinuous
5 245.2 1239 950 ± 50
shifts of shoreline 5 km seawards on average. Each of the cyclic shifts
6 77.9 993.8 1620 ± 90
7 62.5 915.9 – is followed by the downdrift (southwestward) elongation and accretion
8 280.7 853.4 1870 ± 100 of the recurved spit or island, resulting in trunk and recurved beach
9 330.2 572.7 2110 ± 110 ridges that comprise an individual ridgeset. The downdrift accretion of
10 242.5 242.5 – the barrier is interrupted with changes in shoreline orientation that
11 – 0 2840 ± 140
are suggested by the bifurcations of trunk ridges. These hierarchical
148 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153

4000
OSL age (yr before AD 2010)

3000

2000

1000

40 30 20 10 1
Inferred order of deposition
Fig. 6. Plot of OSL age obtained from the Tra Vinh beach ridge against inferred order of deposition. The deposition order is determined assuming the seaward sub-ridgeset is youn-
ger, and that the individual sub-ridgeset is younger downdrift. Two different ranges of OSL ages for an individual ridgeset are indicated with or without considering 1-σ age
uncertainties.

shoreline changes have intrinsic time scales: the discontinuous shift
occurred per several centuries; several changes in shoreline orientation
occur between the discontinuous shift, indicating their average interval
is several decades to a few centuries; and the downdrift spit/island ac-
cretion occurs on annual- to decadal-scale.
The changes to the Tra Vinh coast over the last decades are re-
ferred for interpreting the internal age structure of the ridgesets as
each ridgeset shows a downdrift accretion, similarly to that observed
in the modern shoreline (Figs. 2, 8). In ridgesets 1–6, recurved ridges
have ages systematically younger both downdrift and seawards,
while ages of trunk ridges are scattered. The modern updrift coast
modestly prograded seawards to result in ridges sub-parallel to the
shoreline (Fig. 2A). This indicates the updrift trunk ridge could be
younger than downdrift recurved ridges. It is also suggested that
the updrift trunk ridge is likely reworked as seen in the recent coastal
erosion (Fig. 2A). Relatively young trunk ridges are present at sites

+5

-10
Elevation (m)

-20

-30

-40

-50

Fig. 7. Cross section along a shore-perpendicular transect of the Tra Vinh delta plain (Tamura et al., 2012; modified from Ta et al., 2005). Transect location is shown in Figs. 1B, 5. OSL
and calibrated radiocarbon ages are expressed relative to AD 2010, not to AD 1950.
 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
A B
Fig. 8. Schematic illustration showing the discontinuous shift and change in shoreline orientation inferred from hierarchical beach ridge structure in the Tra Vinh delta plain.
6–5, 5–5, 4–2, 3–8, 3–4, 1–6, and 1–7. Ages of these trunk ridges are
generally close to the initiation of seaward ridgeset or sub-ridgeset.
The trunk ridge at site 3–4 is continuous to Ridgeset 2, and its age is
intermediate between ages of ridgesets 1 and 2. This suggests that
the extensive shoreline reworking occurred at site 3–4 in relation to
the formation of Ridgeset 2 and/or just before the shoreline shift
from ridgesets 2 to 1. A similarly young age is present in site 5–5,
where the trunk age is c. 600 years younger than the neighbouring
recurved ridge at site 5–6, being as young as the termination of
Ridgeset 5. Recurved ridges are more likely protected from the shore-
line erosion due to their shape and position, and thus show the sys-
tematic age structure. The young trunk ridge in contrast tends to
reflect the younger limit of the ridgeset age. Causes of age structure
irregularities in ridgesets 7–11 are uncertain, and may include larger
uncertainties in age estimation.
No abrupt change in shoreline orientation as inferred from the
bifurcations of trunk ridges have been observed. Ridgeset 1 exhibits
two series of recurved ridges that comprise downdrift portions of
sub-ridgesets 1a and 1b, respectively. According to the shoreline
position in AD 1936 and OSL ages from sites 1–2, 1–4, and 1–5 (Fig. 2A,
B), a change in shoreline orientation occurred sometime between 70
and 150 years to separate these sub-ridgesets. Ridgeset 2, although
defined as a ridgeset, may just represent a relatively large-scale change
in shoreline orientation. The change in shoreline orientation from
ridgesets 3 to 2 is larger than others, coupled with the prominent
shape of the Ridgeset 3 shoreline, resulting in a long distance of shoreline
migration in the downdrift part. This change in orientation was accom-
panied by the reworking of the updrift coast as revealed by the young
OSL age at site 3–4. A similar extensive reworking of the updrift shoreline
occurred also in relation to the orientation change revealed by the
transition from sub-ridgesets 5c to 5b.
The actual duration of the ridgeset formation is not constrained
strictly, as it is not guaranteed that the youngest and oldest parts of
the individual ridgeset were exactly sampled. The range of OSL ages
obtained, however, probably estimates an approximate duration of
the ridgeset, as ridgesets 1–6 show neither a remarkable overlap
nor gap in OSL age between neighbouring ridgesets. The ages at site
3–4 seem to be an exception, but the deposition at site 3–4 is related
to formation of Ridgeset 2, and not to the building stage of Ridgeset 3.
Thus, the formative durations of ridgesets 2 and 3 are estimated
200–400 and 520–760 years, respectively.
5.2. Causes of shoreline changes
5.2.1. Shoreline progradation
Cyclic discontinuous shoreline shifts c. 5 km seawards are the prin-
cipal mode in which the Tra Vinh coast appears to prograde. An
elongate bar is present on the modern delta-front platform (Fig. 2A),
and has the potential to grow into a sub-aerially exposed island and
then, once attached to the land, into a spit. Such a spit could then
149
C
form the core of the next discontinuous shoreline shift (Fig. 8). Such
an island formed on the delta front is among those defined as the deltaic
barrier island (Stutz and Pilkey, 2002), of which formation is common
in a variety of wave-influenced deltas (e.g., Rodriguez et al., 2000;
Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003; van Maren, 2005). Stutz and Pilkey
(2002) analyzed the shapes and dimensions of deltaic barrier islands
in the world, and classified them into four prograding types and a trans-
gressive type, based on the length of island and width of inlet. Each of
the prograding types is characterized by a degree of relative contribu-
tions of wave, tide, and fluvial processes. The coast of the Mekong
River delta is characterized by a low wave influence, large tide range,
and gentle slope of shoreface (Stutz and Pilkey, 2002). The term deltaic
barrier island as defined by Stutz and Pilkey (2002), however, also in-
cludes the barrier shorelines even attached to the mainland. Here, for
the clarification, an island that is developed on the delta front and iso-
lated from the land is referred to as a delta-front island, and the island
after attached to the mainland is called a spit. Although the formative
process of the delta-front island in the Mekong delta cannot be
discussed effectively due to the lack of adequate data, such as detailed
bathymetry of the delta front and wave conditions, processes from
other deltas have been documented. In the study of the Red River
delta, based on the process-based numerical modelling (Delft-3D) and
historical observation, van Maren (2005) showed that the delta-front
island evolves from a bar on the delta front, of which sediment is initial-
ly transported offshore in the river plume and later reworked onshore
by waves. As the bar evolves to become a subaerially-exposed island,
the longshore transport becomes more important, enhancing the elon-
gation of the island (van Maren, 2005). The island then is attached to
the mainland, defining a new shoreline. Similar processes were ob-
served in other wave-influenced deltas (e.g., Rodriguez et al., 2000;
Giosan et al., 2005).
Factors controlling the interval of the discontinuous shoreline
shift have not been understood well although they are critical for
predicting the behavior of the actively prograding coast. Intervals
of the discontinuous shoreline shift are variable, ranging from a
few decades in the Brazos River delta (Rodriguez et al., 2000),
through c. 100 years in the Red River delta (van Maren, 2005), to
several centuries on the Tra Vinh coast (Fig. 6). The interval in prin-
ciple is equivalent to the distance between the delta-front island and
shoreline divided by the rate of net coastal progradation. The
progradation rate is affected by the rate of sediment discharge, and
by the length of the shoreline to which the sediment is distributed.
The distance between the delta-front island and shoreline is roughly
equivalent to the width of the delta-front platform that reflects dis-
charge of muddy sediment (Stutz and Pilkey, 2002). Thus, the inter-
val of the delta-front island is strongly correlated with the quantity
and quality of sediment discharge onto the coast. In the Tra Vinh
delta plain, however, the width of delta-front platform appears to
have changed (Fig. 7; Tamura et al., 2012), which may be the result
of the millennial-scale evolution. The initial delta progradation
150 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153

appears to have been a transitional state from the low-gradient

aggradational delta before 3500 years, after which the clinoform
has steepened as the prograding delta became more pronounced.
The relatively gentle clinoform may be reflected by the longer recur-
rence interval and longer distance of the discontinuous shoreline
shift revealed by ridgesets 8–11.
In addition to the interval of the discontinuous shoreline shift,
quantifying the rate of progradation of the Tra Vinh delta plain is im-
portant as it is directly related to the sediment supply. However, the
quantification is not straightforward because of the complicated pat-
tern of shoreline changes. As the shoreline accretes downdrift as well
as seawards, it is uncertain as to whether the progradation rate along
a selected single transect appropriately represents the general growth
trend of the delta plain. The area defined by the ridgeset and its land-
ward inter-ridge swale, and the representative age of a ridgeset are
thus used to assess the growth rate of the delta plain. The representa-
tive age of the ridgeset is assumed here to be the youngest OSL age
among those determined, which is typically found in the updrift
part (Table 3). As the width of the Tra Vinh delta plain is almost con-
sistent, the average progradation rate is proportional to the rate of the
area increment. There are two phases of the rate of the Tra Vinh delta
plain progradation (Fig. 9). Before 1500 years, the delta plain
prograded linearly at a higher rate. After 1500 years, the rate of
progradation abruptly decreased and was consistent at least until
the formation of Ridgeset 2. While the ages of the inland ridgesets Fig. 10. Close-up of line drawing of the beach ridges (Fig. 5) with OSL ages showing al-
are assumed to be the last timing of their reworking, Ridgeset 1 is ternations of two different phases of the shoreline progradation. Anti-clockwise shifts
still active, and its abandonment should be later than AD 2010 in of shoreline orientation occurred at c. 1100–1000 and 500–400 years following phases
of updrift-centered progradation. OSL ages are expressed relative to AD 2010.
Fig. 9. North of the Tra Vinh delta plain, there are three delta plains
in Ben Tre and one in Tien Giang, which are bounded by distributaries
and share the sediment supply from the Mekong River with the Tra shoreline, which results in a more uniformly oriented shoreline, as
Vinh coast. Although it is not possible to quantify the progradation seen in the transition from ridgesets 3 to 2 (Fig. 10). The downdrift elon-
of these coasts in detail, the majority of these other delta plains gation of the spit from the prominent delta lobe associated with the
have formed since 1500 years (Fig. 1B; Tamura et al., 2012). The updrift shoreline retreat typically occurs in wave-influenced deltas of
focal shift of the river sediment supply towards the northeast thus ac- which river sediment discharge has decreased, including the Ebro
counts for the declined progradation of the Tra Vinh delta plain (Jiménez et al., 1997), Po (Simeoni et al., 2007), and Volga deltas
(Fig. 9), and may have been controlled by morphological changes at (Anthony and Blivi, 1999). In these deltas, spit elongation has occurred
the bifurcation of the Mekong River located c. 100 km inland from under conditions of sediment scarcity, with sediment redistributed
the present river mouth (Fig. 1B). from the delta lobe to feed downdrift spit growth. On the Tra Vinh
coast in contrast, the morphological prominence revealed by ridgesets
3 and 4 suggests that they evolved from a delta-front barrier island,
5.2.2. Changes in shoreline orientation and is different from a typical delta lobe at the river mouth. However,
The abrupt changes in shoreline orientation revealed by trunk ridge even in this case the prominence is still maintained by the river
bifurcations lead to a seaward shift in the downdrift portion of the sediment discharge (van Maren, 2005). The changes in shoreline
orientation of the Tra Vin coast thus are interpreted as reflecting fluctu-
2000
ations in the balance between river sediment discharge and longshore
transport. The trunk ridge bifurcation indicates only the increase in
relative importance of longshore transport. Relative decline of the
Cumulative delta plain area (km2)

longshore transport in contrast may be reflected by the accretion of

1500 the updrift sub-parallel ridge as seen in Sub-ridgeset 1b, or by the
discontinuous shifts revealed by ridgesets. During the period
200–1600 years, while ridgesets 2–5 formed, two major downdrift
elongations of the spit occurred at transitions from sub-ridgesets 5c to
1000 5b, and from ridgesets 3 to 2, and their timings are constrained
1000–1100 years by ages from sites 5–2 and 5–3, and 400–500 years
by ages from sites 3–1 and 2–4 (Fig. 10). Although the terminations of
these spit elongations are not well constrained, their growth appears
500 to have become terminated by the initiation of younger ridgesets.
Present shoreline
Their terminations are thus older than 840 and 178 years, respectively,
Past shoreline
according to ages from sites 4–1 and 1–3.
Monsoons critically affect the fluctuations in balance between the
0 river discharge and longshore transport in the Mekong River delta. The
sediment and water discharge of the Mekong River are from the precip-
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 -500
itation in its catchment, and are thus controlled by the south-westerly
Age (yr before AD 2010)
summer monsoon. The south-westward longshore sediment transport
Fig. 9. Temporal changes of the Tra Vinh delta plain area revealed by ridgesets and is enhanced by the north-easterly winter monsoon. The Asian summer
their representative ages as summarized in Table 3. monsoon is known to have fluctuated during the Late Quaternary from
 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
a range of geological proxies (e.g., Wang et al., 2005; Colin et al., 2010;
Zhang et al., 2011), but its centennial- to decadal-scale fluctuations
affecting regional precipitation of Southeast Asia are poorly understood.
The strength of the winter monsoon in contrast may possibly be evalu-
ated based on fluctuations detected in East Asia. Chinese historical doc-
uments suggest that the winter monsoon in East Asia has fluctuated at
decadal- and centennial-scales (Wang and Zhang, 1992). An increase
in the winter monsoon strength 400–500 years, corresponding to the
beginning of the Little Ice Age (Lamb, 1995), is suggested by frequent
aeolian dust fall (Zhang, 1984) and lower winter temperature (Ge et
al., 2003) in China, and activation of coastal dunes along the Japan Sea
(Tamura et al., 2011). Therefore, it is probable that the downdrift elon-
gation of the Tra Vinh coast beach ridges was enhanced by the strength-
ened winter monsoon. The decrease in the river sediment discharge
might have been associated with this, although it is uncertain how the
Asian winter and summer monsoons are related. This hypothesis indi-
cates the possibility that the morphology of the Mekong River delta
shoreline is affected by regional to global climate changes at decadal-
to centennial-scales, but it should be tested based on further examina-
tions of other proxies and numerical modelling of shoreline geometry.
5.3. Implications for the modern shoreline
The characterization of the past shoreline changes in time scales
comparable to the historical observation is critical for understanding
the modern and future shorelines, with allowance being made for the
effects of recent industrial activity and extreme climate change that
do not concern the past. The most remarkable change that potentially
occurs to the present coast is the discontinuous shift of the shoreline
caused by the delta-front bar/island (Fig. 2A). Assuming the consistent
interval of the ridgeset formation at 200–250 years, the next discontin-
uous shift is suggested to occur in the next few decades, as according to
the OSL age at site 1–3, at least 178 ±9 years have passed since the
Ridgeset 1 shoreline emerged. Extrapolating the consistent rate of
delta plain progradation (Fig. 9) suggests, in contrast, that the present
shoreline will be abandoned 200–300 years later. Along the present
shoreline (Fig. 2B), the downdrift spit accretion has been inactive
since AD 2001. This may suggest either that the sediment supply has de-
creased or that more sand is being transported offshore to build the
delta-front bar.
The Mekong River delta is expected to experience a decrease in
the bedload supply due to recent human activities that have not
been quantitatively assessed, which is an obstacle to predict the
shoreline change from the long-term perspective. Several studies
have examined changes of water discharge and suspended sediment
load of the Mekong River over the recent decades (Lu and Siew,
2006; Kummu and Varis, 2007; Walling, 2008). These studies con-
cluded there has been no remarkable change of discharge or
sediment load in the lower reaches of the Mekong River since
AD1960, despite the commissioning of the first major dam at the
Lancang Cascade in the upper Mekong River in AD1993. However,
there are no reliable data available to assess changes in bedload
(Kummu and Varis, 2007), which critically determines the coastal
sediment budget, and is the parameter more likely affected by the
newly constructed dam. In addition to the dam construction, in the
lower reach of the Mekong River, many ships actively operate in
fluvial sand dredging. Although the dredging is also not quantitative-
ly assessed, it directly decreases the sand supply to the coast. A re-
cent decrease in sand supply is thus inferred, and may have
enhanced the erosion of the updrift Tra Vinh shoreline that was rec-
ognized recently (Fig. 2). Breaks in inland beach ridges (Fig. 4B)
however, suggest that updrift erosion occurs even if the sediment
supply is not significantly altered by human activities. Even the re-
cent erosion started between AD1936 and 1981, before the “Doi
Moi”, the economic reform of Vietnam, initiated in AD1986 and the
first Chinese dam got commissioned. Updrift erosion of a deltaic
151
shoreline is commonly caused by a range of reasons, including
storm, changes in wave condition, relative sea-level changes, and
bathymetry changes due to the formation of delta-front bar/island
(e.g., Giosan et al., 2005; Simeoni et al., 2007). The inferred
decrease in sediment supply thus is not regarded as an exclusive
cause of the present coastal erosion (Fig. 2A, B). At decadal- to
centennial-scales, the discontinuous shoreline shift is rather an
important issue for the coastal environment, because if it occurs it
will protect the present shoreline from open sea waves and further
erosion. The decrease in sediment discharge potentially prevents
the formation of the delta-front bar (Giosan et al., 2005), and thus
further discontinuous shoreline shift. It is thus important to under-
stand the mechanism of the delta-front bar/island, which primarily
controls the shoreline change of the Mekong River delta coast.
6. Conclusions
Luminescence dating of beach ridges in the Tra Vinh delta plain, cen-
tral Mekong River delta successfully characterized the centennial- to
multi-decadal scale shoreline changes over the last 3500 years. The
beach ridge sediments have excellent luminescence properties, and
OSL ages agree well with independent age evidence. The Tra Vinh
shoreline has exhibited hierarchical changes that are suggested by the
presence of ridgesets. Each ridgeset corresponds to a discontinuous
shoreline shift c. 5 km seawards caused by the formation of a delta-
front bar/island, of which the interval ranges from 200 to 600 years.
The discontinuous shift is followed by the downdrift spit accretion driv-
en by the dominant winter monsoon. Due to relatively small un-
certainties of OSL ages, within an individual beach ridge set, it is
possible to discern downdrift ridges to be younger, which represents
centennial to decadal-scale shoreline shifts. Spit accretion has occurred
in conjunction with changes of shoreline orientation, reflecting the
balance between river sediment discharge and longshore drift, which
was possibly controlled by the intensity of Asian monsoons. A charac-
teristic change in shoreline orientation occurred 400–500 years, the
beginning of the Little Ice Age, suggesting the strengthened winter
monsoon and/or declined river sediment discharge. The progradation
rate of the delta plain was roughly constant, but abruptly decreased at
1500 years. This suggests that the focal shift of the river sediment sup-
ply to the northeastern part of the Mekong River delta occurred at
1500 years, possibly caused by some morphological changes at distrib-
utary bifurcations, as the majority of other delta plains have been
formed after 1500 years. The changes of the Mekong River delta shore-
line are thus affected by external climate changes and internal fluctua-
tions in sediment distribution. Over the last 1000 years, the Tra Vinh
shoreline has regularly shifted in terms of progradation rate and inter-
val of discontinuous shoreline shift. Although ongoing human activities
do not allow for simple extrapolations of past regular conditions in the
prediction of future shoreline change, the reconstructed shoreline
changes provide the baseline for assessing future coastal behavior with-
out the influence of human activities.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2012.08.004.
Acknowledgments
We express thanks to Adam Dunajko and Rob Ashurst for their
help in processing luminescence samples. This work was carried out
while T.T. worked in the University of Sheffield with the aid of JSPS
Postdoctoral Fellowships for Research Abroad, and partly supported
by NAFOSTED for projects 105.09-2010.05 and 105.09-2010.02, and
Megadelta Project of the Ministry of Environment of Japan. The man-
uscript was significantly improved by Edward Anthony, two anony-
mous reviewers, and journal editor John Wells.
152 T. Tamura et al. / Marine Geology 326–328 (2012) 140–153
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