SLIDES MODULE IV - Signal Conditioning - MIEL 2020

MODULE IV
Signal Conditioning
Instrumentation II
MIEL-FCE
Dr. Roberto Ambrosio
1
References- books
2
Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning is the operation performed

on the signal to convert it to a form suitable for
interfacing with other elements in the system.
Signal-range and offset changes

•i.e. amplification and zero adjustment
Linearization
Signal conditioning can be Conversions
categorized into: •e.g. current to voltage and voltage to

current
Filtering
•removing unwanted frequencies
3
Principles Passive
Circuit
Analog Operational
Introduction Signal Amplifier
Conditioning (OP AMP)
OPAMP circuits
Design in
Guidelines Instrumentation 4
Introduction
Signal Conditioning
Before discussing signal conditioning, it is

important to understand:
❑ the loading effect.

❑ the buffer circuit.
❑ the difference in amplifiers.
❑ the instrumentation amplifier.
6
Signal Level
Concept of and Bias
Loading Changes
Analog Linearization
Signal Principles
Conditioning
Conversion
Filtering &
Impedance
7
matching
Signal Level
and Bias
Changes
Adjusting the level
(magnitude) and bias (zero
values) of some voltage
representing a process
variable.
8
Linearization
The purpose of linearization

is to provide an output that
varies linearly with some
variable even if the sensor
output does not.
Curtis Johnson
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e]
Conversion
Convert one type of electrical
variation into another.
-Signal Transmission (Voltage
to current, Current to Voltage
converter)
-Digital Interface (ADC
requires 0-5V input)
10
Filtering &
Impedance
matching -Filtering-Eliminate
unwanted signals in the
process-control loop
-Impedance matching-
transducer internal
impedance or line
impedance can cause error in
measurement of a dynamic
variable.11
Concept of
Loading
Concern -loading of one circuit by another.
Thévenin's theorem for linear electrical

networks states that any combination of
voltage sources, current sources, and resistors
with two terminals is electrically equivalent to
a single voltage source V and a single
series resistor R.
12
Tarea- por equipo
Realizar presentación para •
los temas:
1. Earth Ground and Ground Loops amplifier
2. Circuitos de aislamiento – para acondicionamiento
3. Shield and Shield Grounding
4. Common mode (CM ) and d differential

mode measurements signal (DM) in
amplifiers,
13
CM noise
DM-noise
Effect of Loading
Connecting a sensor or circuit to a load
introduces uncertainty in the measurement
(i.e. in the amplitude of the output
voltage) as shown below.
without load: Vy = Vx with load: V y < Vx 14

Example. Determine the output voltaje Vo
Rs
1 mV
100 kW Vo
Electrocardiogram 1 MW Ri
The 1 mV signal from the electrocardiogram is attenuated by

the resistive divider formed by the 100 kW skin resistance and
the 1 MW input resistance of the oscilloscope.
•The output voltage is calculated using voltage
division as
RL
Vy = Vx
RL + Rx
•The output voltage is reduced by the voltage

drop over the internal resistance of the sensor RX.
•To reduce the uncertainty (i.e. to keep Vy ≈ Vx),
RL ≫ RX
Loading effect can be defined as the effect on the source by the
load impedance. Usually loading effect reduces the voltage level 16
of a voltage source
Example 2
An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times
the voltage on its input terminals. It has an input
resistance of 10 kW. A sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature with a transfer function
of 20 mV/°C. The sensor has an output resistance of
5.0 kW. If the temperate is 50 °C, find the amplifier
output.
50 °C ?V
Sensor Amplification
17
Answer
The ideal situation (with zero sensor o/p
impedance and infinite amplifier i/p
impedance) is that:
• The sensor should give 50*20 mV = 1V.

• This is then amplified 10 times to give
10V.
18
Answer
However, due to the non-zero sensor output
resistance (5kΩ) and finite amplifier input
resistance (10kΩ), the actual situation is that:
• The sensor delivers only

10
1 = 0.667
5 + 10
• This is amplified 10 times to give
6.67V.
19
20
21
Principles Passive
Circuit
Analog Operational
OPAMP circuits
Design in
Divider
circuits
Bridge
Circuits
Analog Passive
Signal Circuits
Conditioning
RC Filters
23
FIGURE 2.4 The simple voltage divider can often be used to convert resistance variation into voltage variation.
Divider
circuits
Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Curtis Johnson
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e] All rights reserved.
25
26
Bridge
Circuits
Bridge circuits are used to convert

impedance variations into voltage
variations
27
FIGURE 2.5 The basic dc Wheatstone bridge.

Curtis Johnson
if
it is clear that a particular combination of resistors can be found that
will result in zero difference and zero voltage across the detector—that is, a null.
Zero difference and zero voltage

across the detector-null
29
30
Ejercicio:
Un sensor de temperatura de resistencia de platino (RTD) tiene una
resistencia de 100 ohm a 0C, se coloca en un brazo de un puente de
Wheatstone, cada uno de los otros brazos también son de 100 ohmios.
Si el coeficiente de resistencia de temperatura del platino es 0.0039 / K,
encuentre el voltaje de salida de el puente por grado de cambio en -

temp.
-la carga a través de la salida se puede suponer que es infinito. -

Vs = 6.0 volts. -
La variación de la resistencia del platino con la temperatura puede

ser representado como
31
Curva Termistor
32
El coeficiente de temperatura de resistencia
para un cable es 0.00125 ° C-1. A 300 K su
resistencia es de 1 ohm. La temperatura a la
cual la resistencia se convierte en 1.5 ohmios es
33
Ejercicio 3
Elcoeficiente de temperatura de resistencia de un

el conductor es 0.0025 /° C. A 200 K su resistencia es
4 ohms. La resistencia del conductor será de 8 ohmios.
a que temperatura aproximadamente?
(1) 400 K
(2) 300 K
(3) 600 K
(4) 800 K
34
35
36
*-ve result means that Vb larger Va.
37
FIGURE 2.6 When a galvanometer is used for a null detector, it is convenient to use the Thévenin equivalent circuit of the
bridge.

Curtis Johnson
39
Bridge resolution
-A function of the resolution of

the detector used to determine
the bridge offset.
40
41
FIGURE 2.7 For remote sensor applications, this compensation system is used to avoid errors from lead resistance.
LEAD COMPENSATION
-When bridge circuit may be

located at considerable
distance from the sensor
whose resistance changes
are to be measured.
-Problem many effect that
change the resistance.
-any changes in lead
resistance are introduced
equally into both arms of the
bridge circuit, thus causing
no effective change in bridge
offset

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.8 The current balance bridge.
CURRENT BALANCE BRIDGE

-this method uses a current to null
the bridge

Curtis Johnson
44
Potential measurement
using bridges
A bridge circuit is useful for measuring small -

potentials at very high impedance using either a
Wheatstone bridge or current balance bridge.
-performs by placing the potential to be

measured in series with the detector.
45
Using Wheatstone bridge
FIGURE 2.9 Using the basic Wheatstone bridge for potential measurement.
Using Current balance bridge

Curtis Johnson
EKT314/4 - Electronic
47
Instrumentation
48
Instrumentation
ac bridges
49
FIGURE 2.10 A general ac bridge circuit.
ac bridges

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.11 The ac bridge circuit and components for Example 2.10.

Curtis Johnson
52
FIGURE 2.12 (a) Bridge off-null voltage is clearly nonlinear for large-scale changes in resistance. (b)
However, for small ranges of resistance change, the off-null voltage is nearly linear.
Primary application of bridge circuits

-To Convert variations of resistance into
Variations of voltage
If the range of resistance variation is

Small and centered about the null value Then
then nonlinearity of voltage Resistance is
small.

Curtis Johnson
RC Filters
To eliminate unwanted noise signals

from measurements, it is often
necessary to use circuits that block
certain frequencies or bands of
frequencies.
54
FIGURE 2.13 Circuit for the low-pass RC filter.
Low-pass RC
Filter
-It blocks high
frequencies and
passes low
frequencies.

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.14 Response of the low-pass RC filter as a function of the
frequency ratio.

Curtis Johnson
Critical Frequency=fc
-ratio of the output to the input voltage is approximately 0.707
57
Design Guideline
Find the critical frequency that will satisfy the design criteria.
Instrumentation
58
59
60
FIGURE 2.15 Circuit for the high-pass RCfilter.
High-Pass Filter
-Passes High frequencies
-Blocks low frequencies

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.16 Response of the high-pass RC filter as a function of frequency ratio.

Curtis Johnson
63
Band-Pass Filter
Filter that blocks frequencies below a

low limit and above a high limit while
passing frequencies between the
limits.
64
FIGURE 2.19 The response of a band-pass filter shows that high and low frequencies are rejected.

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.20 A band-pass RC filter can be made from cascaded high-pass and low-pass RC filters.
Good passband filter.

-critical frequencies be as far
as possible
-resistor ratio below 0.01
Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.21 Band-pass response for the filter in Example 2.15.
Curtis Johnson
68
Band-Reject Filter
-Filter that blocks specific range of

frequencies.
-Difficult to design using RC
combinations, possible using inductor
and capacitors
-Most success using active circuits.
69
FIGURE 2.22 Response of a band-reject, or notch, filter shows that a middle band of frequencies
are rejected.

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.23 One form of a band-reject RCfilter is the twin-T.

Curtis Johnson
FIGURE 2.24 The twin-T rejection notch is very sharp for one set of components.

Curtis Johnson
73
74
Principles Passive
Circuit
Analog Operational
OPAMP circuits
Design in
Characteristics
Analog Operational
Signal Amplifier
Conditioning
Specification
76
The buffer circuit
•To minimize the loading effect,
we must look for an amplifier
that has infinite (very large)
input impedance to obtain the
whole sensor output voltage.
•Furthermore, as this amplifier is

probably going to drive other
circuits, it should have zero
(very small) output impedance.
•A device having these two

properties is called a buffer.
One example is the voltage
follower circuit shown.
77
Difference Amplifier
In signal conditioning, it is sometimes required to
find the difference between two signals. This can
be achieved using the following difference
amplifier circuit.
R2
Vout = (V2 − V1 ) 78
R1
The instrumentation amplifier
•The input impedances of the difference amplifier
can be relatively low and, hence, tend to load the
sensor output.
•To have high input impedance, the difference
amplifier is preceded by two voltage follower
circuits to form the so-called instrumentation
amplifier.
R2 79
Vout = (V2 − V1 )
R1
The instrumentation amplifier
•One disadvantage of the previous differential
circuit is that in order to change the gain, 2 pairs of
resistors need to be changed.
•A more common differential amplifier in which the
gain can be adjusted using one resistor (RG) is
shown below.
 2 R1  R3 
Vout = 1 +  (V2 − V1 ) 80
 RG  R2 
Signal conditioning
Now, let us discuss the following
signal conditioning categories:
❑ Signal-range and offset changes

i.e. amplification and zero adjustment
❑ Linearization
❑ Conversions
e.g. current to voltage and voltage to current 81
Signal-range and offset (bias)
Example
Design a circuit to achieve the following voltage

conversion.
0.2 V – 0.7 V 0V–5V

Signal conditioning circuit
82
Answer
• It is clear that we need to subtract 0.2V, then multiply

the signal by 10.
0.2 V – 0.7 V 0 V – 0.5 V 0V–5V

Zero shift Amplification
• This looks like a differential amplifier with a gain of 10

and a fixed input of 0.2 volts to the inverting side. The
83
following circuit shows how this could be done using
an instrumentation amplifier.
Note that a voltage divider is used to provide the 84
0.2V offset. The zener diode is used to keep the bias
voltage constant against changes of the supply.
Example 2-20 (Johnson, page 89)
A sensor output a range of 20 to 250 mV as a

variable varies over its range. Develop signal
conditioning so that this become 0 to 5 V. The
circuit must have very high input impedance.
Answer
Let us develop an linear equation for the output
in terms of the input
Vout = aVin+b
where a and b are to be found. 85

•For the two conditions we have in this problem we
can write
0 = a(0.020)+b
5 = a(0.250)+b
•Solving these two equations gives a = 21.7 and b = -

0.434.
•Hence, the required equation is
Vout = 21.7Vin-0.434
•This can also be written as
Vout = 21.7(Vin-0.02)
•This looks like a differential amplifier with a gain of

21.7 and a fixed input of 0.02V to the inverting side.
The following circuit shows how this could be done
using an instrumentation amplifier. 86
87
Example 2.21
A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100W

to 102W is shown below. Show how the given
instrumentation amplifier could be used to provide
an output of 0 to 2.5V for that change of R4.
Assume that, in the instrumentation amplifier circuit,
R2 = R3 = 1 kW and R1 = 100 kW.
88
Answer
•Clearly, the bridge is at null when R4=100 Ω.
•When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is
found as
 102 100 
V = Vb − Va = 5 −  = 24.75mV .
 100 + 102 100 + 100 
•To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω means
that we need a differential gain of (2.5
V/24.75 mV) = 101.
•For the instrumentation amplifier we have
 2 R1  R3 
Vout = 1 +  (V2 − V1 )
 RG  R2 
 2(100)  1 
101 = 1 +   89
 RG  1 
 RG = 2kW
90
Linearization
•Often, the characteristic of a sensor is
nonlinear
•Special circuits were devised to linearize
signals
•Modern approach is to use computer
software for linearization.
91
Conversion
❑ In many situations it is required to convert
one form of signal or physical value into
another form such as
o resistance to voltage
o voltage-to-current
o current-to-voltage
❑ A typical standard in process control systems

is to use current signals in the range 4 to 20 mA
for transmission. This requires conversion from
voltage to current at the sending end and a
conversion from current to voltage at the 92
receiving end.
Current to voltage converter
93
Vout = − R1 I IN
Voltage to current converter: an
example
• In the circuit shown, the op-amp is
used as a voltage follower.
Therefore, the op-amp output
voltage is Vin.
• The current through the load

resistor, RL, the transistor and R is
consequently equal to Vin/R. No
matter what value of the load
resistor RL is, the current through it
will be function of Vin only.
• The transistor is used at the output

of the op-amp since the transistor is
a high current gain stage (often a 94
typical op-amp has a fairly small
output current limit).

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MODULE IV

Signal conditioning is the operation performed

Signal-range and offset changes

categorized into: •e.g. current to voltage and voltage to

Before discussing signal conditioning, it is

❑ the loading effect.

The purpose of linearization

Thévenin's theorem for linear electrical

2. Circuitos de aislamiento – para acondicionamiento

3. Shield and Shield Grounding

4. Common mode (CM ) and d differential

without load: Vy = Vx with load: V y < Vx 14

The 1 mV signal from the electrocardiogram is attenuated by

•The output voltage is reduced by the voltage

•To reduce the uncertainty (i.e. to keep Vy ≈ Vx),

• The sensor should give 50*20 mV = 1V.

• The sensor delivers only

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Bridge circuits are used to convert

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Zero difference and zero voltage

encuentre el voltaje de salida de el puente por grado de cambio en -

-la carga a través de la salida se puede suponer que es infinito. -

La variación de la resistencia del platino con la temperatura puede

Elcoeficiente de temperatura de resistencia de un

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

-A function of the resolution of

-When bridge circuit may be

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

CURRENT BALANCE BRIDGE

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

A bridge circuit is useful for measuring small -

-performs by placing the potential to be

Using Current balance bridge

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Primary application of bridge circuits

If the range of resistance variation is

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

To eliminate unwanted noise signals

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Filter that blocks frequencies below a

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Good passband filter.

-Filter that blocks specific range of

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

•Furthermore, as this amplifier is

•A device having these two

❑ Signal-range and offset changes

Design a circuit to achieve the following voltage

0.2 V – 0.7 V 0V–5V

• It is clear that we need to subtract 0.2V, then multiply