NEW GENERATION OF FRAC FLUIDS

D.L. WHITE R.B. ROSENE A.R. HENDRICKSON

this article begins on the next page F

PETROLEUM SOCIETY OF CIM THIS IS A PREPRINT - SUBJECT TO CORRECTION NEW GENERATION OF FRAC FLUIDS by J. L. White and R. B. Rosene Doweil Division of The Dow Chemical Company Tulsa, Oklahoma and A. R. Hendrickson Dowell Division Calgary, Alterta, Canada Publication Rights Reserved This paper is to be presented at the 24th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of CIM in Edmonton, May 8-12, 1973. Discussion of this paper is invited. Such dis- cussion may be presented at hie 24th Annual Meeting and will be considered for
publication in CIM journals if filed in writing with the Technical Program Chairman prior to the conclusion of the meeting. INTRODUCTION Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing as a Well Stimulation tool, a variety of fluids and treatment methods have been proposed and used to improve well productivity. Fluids used in this process over the years include: water, lease oil, refined oil, water-oil emulsions, acid-oil emulsions, gelled aii, gelled water, and gelled acid. A recent development has been the introduction of thick fluids with low pipe friction for hydraulic fracturing.
The use oF thick Fluids can increase fracture conductivity by creating wider fractures, carrying larger and higher concentrations of propping agent and improving prop distribution. In many cases the increased fracture conductivity will result in greater production increases. This paper describes the new very-thick frac fluids and low-damage fluids to improve well pro- ductivity. Early attempts to increase fracture conductivity with thick Fluid were only moderately successful. Acid-in-oil emulsions were used ex- tensively in the 1950'sl. These emulsions had excellent sand carrying
ability, tut pipe frictional pressures developed during injection frequently pre- vented proper application for maximum productivity increase. The cost oF the acid-oil-emulsions was also a deterrent to widespread use as the size of treatments increased. Later, Kristianovich renewed I the interest in use of thick fluids to improve the fracturing process. The first successful applica- tion of thick frac fluids was the heavy, refined oil-water dispersions developed by Esso Production Research". These fluids fulfilled the requirements of highly-viscous fluids and established new frac- turing
technology. Increased Friction pressures generated by this type fluid are overcome by special treciting technique in which a water ring is em- played between the thick oil and the pipe wall. Al- though this type of fracturing fluid is still used in treating specific formations, handling difficulties have reduced its overall appeal. The recently developed thick fluids described herein exhibit low friction pressure down tubular goods in addition to high viscosity in the fracture. These fluids generally provide relatively low for- mation damage and fracture conductivity damage. These
an important factor in providing increased productivity where formation sensitivity or detri- mental saturation changes are prevalent. The pro- perties, application, and design of four now aqueous frac fluids and two new oil-based systems are des- cribed. These fluids are more expensive than con- ventional Fluids, therefore proper application is required. PURPOSE OF NEW FLUIDS Well conditions which may indicate the need for I
PETROLEUM SOCIETY OF CIM

THIS IS A PREPRINT - SUBJECT TO CORRECTION I~ - (/7

NEW GENERATION OF FRAC FLUIDS

by
J. L. White 3nd R. 8. Rosene
Darnell DivisLon of The Dow Chemical Company
Tulsa, Oklahoma
and

A. R. Hendrickson
Dowell Division
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Publication Rights Reserved

This paper is to be presented at the 24th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum
Society of CUt in Edmonton, Hay 8-12, 1973. Discussion of this paper is inVited. Such dis-
cussion may be presented at the 24~h Annual Meeting and will be considered for publication in
ell{ journals if filed in writing 1,'ith the Technical Program Chairman prior to the conclusion
of the meeting. '.,

IrJTRODUCTION the interest in use of thick fluids to improve the

Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing as a
well stimulation tool, a variety of fluids and
treatment methods have been proposed and used to
~mprove well productivity. Fluids used in th~s
process over the years include: water, lease oil,
refined oil, water-oil emulsions, acid-oil emulsions,
gelled oil, gelled water J and gelled acid.
A recent development has been the introduction
of thick fluids with low pipe friction for hydraulic
fracturing. The use of thick fluids can increase
Fracture conductivity by creating wider fractures,
carrying larger and higher concentrations of propp~ng
agent and improving prop distr~but~on. In many cases
the increased Fracture conductivity will result ~n
greater production increases.
This paper describes the new very-thick frac
fluids and low-damage Fluids to improve well pro-
ductivity_ Early attempts to increase fracture
conductivity with thick fluid were only moderately
successful. Acid-in-oil emulsions were used ex-
tensively in the 1950 l s 1 . These emulsions had
excellent sand carrying ability, but pipe frict~onal
pressures developed during injection Frequently pre-
vented proper application for maximum productivity
increase_ The cost of the ac~d-oil-emuls~ons was
also a deterrent to widespread use as the size of
treatments ~ncreased. Later, Kristianovich 2 renewed
fracturing process. The f~rst successful appl~ca­
tion of thick frac fluids was the heavy, refined
~Ll-wate£ dispersions developed by Esso Production
Research~_ These fluids Fulfilled the requirements
of highly-vLscous fluids and established new Frac-
tur~ng technology. Increased friction pressures
generated by this type fluid are overcome by special
treat~ng techniques in which a water ring is em-
ployed between the thick oil and the pipe wall. Al-
though this type of fracturing fluid is still used
in treating speciFic formations, handling difficul-
ties have reduced its overall appeal.
The recently developed thick fluids described
here~n exhibit low friction pressure down tubular
goods ~n add~tion to high viscosity in the fracture.
These Fluids generally provide relatively low for-
mation damage and Fracture conductivity damage_
These are an important factor in providing increased
productivity where formation sensitivity or detri-
mental saturation changes are prevalent. The pro-
perties, application, and design of four new aqueous
frac fluids and two new oil-based systems are des-
cribed. These fluids are more expensive than con-
ventional fluids, therefore proper application is
required.
PURPOSE OF WEW FLUIDS
Well conditions which may indicate the need for
thL! highly VlSCOUS f lUld~ ::J.l e high overburden pres-
sures, low reC;t)['VOlr pressul e, soFt focmat1.ons,
hl.yh p(lrme~bi 1, t.y, high temperature, r3pid decline
1.n production, rate !lmlt~t~on5 which prevent opti-
mum des.!gn witli convention:::t.L fluids, or- inten·J.ls
whEre control lIf frac heigh-_ is needed.
Th.: key dl's1.gn factor -:0 determine the effect of
these rilctor:: _-, fractuie clJnductivity under eXlstl.nlJ
fr~ctur~ closu:'e pressure. High overburden pre~sures
p~rticularly ~_th low reser~oir pressure, give high
fracturt cLosu:'e pressurE~ llJhich m;jY cEsult In low
fr:Jcturl2 condu,;tlvlty, The proper cholce of pcop-
pdr.t ;:lnd gre::l1:..!r fracture wi.dth may be necessary at
these high fr3:ture closure pressures (3bove 4000
psi). Ulith so,'t Formabon:.i, prop embedment may re-
duce fr;-lcture :onductivLty. As will become eVldent
in the tollowllg discus0ion. high psrmeab1.1lty for-
m3~1.0nG m:J, re~uir~ greater Fracture conduct1.Vlty fO L
optlmurn ctimul ~tion. The 1m!) vlsc:ositjl of conllen-
bon..'!l i lU1.ds It high tempel'atures may prevenL
obr;::ll.nlng fracture width fOi' optimum fr3ctuce con-
ductlVlly. A ~apid p~oduct_on decline, WherE lower
reservOLr presoure is not r~sponsible, may indlcate
Fr-;Jctun, closu~e 3:2. a possi:JlE result of prop em-
bedment or h1.Qn closure pre,sures. The lmportance
of frG.LI,L:re cO'-lduclivity w.3rrants ;] furthec d.!s-
cuss ion of thi3 key factor.
r!'IPCTUR[ FLOW :APACITY
Fracture flow capaCity, or conductLv~ty, ~s
defined LIS the Pl"lJ(jUCt of e~fecli'Je Fr<::lcturo
pcrme3blJity d,d fracture width_ (For this dls-
cuss lon, ~ f1.l!ed rra~ture l8 ~5sumed ~ft~r- f~actu['e
closure h~ti tJ<en place, The l8rm effeclive fractur-e
permeabll.!ty i3 u~ed here sin~e Lher8 L5 some belief
lhOit an open o1re21 rnay EXlst HI the fr01ctwre :Jbove
th12 prop p:Jck :Jr- through channels. If this i~ the
Cd.,e, then the permeabllity of the f[actlJre m.Jy be
greater I.lnn the pnrmeability of the prop pac"
ltself. Also, 3 p~rt~al mo,olayer does not apply to
this dl':;l.ussion.) Thus. frJctun.' conductlvLty Ill.;.!l
increase Ill~th increas~ng fracture wLdth for a f.!lled
fracture at closure. Till:" impol'Lmce of Lh.!s in-
creased conductulity on productivity inCl-e:.1Se becomes
apparent whe~ fold8 of ~ncrcase are plotted aE 3
function of ccnductiv~ty incr'~21se and perlt~tr<:ltlon ;::.:,
~n Fig. _0 Ulr,ere condur.tiuity r::JtlO:"" <:lLfl low, 3S on
the left of tre curve, no amount of penetratlon w~ll
aFfect ~ large pcoduc~1.vity increase. At higher
conductlvity ratios, as on the r.!ght, sm~ll incre~ses
in p8nEtr8t~o" brlng about large lncr-eases Ln pro-
ductivity. The effect of increased frac width Lhen
L5 to pr-o'Jide conductlvlty ratios that will permit us
to take ,ldvantage IJf increo::sed penetration.
From s. f.. ~:ristL..,novichrs2 work, the following
8.<pres2.!on C.Jr be der-ived fo[ fr3ctur8 width from
sLmdard slot oc fracture f 10111 equ3tions:
The f~ctors 01 interest here are injection rate, q,
and fructure Ilu~d viscos~t.Y7A_ It is apparent
th;:lt an lncre.clse of \/isCOSJ.ty from 10 to 100 cps
would hoJve :.:! far art!.lter cfrl,,~t 0'1 fl J,_LUII' II11dLh
than ,:m incrca~e lr, lnjEction I -lto_· tlOl1l LO Lu .'U
barrels pel' mlnur;e. FurLtJt:lmu[C:, lnCI-'~~I·.111 r lll-
Jection [;:J,te'... qui~l:. ofr..ul l:"" noL rI..!J.,d_Jll' lIdl' LIlli I,
to 8COnOml.CS ;:lila m[<ch,_,r,l(ll 'lIcL1 L.!rn.cLILlun rill
new thiCK frJcturlnlj Ilu.cu,:, pru.li,Jrr 'JLL~.lLly 1.11,_[1'"
ed v~·~cosity. !UthoufJh tne '·'pl·l:_'~llln dLJnv, 1 Illl
I',Jewton1.Cin fluld.:., if. :Jt:!rvc-, to Llemoll,tr"L,· Lill'
effect of vl~co~ily. AcLulllv. 1 r.lLLulV WJJLh
calcuL:Jtion::. berOlne qUiLl..! ':'Ophl'.tu.JLLI1 \Ll[II'II 11'1
r'Jewtonidn flul.lJ~c. fl·...ICtUl·C t,L·om.~tL.", _'I,d :"11"
chang.!ny Lor,U1.r;lOnS of veloclty .101U P[,__ UI" 11'-'
conslderl2d. I~ c.Jn be :...hown, howel/l.'I, LII IL Ltll'
thick.. non-r~cwtonian Ilulds HE' much InIH t' vi I I' lI'llI
i.n cont~nuE'd anL more f<.Jpid ulllJth ul..!./L'Lapnu,·.L LI1 ,I.
the rJewto!l.!.,]n flul.lJ~. ~lJo. I t . ! tl~[Ju[LlnL LII lillI.,
th<lt the cerm "'~i~cosit)" i~ Int: Lni'IO}LI'J'. wlwr, 'J d·l..!
to de::cr.!be non-f·Jewtonl.l'l rloJid.:; !JI11 .. ~~ Ll1l.' 1 nr,-
d1.t~ons Und8l' wh1.ch J t I'. :r1o':'_I~urLl.j ,II [' ~.L.lLI"J. rh..
rheolot~y of the~e r lu'...~l·. 'I'll] UE dl~',U' ,1'U 111 mU[1
deLall later in Lhc plp~l.
The Cre;:ltlcn 01 Wille fr-.!, ture:.... perlll[ L!... Llll' U··,'
or large prop m:::: tGr 1.,,113. He['leo -19.11.n, Vl:"'LU~ltv
becomes .!mport~"t sJ.nce lt p[otllde~ 'Jo'JU prop ~u:·­
pGnSlOn and prop transpor-t Chd[dctori.~L.!1 ~ Lu til'
fracturr: fluid. The thick fluil..l.s Jrl~ '-,lpdUlc ul
tr<lnsport~nCJ hL~lh Lonceni:.r-Jtlon~ of LlrfJr' [JLUP'~ LllLu
::J frd~t!:,rG to 8:; t;lbll ... h oJ hl.'Jhly [Jerme.lblc: pLOp
pad< '.J, Tht~"=' s~me choJ rd'~ LF.:r 15 t lC;' r)n<.1ulu Llll'
th~ck f lU.ld~ to car ry the prop to .J fj[edl •.:r IIL',_
tolnc.e lnto the r8'....!o.r\,oir th'HI lS pos·dbl .. wlLlI mUll'
conventional flll~d~.
LJAmAG[
Potenti:J.1 t.I:::Hn~gc Lo the tormdtll)n ur t[',1l LULL'
conductlV.lty LS ~nc!.C-1ted in ulell.'J ShOW1.I1IJ :-,lOIli Ol
poor return of froc Flulds, ,I lower 1)r-oducLiviLy
~ncrease th~.lll e,p.::ctcd or ~nfon:.,istel1t il'olpon'::'t"
from WE: L1 to IUle'll in i:.he .3clm~ ~rr~Lt, Thu~l-' [J [aulum:.
may re.sult when encounter-Lng form.Jtiuns cont,IHllIh)
welter .sensitive ClLY~ or formations extremely
sensitive to saturation changes of welter (oil lIIell:J)
or oil or w3ter (9'2.S wells). In the.::.e r.;o.l~U~,
careful selection of frac fluid lS r'Jquil'Cd Lo
minimize decrea5es in produclivity. Th~ new gcnul-
ation of frac fluids W<lS ueslgned to mlnimi~8
potential damage 4,5, Two new systems hdVU bel2n
d8veloped to be u.sed where sLLtur3~.ion chQnf]cs or
formation sensitivlty are a major problem. Un~ i'~
3. gelled oil? fluid which has. beE:n very effGctiv8 1.n
oil wells as discussed later. A second syst8m,
prlmarily for gas wells, is unique 9 . Liquefieu
gases are mixed in such a .ratio th3t they rE:mLlin ,I
liquld and behave as liquids as long as they Llrc
under adequate pressure and below Lile cr i tic.ll
temperature for the mixture (e.g., during the
fracturing treatment). The fluid is designed '....0
that after the job its critical tempelLttur~ l~
Exceedfld in the reservoir as the liquid he~lts up,
This allows the li quid to revor t to .1 g..l~ wflidl
results in e.tremely rapid clean-up ~nd no rcsluu Il
liquefied gases arc left in thl" fOrm.':ltll::.rl.
CEf'IERAl PROPERTIES OF (Jew rLUIDS
SE:L'sral cr!.tE:ri<l are common to ;:lll the new
fluids. In add~tion to the main advantaCJes of hllJh
vlscosity, low pipe Friction and low u::::unclgL. luw