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Evaluation and Analysis of Bra Design

Article  in  Design Journal, The · November 2001

DOI: 10.2752/146069201789389601

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 EVALUATION
AND ANALYSIS
OF

BRA DESIGN
~
CHERIE Y. C. CHAN, WINNIE W. M. YU AND EDWARD NEWTON
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

ommercial bra designs are inadequate in overcoming all of the bra's problems. Physical and

C physiological problems for the human body are commonly caused due to the poor design of

bra components: for example, pressure from tight shoulder straps, pain rashes resulting from rigid

underwires, irritation by bra cup seams and so on. The bra is closely fitted to the wearer. It is important

and necessary to evaluate and analyze bra design problems in order to provide suitable methods to

alleviate those problems.

This paper reviews and evaluates the design problems of commercial bras in technical terms of fit,

support, cup shape, underwire, sizing, elastics and fastening. The causes and effects of those problems

are also discussed with physiological concerns. An interview survey with 80 women was conducted in

order to obtain women's desires concerning bra design factors, and to investigate the statistics on the

typical bra components which would commonly cause uncomfortable feelings.

IN T ROD U CT ION was first introduced in the 1920s (Bressier et ai, 1998). As

\\,<I the bra is a next-to-skin foundation garment, it must be

The bra is a shaped undergarment worn by women to comfortable and fit well (Cloake, 2000). Designed to support

mold and support breasts. It usually consists of two cups the soft tissues of ladies' breasts, a good bra is shaped to

held in place with straps over the shoulders and elastic in fit the 3D complex body contours and to satisfy consumers'

the centre back (Calasibetta, 1986). The brassiere appeared needs (Hardake and Fozzard, 1997). According to a recent

simultaneously with the corset in 1900. A small brassiere survey, 42 per cent of respondents singled out fit and

with feather shafts and breast supports were used. That comfort as the important factors for purchasing a bra, while

was the prelude to the introduction of the bra which price, style, reputation and quality were less important (New

would become popular in the 1920s (Saint-Laurent, 1986). NPD Report, 1998).

Throughout the century the brassiere has been the most Many inventors who patented bras and bra manufacturers

essential piece of lingerie. The informal shortening, 'bra', appeal to women's desire to be fashionable and beautiful. In

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THE DESIGN JOURNAL, VOLUME 4, ISSUE J
 PAPERS
~
EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

fact, primary sources show that physicians and nurses were

more interested in the healthiness of breast supporters than in

their fashionability. The evolution of the bra is closely related

to the health reforms that Americans pursued through much

of the nineteenth century (Farrell-Beck et aI, 1998).

The bra has lifted, enlarged, supported, confined,

6
flattened, revealed and modestly covered women's

breasts throughout the decades. However, even though the

II
commercial bras have been developed for more than 100 Figure la: Components of a typical bra: front view.

years, problems of discomfort, bad fitting and poor support 1. shoulder sliders 7. ribbon bow

still exist. It is common to find the problems of overloaded 2. shou Ider stra ps 8. hooks and eyes

pressure resulting from too-tight shoulder straps, pain rashes 3. lace and embroideries 9. underwire

caused by rigid underwires, irritation caused by the bra cup 4. centre piece 10. back side panel

seam on the human body, and many other unhealthy effects. 5. upper cup 11. front side panel

This paper evaluates the common factors of unsatisfactory 6. lower cup

bra design that may cause wearers' complaint and gives a

technical analysis of the problems involved.

BRA
..,.
COMPONENTS

Professional bra design is a lengthy process that requires a

combination of design creativity, precision pattern-making

and a full understanding of fabric and materials (Hardake

and Fozzrad, 1997). The bra is one of the most complex Figure 1b: Components of a typical bra: back view.

pieces of lingerie ever created. By the late 1990s it was 12. upper cup pad 17. plastic bone

composed of up to 43 components, designed with structured 13. cup seam covering 18. elastic upper band

and functional details (Bressier et ai, 199B). Elam (1997) 14. underwire covering 19. elastic under band

illustrates four key elements of a basic bra including bra 15. lower cup pad 20. shoulder straps rings

band, cups, straps and closure. Bra style is commonly 16. centre piece power net

determined by the variation of the above elements. As Different bra components give specific functional

indicated in Figures 1a and 1b, a typical bra is technically support. However, their composition and position may

composed of more than ten pairs of pattern pieces and create certain pressures for the wearer. Makabe et al have

ten types of accessories. As a sophisticated mix of many carried out a test of sensory and pressure measurements

components make-up a bra, any problems occurring in the on 30 females who wore bra samples of various designs

pattern or material will affect its overall performance. (Makabe et aI, 1991). Six points of bra pressure that people

PAGE 34
THE DESIGN JOURNAL, VOLUME 4. ISSUE 3
 EVALUATION AND
.,.
PAPERS

ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

complainted of in terms of comfort or fitting are illustrated

in Figure 2, and the relationship between comfort and

clothing pressure has been identified. It revealed that the

most comfortable bra was 24mm hectograms (Hg) at point 6

where the bra strap and the shoulder line cross, and 11-

16mm Hg at the points of underbust line (point 1) and

lateral top areas of the bra cup (point 4) which varied with
2
the cup type. At the points specified above, the pressure of Figure 2: Six points of clothing pressure (Makabe et al. 1991).

three-quarter cup with wire is higher than that for the full- Point 1, where underbust line and undercup cross

cup bra. It was also found that a 70B (348) wearer preferred Point 2. where the underbust line and anterior axillary

the three-quarter cup wire form type to the full-cup, while line cross (seam)

the opposite was true for those who wore 70C (34C) cup size. Point 3. where underbust line and scapular line cross

Point 4. where lateral area of cup and ribcage band cross

INTERVIEW SURVEY Point 5. where ribcage band and anterior axillary line

~ cross (seam)

An interview survey was conducted with the purpose of Point 6. where the bra straps stand on the shoulder.
assessing women's desires regarding different bra design factors and bra components evaluated in this paper. Table

factors and investigating the typical bra components likely illustrates the result of the ranking of the bra design factors

to cause discomfort. Eighty women in Hong Kong were by the respondents.

successfully interviewed directly. Five open-ended questions Referring to Table I, it was found that comfort has the

were asked and interviewees were able to express opinions highest score. Fitting acquires the closest scores to comfort.

freely. Two major results are shown in the following Then, the sequence is functions, including uplifting and

graphics. These results are useful to understand the current pushing, aesthetic, fashionable, seamless and brand image.

viewpoint of women and also help to specify the design This means that comfort and fitting are the two important

Ranking

Scores 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Total Scores

Seamless 0 3 7 8 6 29 27 lBB

Comfort 30 2B 16 6 0 0 0 4B2

Aesthetic 7 5 B 12 20 16 12 271

Fitting 21 25 13 15 6 0 0 440

Functions: 16 12 23 17 12 0 0 403

pushing, uplifting

Fashionable 6 4 9 IB 22 11 10 215

Brand image 0 3 4 4 14 24 31 175

Table 1. Ranking of women's desires regarding bra design.

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THE DESIGN JOURNAL. VOLUME 4, ISSUE]
 PAPERS
¥
EVALUATION ANO ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

factors of concern to the customers. As aesthetic and providing support to the breast mass. However, bra wearers

fashionable factors are not looked upon as so important complain about the fitting of shoulder straps. It can causes

as others, this paper mainly focuses on analyzing the effect embarrassment when the shoulder straps become loosened

on comfort and fitting of the bra design. and drop off a person's shoulders. However, a too-tight bra

Another result arising from the interview shows the strap can cause headaches and lead to serious nerve damage

distribution of percentage agreement on the typical bra (Storey, 1995). If a strap digs into the shoulder, it not only

components which are likely to cause uncomfortable causes disfigurement of shoulder tissues, but also puts

feelings. They are: 1 shoulder straps, 2 centre piece, pressure on the cervical nerve (Health Watch of the

3 bra cup induding seams, pads, 4 hooks and eyes, 5 University of Texas Southwestern Medical Centre, 1998)

underwire, 6 side panels, 7 plastic bone, and 8 underband. and interferes with arterial or venous drainage (Tedeschi

According to Figure 3, underwire, bra cup and shoulder et ai, 1999).

straps are of concern to more than 90 per cent of the (2) Sports bra. With health concerns, a sports bra is

interviewees. This means these three bra components are a designed to control the excessive movement of the breasts,

common cause of uncomfort to wearers. Moreover, hooks which is especially useful for larger breasted or sporty

and eyes and underband are also likely to cause discomfort. ladies. During vigorous sporty exercise, there is much strain

Designers should pay more attention to those components on the breasts, causing them to bounce up and down in

during design. The following sections analyze the effects vulnerable ways (Stamford, 1996). Without adequate support

caused by the poor design of those parts. from the bra, the breasts may sag or appear unsightly.

Moreover, the wearer would feel discomfort and have

EFFECTS ON POOR BRA DESIGN occasional injury due to stretching of the soft tissue and

~ ligaments of breasts.

1. BRA SUPPORT (3) Strapless bra. For a strapless bra, the uplifting

(1) Bra straps. Among the variety and different kinds of function heavily relies on the underwires and underband.

bra components, shoulder straps function significantly in The rigid underwires of this self-supporting bra make

120
til
llJ 91.25 93.75 97.5
llJ 100
~
llJ 85
~ 80
~c
60 56.25
'-
0
llJ
'00
co 40
'i::
llJ 10
...
U
20
llJ
a.. 6.25
0
shoulder bridge bra cup hooks and underwire side panels plastic bone underband
straps eyes
Bra components

Figure 3. Components that commonly cause uncomfortable feelings.

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THE DESIGN JOURNAL. VOLUME 4. ISSUE 3
 -..
PAPERS

EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

uncomfortable

Non-breathable

underband
compression for the wearer (Nanas, 1964).

rubber spots on the wide and tight

result in itching, breathlessness and pain rashes

u••''',\ e' t'''··
for the wearer. As the pressure from the bra is placed solely (a) Fablic edges

on the elastic band, it may injure the wearer's lymph nodes Figure 4: Cup seam of shell fabric.

(Walker, 1998).

2. BRA CUPS

(I) Bra cup seam. Bra cups are generally manufactured Figure 5: Cup seam of padding.

with a variety of cut and sewn pieces in order to provide the wire, and discomfort caused by the wire poking through

a structure which adequately fits the wearer's breasts. the fabric or chaffing against a wearer's skin (Murray and

However, many wearers feel uncomfortable as the seams Michael, 1999). Figure 6 illustrates the complex covering of

irritate their skin (Osborne and Harold, 1999). A survey the underwire. There are two layers of bindings covering the

of 400 female athletes reported that most bruising and wire in order to avoid the stiffness. However, when the bra

skin irritation occur on the seam across the nipple area. is repeatedly washed the binding surface, especially at the

Referring to some bra designs, the annoyance caused can bar tack area near the centre front, may be worn out, the

come from (a) seam edges, (b) protuberances of stitches in underwire can partly pierce through the fabric and become

Figure 4 or (c) binding in Figure 5. Problems will be more a danger to the consumer (Brown and Teresa, 1998). The

severe if the seams are thick and bulky or the seam is over- international news reported that two British women died

locked by pestering threads. during thunder as their bra wires were made of metallic

(2) Cup fitting. A bra cup's 3D shape can be created in materials that conducted electricity (Oriental Daily

many ways such as seaming, darting, pleating, gathering, News, 1999).

structured knitting and moulding. To fit the 3D curve of a Medical research (Singer and Grismaijer, 1995) has

woman's body, sophisticated pattern construction, knit- claimed that tight bras might inhibit the normal function of

gauging or mould design is necessary. Otherwise, the body the lymphatic system and lead to a build-up of carcinogenic

shape cannot fit into the cup, or can even bulge at the compounds in the constricted areas. A two-year study of

sides. The curved shape of bra cup edges should also be breast cancer involving interviews with nearly 5,000 women

close fitting: when designers draw the pattern of a bra cup, (half of whom had breast cancer) revealed that women who

they should consider the fitting of the bra cup curve. had breast cancer usually wore tight bras (King, 1997). The

excessive pressure on the underbust can cause a barrier for

3. BRA UNDERWIRE

Many women want uplifting support provided by an

underwire, but also hate its stiffness and pressure against

their inner bodies. Problems associated with underwires can

be caused by inappropriate curve diameter and arc length of Figure 6: Sketch of underwire construction.

PAGE 37
THE DESIGN JOURNAL. VOLUME 4. ISSUE]
 PAPERS

EVALUATION AND
•••
ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

the removal of toxins from the breast and this increased the Especially for the strapless bra, the vertical wiring hugs

probability of breast cancer (Silverman, 1998). In addition, the breasts with support mainly given by the underband;

wearing a bra, especially a constricting one with underwires, this will increase the pressure and will hold the

could hinder normal lymphatic flow and lead to anoxia underbust uncomfortably.

(lower than normal oxygen content) which relates to

fibrosis and increases cancer risk (Reed, 1996). 6. HOOKS AND EYES

One Taiwan hospital reported that increasing cases of skin

4. BRA SHAPE AND SIZE inflammation were caused by metal bra hooks and eyes,

It is often reported that 70 per cent (Pechter and Edward, probably because of the hot weather and poor perspiration

1999) or more of women wear the wrong size bra. Badly (Taiwan TV, 2000). The thickness and bulkiness of back

fitted bras can lead to health concerns, especially back hooks would increase chafing to the skin. Besides, the too-

problems. However, obtaining a proper fit is hindered tight fastener would lead to the back of the bra riding up.

because most bras are mass-produced thereby providing a

balanced garment sized by way of average bust girth and CONCLUSION

cup size. Such construction does not consider that one's ~

body may not fit perfectly within the so-called standard. Increased attention to the comfort and fit performance

The variances in the human body over time or the difference of the bra marks the concern of people about perfect bra

among individual shapes are not considered in commercial design. Indeed, poor bra design can create both physical

bra design. A particular bra will not fit two women exactly and physiological problems for the human body. The survey

the same, even though they may have the same bust girth shows that women thought that bra components such as bra

and cup size (Murray and Michael, ] 999). A perfectly fitting straps, cups and underwire are areas commonly causing

bra is important as women can have different breast shapes, discomfort. The research cited in this paper shows that

bust distance or distribution of breast muscles. Ashizawa inadequate support or excessive pressure would cause

et at (1990) showed that female breasts could become well disfiguration or injury of breasts. Besides, for bra cup

developed after wearing a 'well-fitted' bra once a week design, great care is needed to avoid seam irritation, bad

for three months. This reduces the problem of breast fitting, improper shaping and sizing. Attention should also

deformation, especially for those with pendant breasts. paid to the usage of underwire, in particular the curve

diameter, arc length and material of the wires. Improper

5. ELASTIC UNDERBAND accessories and fastenings such as underbands or hooks and

Bras having tight elastic bands and rib plastic bones eyes on the bra can produce the unsatisfactory effects of bra

might affect the sternum and press directly on a woman's design. In addition, the shape and size can directly affect

lymphatic system (Fleischman and Marcia, ] 999) thereby the fitting of the bra and unhealthy problems would also

causing redness, soreness or even breast cancer. The be caused by this.

stressful elastic underband would create rashes or Undesirable effects such as disfiguration, distortion,

oedema due to the poor ventilation and perspiration. rashes, arching or throbbing would be harmful to the human

PAGE 38
THE DESIGN JOURNAL. VOLUME 4. ISSUE 3
 PAPERS
~
EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS Of BRA DESIGN

breasts. Therefore there is a continuous need for design Murray Et Michael, D. (1999). Adjustable support bra and metl10d of
making. United States Patent, No.5,971,834. 26th October.
innovation and improvement of bras for rectifying and
Nanas, E. (February 1964). Brassiere: An engineering miracle.
alleviating those problems. As breast size and shape vary http://www.ruralameriea.net/Naster/boudoir/overfiow/engineer.html

greatly between individuals, the perfect design of bra size New NPD Report (1998). WI,at's driving category growtil for bras.
New York: Port Washington. 8th September.
and style are important. With an aim to achieve a perfect
Oriental Daily News (1999). 29th October, A20.
bra, designers have a strong drive to develop a super quality
Osborne 8: Harold, G. (1999). Seamless circular knit bra and metilod
bra with high performance and proper usage of components of making same. United States Patent, No.5,946,944. 7th September.

Peehter 8: Edward (1999). Metl10d of bra size determination by direct

and materials.
measurement of the breast, United States Patent, NO.5,965,809,

12 October.
REFERENCES Reed, R. L. (1996). Bras and brcast cancer. http://www.all-

\VI natural.com/bras. html

Ashizawa. K.. Sugane, A. 8: Gunji, T. (1990). 'Breast form changes Saint-Laurent, C. (1986). Tile great book of lingerie (275). New York:

resulting from a certain brassiere'. Journal of Human Ergonomics, The Vendome Press.

19, 53-62, Silverman, S. (1998). Tile brassiere: It can really kill you.

Bressier, K. W., Newman, K. and Proctor, G. (1998). A century http://home,nycap.rr.com/useless/brassiere/bra. htmI

of style. Lingerie-icons of style in tile 20tl1 century. London: Singer, S. R. 8: Grismaijer. S. (1995). Dressed to kill: Tilc link

Apple Press. between breast cancer and bras. New York: Avery Publishing Group.

Brown 8: Teresa, M. (1998). Bra underwire stays. United States Stamford, B. (1996). 'Sports bras and briefs: Choosing good athletic

Patent. NO.5,730,641 (24th March). support'. TIle Pilysician and Sportmedicine, 24, 12.

Calasibetta. C. M. (1986). Essential terms of fasl1ion: A collection Storey, K. (1995). 'Women's health: Poorly designed bra straps may

of definitions (64). New York: Fairchild Publications. cause some headaches'. TIle Detroit News, 30th Novcmber.

Cloake, D. (2000). Lingerie design on tile stand: Design for underwear http://www.detroitnews.com/menu/stories/26794.htm

and Iligiltwcar (14). London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. Taiwan TV (2000). http://ofind.sina.com.hk/cgi-bin/news/mkNews.

Elam, C. (1997). 'The bra dilemma solved!' TIl reads. 71, 36. cgi?ID=9453548:Loc=HK. 4th October.

Falla, G. (1999). Stretcil cusl1ion strap assembly and metilod and Tedeschi, A. J., Paschel, B. P., Petrorich, J. M., Poindexter, B. and

device for making same. United States Patent, No.5,984.762. Stamford, B. (1999). Stretch cusllion strap assembly and metlroll and

16th November. device for making some. United States Patent No. 5,984,762,

Farrell-Beck, J .. Poresky, L., Paff, J. 8: Moon, C. (1998). 'Brassieres 16th November.

and women's health from 1863-1940'. Clothing and Textiles Researcil Walker, S. (1998). Bras and your liealth: Is your bra 'lifring and

Journal, 16 (3). 105-115. separating' you away from healtli? Holistic America Publications,

Fleischman 8: Marcia (1999). Non-constricting brassiere. United States http://www34.honeycomb.net/ha/artieles/women/bras.html

Patent, No. 5,944,579. 31st August.

Hardake. C. H. M. 8: Fozzard, G. J. W. (1997). 'The hra design BIOGRAPHY

process - a study of professional practice'. International Journal of
~
Clothing Science and Technology, 9 (4). 311-325.
Cherie Y. C. Chan is currently an MPhii student researching the
The Health Watch of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical
design of intimatc apparel with the Institute of Textilcs and
Centre at Dallas (1998). Bra strap.
Clothing of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU). She
http://www.swmed.edu/home_pages/library/consumer/brastrap.htm
has been awarded a First BA (Honours) in Clothing Studies from
King, K. E. (1997). Burn your bra. http://www.tex-
the PolyU.
is. netluserslkeki ngl Bra.htm
Winnie W. M. Yu is an Assistant Professor of the Institute
Makahe, H., Momota, H., Mitsuno, T. 8: Ueda. K. (1991). 'A study of
of Textiles and Clothing of the PolyU. She was awarded her PhD
clothing pressure developed by the brassiere'. Journal of Japan
in Textiles from the Univcrsity of Leeds, UK. Her tcaching and
Rcsearch Association Tcxtile End-Uses. 32 (9). 416-418.

PAGE 3 9
THE DESIGN JOURNAl., VDI.UME 4. ISSUE J
 PAPERS

EVALUATION ANO
.."
ANALYSIS OF BRA DESIGN

consultancy specialisms are clothing production and quality

management. Her research interests include body scanning,
shape analysis of garment fit and intimate apparel.
Edward Newtan is the Head of Institute of Textiles and
Clothing of the PolyU. He holds the professional qualification of
Fellow of the Chartered Society of Designers, the Textile Institute and
the Royal Society of Arts. Professor Newton has worked extensively

in India, the Far East and the USA. His specialist area of research is
the globalization of fashion and textile design, and associated areas
of manufacturing and retailing.

ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE

~
Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, HK. Fax: + 852 2773 1432.
Cherie Y. C. Chan: Tel: + B52 27666539.
Email: ycherie@hongkong.com
Winnie W. M. Yu: Tel: +852 27666525.
Email: tcyuwm@inet.polyu.edu.hk
Edward Newton: Tel: + 85227666490.
Email: tcnewton@inet.polyu.edu.hk

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
~
The authors would like to express their thanks for the research grant
and guidance from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the
Sunikorn Knitters Limited.

PAGE 40
THE DESIGN JOURNAL, VOLUME 4, ISSUE)

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