Chapter 8

Beginning of Agricultt1re: Northern

Vindhyas and the Middle Gangetic Plain
J.N. Pal

INTRODUCTION

The beginning of settled life in the Ganga Valley in north India has a high
antiquity, as is clear from recent archaeological evidence. Much of this work
was carried out by a team of archeologists from the University of Allahabad
led by the late Professor G.R. Sharma.
The area under study lying between 24 N and 27 50' N Latitude and 81
4 7' 29 E and 87 50' E Longitude is bound by the Himalayan tarai in the
north and the Son in the south, the Allahabad-Faizabad railway line in the
west, and Bihar and the West Bengal border in the east. The region comprises
. two contrasting ecological environments: (1) the rocky plateau of the northern
Vindhyas in the sooth, and (2) the flat alluvial plains of the Ganga iilthe
north (Fig. 7.1).
The northern Vindhyan plateau forms part of the Bundelkhand and
Baghelkhand regions. It is a hilly tract marked by a rugged and diversed
topography, which gradually merges with the alluvium of the Ganga plain.
A number of small rivulets, tributaries and sub-tributaries of the Ganga and
Son systems have fertile narrow basins. Many sites of the early Holocene
period are located in these river basins. The main rivers and rivulets of the
northern Vindhyas are the Tons, along w~th its tributaries, the Belan, Adwa,
Lapari, Karmanasa and Chandraprabha of the Ganga system, and Kanhar,
Pandu, Lauwa, Thema, Gopad and Nark:uin of the Son system.
The middle Gangetic plain is drained by the Ganga and its tributaries,
mainly the Ghaghra, Kuano, Chhoti Gandak, Burhi Garidak, Kosi, Varuna,
Gomti, Son, etc. There are numerous oxbow lakes from which emerge the
small rivers of the area.
The climate of the area is characterized by a long host summer, pleasant
monsoon and cold winter. The annual average rainfall is about 976 mm. A
variety of wild flora still survives in ~he Vindhyas while, in the Gangetic
plain, due to extensive cultivation, the forests now are confined to isolated
patches, especially of dhak (Bu tea monosperma ), sihor (Streb/us asper), etc.
Among the wild floral species predominant in the Yindhyas, mention may

-----------~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~cs~~~a~
n~ne
~d~withCamScanner
 196 A Comprehensive Hist01y of India

~e mad~ of kardha~ (Anageis.rns), dhawa (Angeissus latifolia), mahua (wadlwca

mdca-Gmel), salai (Boswel/ia melanoxycon), bahera (Terminalia bellerica),
scmal (Salmaliama labrica), babul (Acacia arabica), khair (Acacia cateclm),
etc., besides dhak and sihor.
Among the wild fauna still surviving in the Yindhyas despite reckless
shooting and the destruction of forests are the leopard (Panthera pardus),
wolf ( 'anis lupus), jackal (Canis aureus), fox (Vulpes bengalensis), bear
( \/el11rs11s 11rsi1111s), hyena (Hyaerma striate), boar (Sus scrofa), chital (Axis
axis), black buck (Antelope cervicapra), nilgai (Boselephas tragocamelas),
barking deer (1\11111tiac11s muntijak), etc. Some of these, especially the deer,
antelope and boar, used to roam in herds in the middle Gangetic plain some
fifty years ago.
J:__ D~undant flora-fauna a~d th~ easi'. availa?ili~t-:_aw .materi~
!or tools, the Viooliyan plateau was mhab1ted by preh1stonc man-ngnr from
the middle Pleistocene period and we get a complete geological and cultural
sequence of the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs in the Vindhyas. However,
in the middle Gangetic plain, the evidence of human culture is dated to the
- tenninal Pleistocene and early Holocene period when we get the cultural
relics of the Epi-palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures.
The antiquity of human cultures in the Vindhyas and the middle Gangetic
plain goes back to this period when Vindhyan prehistoric human groups
moved for the first time towards the north across the Yamuna and the Ganga
to colonize the Gangetic plain. With ecologically and geomorphologically
contrasting features, the hilly tract of the Vindhyas and the flat alluvial plain
of the Ganga, as the archaeological evidence shows, continued till the early
historic period, and the cultures of both regions influenced each other to a
considerable extent.

IDSTORY OF RESEARCH
Initial research on the Neolithic culture was restricted to the surface collections
of celts, adzes and hammer stones. A large number of Neolithic celts were
collected in the latter part of the nineteenth century. 1 Subsequently, during
the 1950s to ·l980s, archaeologists of the University ofAllahabad and Banaras
Hindu University collected a large number of Neolithic artefacts during
surface explorations. A majority of them were found in a secondary context
lying in the field or below the trees. Morphologically, Neolithi~ celts are
divisible into two major groups: (I) triangular celts marked with curved

1Le Mesurier (I 861 ), Progs. of Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 30, I, pp. 81-5; W. Theobald
(1862), 'Celts Found in Bundelkhand', PASB, p. 221; J. Cockb.u~ ( ~ 879), 'Notes on the
Stone Imp Iements fro m the Khasi Hill and Banda and. Vellor District , JASB, pp. 133-43;
. . ,
idem (1894), 'On the Flint Implements from the Kos1 Ravmes of South Muzapur., JASB,
62 , pp. 2 J-37; Rivet-Carnac (1883), 'On Stone Implements from North Provtnces of
India', JASB, 52, 1-IY, PP· 22l- 30.

Scanned with CamScanner

 Beginning of Agric11/111re: Northern Vindlzyas 197

mcdi:1l ground cdgc.!S, cotTcsponcling to the principal type of south Indian

N'-'olithil'.' cdt. :md (2) rounded cclts marked with a rectangular or ovaloid
l'r\'S~-s 'Cth. n. fi.Jlly ground and polished, COtTesponding to the eastern Indian
N1..'olithi · cdt~. lt is inkrcsting to note that the western part of the northern
\'indhyas has. predominately, the first group of celts while, in the eastern
I art. the second group dominates. Archaeological investigations carried out
in th· east em part ha\ c led to the discovery of some primary sites associated
with a r\)tmdcd variety of eel ts and excavations of these primary sites of the
N · ,\ithic ulturc ha\ e furnished valuable information regarding its different
asr ·t~. -'

ln the middle Gangetic plain, a large number of primary sites of the

~ ksolithic culture have been located in the western part. The sites, as indicated
hy continuous. thick, habitation deposits and heavily-utilized food-processing
stone implements, represent semi-sedentary settlements. However, Neolithic
sites ~ totally absent in thjs area.
From some of the sites of the early historic period of the middle Gangetic
plain. stone celts were reported, but Neolithic artefacts in a primary context
were found for the first time at Chjrand,3 which establishedJli~~Jste_n~e_oJ
the! Neolithic culture in the-Gangetic glain__._Subsequent archaeological
inYestigations carried out by the Gorakhpur University, Banaras Hindu
UniYersity~ Patna University; the Patna Circle of the Archaeological Survey
of India and the Directorate ofArchaeology and Museums, Bihar government,
have brought to light several sites representing the beginnings of settled life
in the central part of the middle Gangetic plain. The habitation sites, generally
with thick overlying deposits of the chalcolithic and early hlstoric period,
pose practical difficulties in exposing the earlier horizon in a large area.

S"XCAVATED SITE

The excavations of some of the habitation sites in the Vindhyas and the
Gangetic plain have enriched our knowledge of the culture in these areas.
Those in the _.northern Vindhyas include Koldihwa, Mahagar.fi, Indari and
Kunjhun, and those in the Gangetic plain, C.!1i!M_d, C~echar-Kutubpur, Taradih,
Senuwar and Soligaura.
Situated at a distance of 80 km south-east of Allahabad on the left bank
of the Belan is Koldihwa
# 0
in the Vindhyas, which yielded.
rounded celts and
cord-impressed pottery, a diagnostic trait of the culture of the area (Fig. 8.1 ).
The original mound, divided into several small mounds by rain gullies and
nalas, has Neolithic deposits on its western and southern parts. The habitation
deposit of l.90 m is divisible into three- ~ultural periods: (i) Neolithic,

2 J.N.Pal ( 1983), 'Bases of the Neolithic Cultures of the Middle Ganga Valley', Journal
of G.N. Jlia Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapith.
3 !AR, 1962-3, p. 6.

Scanned with CamScanner

 oO
-~
LI.,

Scanned with CamScanner

 Beginning of Agriculture: North em Vindh) as I 99

(ii)
•
Chnlcolithic
••
and
•
(iii)
•
Iron at:>0 e• The Ncolitl11·c dcposi·t of 45 cm (1·IVlSI
· 'bl c
mto tw.o lay~rs, y1cl~cd celts .. bored ~tones, hand-made pottery, microliths.
food-proc~ssmg equipments 111 the form of qnerns. mnllcrs and hammer
~tones, ~nnnal bone fragments, and burnt clay lumps with wattle and daub
impressions. ··
~~1l~~garais_situated just opposite Koldihwa on the right bank of the 13clan
near tl1~ con~uencc of the old and new Belans. The site, in a basin-shaped
dcprcs~1on , ts surrounded by a natural ·ridge of Pleistocene geological
fomrnttons on the north, east and south. Trial excavations revealed a 2.60 m
thick Ne~lithic deposit divisible into seventeen laycr.s. The site, being a single
culture site, was excavated horizontally in a 1622 sq m .area (Fig. 8.2). It
yielded evidence of a cattle pen, hut floors marked with pottery, cclts, ring
. stones, sling balls, microliths, bone tools,. burnt clay lumps, animal bone
fragments, quems, mullers, hammers, anvils, perforated pottery discs, terracotta
beads, etc. Yet another site, at Pachoh, located at a distance of 2.5 km north-
west of Koldihwa near the right bank of the Be Ian, was also subjected lo a
small-scale excavation which yielded Neolithic artefacts in a 60 cm thick
deposit. The site, being under.cultivation, only has the basai deposit intact.
In the Adwa Valley, two Neolithic habitation sites, lndari and Baraunha
were located during surface explorations in the Mirzapur district, lndari,
situated in a basin-shaped d~pression on the left bai1k of a nala of the
Kahenjua, a tributary of the Adwa in the Mirzapur district, yielded Neolithic
artefacts in a trial excavation.4
Kunjh!m.. located at a distance of 35 km north-east of Sidhi on the right
bank of the Son in the Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, is the southernmost
Neolithic settlement in the Vindhyas. The site is on the last terrace (KhctauilT1i
formation) of the Son.5 A surface collection from the site included celts,
bored stones, microliths, terracotta dabbers, pottery, animal bone fragments
and terracotta bangle fragments in an area of about 3000 sq m. To the west
of the habitation area, a few fresh potsherds, microliths and animal bone
fragments were found deposited in the river section. The excavation in a step
trench cut into the eroded cliff face revealed that these artefacts, coming from
the neighbouring habitation site, were deposited in several levels in the
Khetaunhi formation (the last terrace of the Son). The artefact-beming horizons
were char·acterized by a considerable amount of stone mbble. chert and
ch~A}'-lWci.uk§, blades, de~itage, P?ttety an?J1.n· nal_b_ones (including
Bos gaurus), a sm_illleLhos_spec1es c.ewds, .tort01sc nakc-anct dog.
Excavations in a 6 x 5 m area at Kunjhun ll, another site some 0-.5 km
upstream and 100 m south-southeast of the river tefface, revealed that it was
a heat treatment area for the nodules. It demonstrates the method of heat

4 JAR, 1980-1, p. 72. .

5M.A. I. Williams and K. Royce ( 1983), 'Alluvial Hislory of the Middle Son Val.Icy ·
in G.R. Shanna and J.D. Clark (cdp, Palaeoe11vironment and Prehisto.ry in the Mu/die
Son Valley, Abinash Prakashan, Alla!rnbad, pp. 9-21.

Scanned with CamScanner

 N
00
~

Scanned with CamScanner

 Begi1111i11g of Agriculture: Northern Vindliyas 201

treatment and the subsequent flaking technique of the microliths by the

Neolithic people. The Rrocessing of the meat onfun eaanimaJs wasalso
d00clleri:Ani1n~J b~~;~·btai;;~d fro m th iS-arc~~-liidudcthe wi ICf bison, large
and medium-sized deer and the antelope. 6
Chira d is situated on the left bank of the Ganga in the-5.ar.alulistrjct of
Bihar._..With a multicultural thick deposit ranging from the Neolithic to the
Pala period, the site was excavated for a number of years.7 The Neolithic
level corttained.Jh$!_s.tru.c.turalre-Ul!ins oC..huLflo.ors_anclaJarge_ntunbei:_pf
artefacts, PJ microliths ce s, bone tools. terracottaJigw:ines-.anci.beads
of semi- recious stones. 8
A small-scale excavation at Chechar-Kutubpur,
;----
situated on the northern
bank of the Ganga in the Vaishali district of Bihar, brought to light a three-
fold cultural sequence. The earliest, Period I, is further divisible into three
sub-periods-IA, IB and IC. Sub-period IA yielded artefacts similar to those
in Period I at Chirand. 9
Taradih, situated to the south-west of the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya
(Gaya district, Bihar), also has a multicultural deposit ranging from the
Neolithic to the historical period. 10 The site was excavated in 1981-2, 11 and
1984-5 but the Neolithic horizon was brought to light only during the
excavations of 1984-5 when a 60 cm thick occupation deposit of Period I
revealed hand-made pottery. Neolithic celts, microliths, bone objects, terracotta
o!?jects, burnt cla lum s with e a d daub ·1J1pte.s.s_Lons. and hearths of
different sizes.
The site of ~i:. was brought to light during an archaeological
investigation in tlie-'Kaimur foothills in the Rohtas district of Bihar. 12 Many
sites of the early farmers were brought to light in the alluvial plains near
Kaimur foothills during an investigation in 1986-7. One of these, Senuwar,
situated on the bank of the Kurda rivulet, was subjected to excavations. Like
other sites of the plain, this too has a thick deposit of subsequent periods
overlying the Neolithic debris. The cultural deposit, as revealed from the
excavations, is divisible into four periods: (i) Neolithic, (ii) _Chalcolithic,
(iii) NBPW period, and (iv) Kushan period. The Neolithic phase is further
divisible into two sub-phases, IA and ~Phase IB @s evidence of copper

6 Desmond Clark and G.S. Khanna (1989), 'The Site of Kunjun II, middle Son Valley
and its Relevance for the Neolithic of Celiltral India', in J.M. Kenoyer (ed.), Old Problems
and New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia, Wisconsin Arch. Reports, vol. 2,
University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin, pp. 29-45.
7 L.A. Narain (1970), 'Neolithic Settlement at Chirand', Journal of Bihar Research

Society, 56, pp. 16-35.

8 B.P. Sinh.a (1979), Archaeology and Art of India, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi.
9 /AR , 1977-8, pp. 17-18.
10 !AR, 1984-5, pp. 9f.
11 /AR, 1981 -2, pp. 10-1 2.
12 B.P. Singh ( 1988). 'Early Farming Communities of Kaimur Foothills',

(unpublished).

Scanned with CamScanner

 202 A Comprehensive Hist01y of India

and may be tenned as the transitional h<1se of the Neolit~ ic and ~halcolithic
cult~res. u The site, loc::ited 1il;\' region between the Vindhyas and the Ga-ngetic
pl::iin, is remarkable for its_bouc_tools ccrami industt:y_aud_other Neolithic
artefacts.
--sohga ura, situated on the confluence of the Ami and Rapti (Gorakhpur
di strict, U.P.), al ·o has a Neolithic base. 14 The excavations of the cultural
depos it 0f 90 cm in the lowest level yielded hand-made pottery of the cord-
imprcsscd variety, as also msticated and burnished red wares, along with
burnt cl:iy lumps, quern fr:igments, a hearth, and beads of bone and
steatitc. 15

SETTLEMENT PATTERN

Neal i&hic sites are located 011 th~ banJ<s of S!Jla.!_l_ ti.Y-~r_s,_generally_above the
flood lain: The easy availabilit:: of water and fertile land by annual inundation
were _tl1e. 1!1~!!1-.@ctors responsible for establishing se-ttl~~en_!.s -o-;-theriver
banks. Sites like Mahagarii'arid.Indari in theVIndhyas areTocated i;a-tTO\ign-
shaped depression surrounded by a natural ridge, which provided security
against cold/hot winds. The LocaJi.Qn_Qf_sit~LiP close roximity to forests
I• facilit~d i!l_exploiting_wild plants .and-animals.
c'.
STRUCTURES

Evidence of structures have been uncovered in the form of circular or oval

hut floors. At sites where excavations were done in a restricted area, the
I ',
evidence of structures is found in the form of burnt cla~unms with wattle
and daub impressions, suggesting thatched huts. RJAAs 0 circular hut floors
have been unearthed at Mahagara and Indari in the Vindhyas, and Chirand
in the Gangetic Jain. ighteen hut floors were exposeaillthelast phase of /--
eo 1t lC occuiiation at Mah11_gm::a(Fig. 8.2). The average livmg area covered
by the hut floors is 15.74 sq m. The diameter of the circular floors is 6.40 m.
Whereas that of the longer ovaloid floors varies from 3.40 to 6.40 m and the
shorter runs between 4.30 to 2.80 m. 16 The floors were surrounded by postholes,
varying from six to nine in number on their periphery. The posts supported
the upper roof as well as the side screen. Evidence of circ~lar or semi-circular
h~ts o[ah. t 2 min diameter with a rammed floor have also been recovered
attChii
. .
13 Ibid.
14 /AR, 1974-5, pp. 46 ff.
15 S.N. Chaturvedi (1985), 'Advance of Vindhyan Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures
in the Himalayan Terai: Excavations and Explorations in the Sarangpur Region of Uttar
Pradesh', ME, 9, pp. 101-8.
160. Manda) (1980), 'Neolithic Cultures of the Vondhyas: Excavations at Malrngara in
Belan Valley' (unpublished).

Scanned with CamScanner

 li't'.~i1111i11g (!{ Agric11/t11rc: Northem Vindhyas 203

Tln1,. \t11\1 p0n exposed nl Mnhngnrn in the south-east sector of the site is
\11,·~11l 1r, ,,~c tnnp.ulnr in pl11n, measuring 12.5 x 7.5 m and demarcated by
lh)\1rs nt its l\iur cnnll'rs. Clusters of hoof imprints of cattle of different age
~' "'"I'S \WI\' nlso notil:ed in the cnttlc pcn. 17

~un. \STENCE

Tlw c·ulti\'nli('I\ of plnnts and lhc domestication of animals are well-attested

by tlw 1-c '\Wery of hot1111ical and fauna I remains from almost all the excavated
silt's. l~ tet' . ·~\S _\ 1 'dcly cultivat_QQJQJL1~a. Almost all the sites, excavate.d
:is \\' 1.)1\ as 111\!..~x cavat cd, have produced evidence of rice in the form of rice
l\\~-;k ust::.d ns ~ d~:i rn1s , in ottery_(Fig. 8.3). These include the cultivated
01:1·.:.:a .rntim, 1TlC wrld annual 01yza nivara and the perennial Oryza rufigona .
The ~x c nvntions at Chinmd yielded a variety of cultivated grains such as
wh1.·nt (Tritic11m sphaerococcum), bartex (Hordeum vulgare), ~g (Vigna
m1111_r:.<>), mnsoor (Lins esculent), etc. Charred grains of barle~ (Hordeum
\'ll(~arc) 'also have been found at l{fahagara)!B°The ·evidence SJJgg~st& _that
winter u.· \.\'..clLns smnmeum~eJLl.Yl!iV:'!.te d.:.during-the-Neolithic
i:.criQ.d )
A large number of animal bones were unearthed during excavations. Though
the final identification of animal species has not been done for most of the
sites. the evidence of domesticated cattle, sheep and goat is noteworthy. 19
The !erracotta figl:.lri1!£._9f~'l_~mnped_g0_!Eestic ~~; Bo0_ndicus, an~ll
Bos j a111ial remains aJ Kunjhun indicate that the Neolithic people possessed
-cattle.' Tt1c -~ly farming communities of the Vindhyas didlnot depend only
on the cultivation of plants. Domestication is attested not only by hunting
tools but also by fauna! and floral remains of wild species. Wild rice (Oryza
nimra) from Koldihwa, Mahagara, Indari, and Sanwa, Echino~fi-.
from Koldihw~ anabone-fr~m"entnf-tJ:re-aeei7""filitelope, boar anCloTras
-- sm;c:est that the hunting and collectmg of wilo- fOod-w.rs as important-as""
domestication and cult1vatJon.J tiveroaiiK sitesa lso pi'.o~ided-rooa-ma eriai-
m the form ofJ b.e.1ish..snaLlJQ.UQ.i§e--,-e7'"tc-.,,..b-o-ne_s_6f_,.-Which·have-been-reco..'.lered
fr0111" excavations. Other botanical remain;include imprints of Jschaemum
rn~os11111 (a common weed grown in marshy paddy fields, and used as fodder)
bamboo and jujube.

17G. R. Shamui and D. Manda! ( 1980), Excavation at Mahagara, University ofAllahabad,

Allnhnbnd.
18 Yishnu Millrc and Arnn Shanna (1982), 'NeoHthic-Chalcolithic Food Economy of

Eastern Ullnr Prndcsh' (unpublished).

19 K.R. Alur ( 1980), 'Fauna! Remains from the Yindhyas and the Ganga Valley', in

G.R. Sharma ct al. (eds.), Bcgi1111i11gs of Agriculture, Allahabad.

Scanned with CamScanner

 204 A Comprchcn. ire History of India

.. ~
...

Fig. 8.3: Mahagara: Rice husk imprints on pot-sherds

(
MATERIAL CULTURE

Pottery has been recovered in a large quantity from neolithic sites in the
Vindhyas and the Gangetic plain. On the bnsis of surface treatment, the
ceramic industry has been divided into four major groups: (i) Cord-impressed
ware (ii) Rusticated ware (iii) Burnished red ware. nnd (iv) Burnished black

Scanned with CamScanner

 Beginning of Agriculture: Northern Vindhyas 205

war~. 20 The c~ay used for making pottery was not well-lcvigated, and contains
calcmm and iron particles. Profosely tempered with husk, leaves, straw and
cowdung, the hand-made pottery has a coarse to medium fabric. Due to the
organ.ic temper and ill-fl.ring, the col?ur of the core is blackish. The unslipped
cord-1111pressed and rusticated wares have a dull red surface, and the bumi:-;hed
red and burnished black ware, due to the application of red slip, and black
slip, respectively, generally have bright red and black surfaces. The utilitarian
fonns are simple but, to some extent, standardized, and include convex,
straight or tapering-sided deep and shallow bowls, t11bular spouted bowls,
straight, concave or carinated necked jars, basins, handis, and platters
(Figs. 8.4-8.5). The decoration of pottery is confined only to applique and
incised designs. Some interesting pottery forms like a ladle, lids and a dim-
inutive, crudely-made bowl were found at Kunjhur.
The ceramic industry or" the Neolithic Gangetic plain is richer in ware,
typology and decorative patterns. It is also technologically advanced in
~omparison to that of the Vindhyas. The pottery is hand-made and tumtable-
thrown. Besides cord-impressed and rusticated wares, red, grey, black and
black-and-red wares have been reported from Chirand and Taradih. Burnishing
has been done on the re~ and grey ware pots. Some of the grey burnished
ware pots have post-firing ochre paintings on their rim and body. Decoration
in the form of incised, thumbnail, rope and impressed designs have been
found on pottery. Among the utilitarian shapes; mention may be made of
globular jars, vases, handis with out-turned rims, perforated vessels, lipped
or spouted bowls, deep bowls, cups with hollow ·ring bases, cups with solid
stands, etc.
The ceramic industry of both the regions has many common features. Not
onlYthe man~d!i!ft~£1Ji!iq.u~::QDhe :W.~t:~s buLeY.eri the_slfali_e sare-sim iHir
. to~~ ce@g}lC~~JPJ~lag~_qfJ_Qe}':!.~]~~-~ultur~_of ~ot_? ~~e regmris.-Tllaf--
tlie ceramic assemblage of the Gangettc plam is typo-tecliiiolog1cally-advanced
.as is evident from some peculiar forms restricted only to it. 21 These include
the spouted vase with pointed base, footed bowls, perforated bowls on stand,
channels, spouted vessels, lipped bowls, the spoon or ladle, and knobbed
vessels. Applique decorations, consisting of rope and notch designs, are
common to both regions. Post-firing ochre paintings, including linear, criss-
cross and concentric circles on some of the pottery from Chirand and Taradih,
are new' features not present in the Vindhyas. Some painted sherds analogous
to those of the Malwa ware occur at Kunjhun, and may indicate some contact
between th.e two regions.

20 J.N. Pal (1986), Archaeology of Southern Uttar Pradesh ' Swabha Prakashan,
Allahabad.
21pa} (1983), op. cit.

Scanned with CamScanner

 '
\ .

,,
' .....' ' /

ll
1,
"

\ J \Ii} ,\ 3 I
I

l J J { J'IJ
I
I
I

I
I
t
\ J• I
J
{ J \J)
\ J 'I/ \ J }
"
~

} { u! I )
\ 101 , ,

/ 131~
J
' ,

J I
I ,,'
141 J
'

7
' l J
,

'7
I ... 161 ,,,
,
I j

I
I
I.
!;
11
1
\, rel I
} \, .J ,
I
I ? I I I
10
I

1I J
CM
f I
1I · :, Fig. 8.4: Mahagara pottery
I

I: :
l
'
Scanned with CamScanner
 I_ _ _ '- ~--
•
_;> j__ 7
• 3 ~ · - -

)J (. f-J
,, J 7
' J.__/
' J ( I .J
' J. 7 ) ,f=\,

J J \, '
-41 -~-0
I

- .
21' (

l ,J
\
I

J J ~
\ ,J I
I

0
1 "
10
J \.
CM

Fig. 8.5: Mahagara pollery

Scanned with CamScanner

208 11 Comprehensive /-lislOl)l of India

The ceramic industry, especially the cord-impressed ware fonns the binding
trait or the cult11res or the hilly tracts and plains and distinctive ware of the
eastern Asiatic Neolithic complex ns a whole.22 ·
Small, rounded cells nml adzes arc common in both regions. Fully-ground
and polished ncoliths arc typologically divisible into cells, adzes and chisels.
The cc Its arc or a small , rounded variety with a rectangular or ovaloid cross-
scction (f<ig. 8.6). The butt encl is rounded but occasionally flattened. Many
of the cclts :rncl adzes have use marks on their sharp working edges. They
have been made of basalt, granite and quartzite. As there arc no waste pieces,
flakes or chips of the raw material of the neoliths, it may be assumed that
these were manufactured at the source of the raw material and were brought
to the settlement in a finished fom1. The possibility of primitive trade contact
with the culture in the region of the source of the raw material cannot be
ruled out. 23
Artefacts fashioned on quartzite and sandstone by the pecking and grinding
technique include quems, mutters, sharpeners, rubber stones, hammers, anvils, r
s~one discs, sling balls and bored stones. Most of these were used as food-

Fig. 8.6: Neolithic celts

22r.c. Sharma (1980), 'The Neolithic Pattern of Eastern India' (unpublished).

Z3L.A. Narain (1979), 'The Neolithic Cultures of Eastern India', ~n D.P. Agrawal and
D.K. Chakrabarti (eds.), Essays on Protolzistory, D.K. Publishers, Delhi, pp. 301-9.

I
Scanned with CamScanner
 Beginning of Agriculture: Northern Vindhyas 209

processing equipment while some were tool fabricators and hunting tools.
Qucms fall into two groups: (i) basin-shaped concave quems with a smooth
lustrous surface bearing concentric circular use marks, and (ii) flat qucrns
with a pitted surface, whereas mullers arc marked with smooth or pitted
surface and have both unifacial as well as multifacial working surface.
Neolithic cultures of the Vindhyas and the Gangetic plain arc also char-
acterized by a microlithic industty, though it is not so prolific in the latter
region. The microliths were made of chalcedony, chert, agate, carnelian and
jasper (Fig. 8.7). The presence of chert and chalcedony nodules and waste
material, i.e. cores, flakes, blades and chips, along with finished and utilized
tools, suggests that they were made at the settlement itself. The tool types
include retouched blades, backed blades, truncated blades, serrated blades,
points, awls, scrapers, triangles, trapezes and lunates (Fig. 8.5). Some of the
blades and flakes have use marks on their lateral edges. Edge polish on
retouched and modified blades indicates that these were used on soft plant
materials, wood and hide.
Bone artefacts are characteristic of the Gangetic Neolithic culture. In the
Vindhyas, bone arrowheads with a singie tang and pointed end have been
found at Mahagara. A variety of bone tools and other utilitarian objects have
been found at Chirand. Taradih, 24 Senuwar, 25 etc., in the middle Gangetic
plain. Antlers, split shafts of long bones and tortoise shells were utilized for
making these artefacts, which include the spearpoint, bodkin, borer, pin,
arrowhead, divider, scraper, leather-cutting tool, wedge, chisel, weeding tool,
drill, shaft straightener, hammer, barcelt, knife, socketed comb, pendant, disc,
earring, bangle, etc.
Other artefacts peculiar to the Gangetic Neolithic culture include beads of
semi-precious stones (from Chirand), steatite beads (from Sohgaura), terracotta
bangles and figurines of the humped bull, bird and snake (from Chirand), a
ball and an animal figurine (from Taradih), terracotta beads (from Mahagara),
and bangles and a bull (fr9m Kanjhun), and also occur at the Vindhya
sites.

ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY

We do not have stratigraphic evidence to show the evolution of the Neolithic
farming culture from the earlier Mesolithic hunting-gati1ering culture. Many
cultural traits such as the microlithic industry, bone tools, food-processing
equipments, tool fabricators, hand-made pottery and hutments may be treated
as surviving traits of the earlier culture in the Vindhyas. Some of the plants
and animals which were domesticated in the Neolithic period are said to have
been already present in a wild form. It seems that the Vindhyan Neolithic

24 /AR,1984-5, p. 10.
25Nina Thakur et al. (1988), 'Bone Tools from Senuwar' (unpublished).

Scanned with CamScanner

Scanned with CamScanner
 Begi1111i11g of Agric11/t11re: Northern Vindhyas 211

evolved from the Mesolithic of the area and, thus, its indigenous origin may
be proposed. Available nrchacological data from the Vindhyas and the Gangetic
plain suggests that even though the early fanning cultures of both regions
have several common lcatt1res, the latter appears to be technologically
advanced. It is highly likely that the Gangetic t-Jcolithic cultme had its roots
in the Vindhyan Neolithic cultme and later developed certain distinctive
foaturcs in bone artefacts, ten-acotta objects, beads of semi-precious stones
and many new clements in the ceramic industry. ·
In the absence of dependable and consisten~ C-14 dates, the problem of
t11c chronology of the culture 'is not resolved. C-14 dates from Koldihwa,
assigning an early date to the Vindhyan Neolithic, are no! dependable. 26 Those
from Mahngara do not confonn to the stratigraphy of ·the site, possibly due
to the contamination of the samples. However, absolute dates obtained from
Mahagara include two TL dates reading 2265 BC and 1616 BC, and four
C-14 dates reading 1440+150 BC, 1330+p0 BC, ·1440+100 BC, and 1480+110
BC. A C-14 date for the transitional phase of the Neolithic to Chalcolithic at
Koldihwa is 1440+ 120 BC. Kunjhun II activity site yielded C-14 dates of
2180+110 BC and 2380+126 sc. 27 For the Neolithic level ofChirand, nine
C-14 dates are available of which three are consistent, viz., 1580+ 110 BC,
1675+ 140 BC, and 1775+ 155 sc. The Neolithic-Chalcolithic overlapping
phase also has a C-14 date reading I050+ 10 BC. These ~-14 dates give a
time bracket of 1800 to 1200 BC to the Neolithic at Chirand. 28 Period IB of
the Neolithic-Chal~olithic level at Senuwar also has. a C-14 date reading
1770+ 120 BC. Thus, the present evidence suggests a date of the third to the
second millennium.BC for the Neolithic culture of the northern Vindhyas and
the middle Gangetic plain.

26 Pal (1986), op. cit.

27 Clark and Khanna ( 1989), op. cit.
28 0.P. Agrawal and Sheela Kusumgar (1974), Prehistoric Chronology and Radiocarbon

Dating in India, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, New Delhi, p. 71 .

Scanned with CamScanner