Topic 4 – Implementing HRD Programme

PENGENALAN.

How a champion does it?

The Job Instruction (JI) training introduced three key techniques to Toyota. First, the job breakdown
provides a method of analysing the work to determine what is important and how certain aspects of
the job should be performed. It provides the basis for Toyota's propensity to study the work very
carefully and thoroughly. Breaking down jobs is also an integral part of the standardised work
process. The job must be broken down into manageable training pieces so that critical information
can be effectively transferred. Second, the job instruction training method is also known as the four-
step method. The four steps are preparing the student, present the operation, try out performance
and follow up. This is the heart of the process for transferring knowledge effectively.

Finally, the Training Within Industry (TWI) material introduced the idea of developing a training plan,
which Toyota expanded to include the concept of the "multifunction worker." Toyota uses this tool
to assess deficiencies in worker capability and to develop a timeline for improving employee talent.
There is little doubt that Toyota has used the original TWI material for training JI trainers very
successfully. It is our opinion however, that the material in its original state is too simplistic for today
s workplace. Toyota uses the Job Instruction course as a starting point, but over the years Toyota
leaders have developed a deep capability to apply the techniques in the workplace. It is our
experience that when students complete the 10-hour Job Instruction course originally used by TWI,
they will have a limited ability to apply what they have learned. They will need mentoring from an
experienced coach.

Source: Liker & Meier (2007)

This topic focuses on the third phase of the training process: implementing training and HRD
programmes. Both assessment and design issues have been address in the previous topics. Figure
2.3 in Topic 2 shows where these activities fit within the training and HRD process model.

Suitable application accepts that significant need for training has been recognised and that
programme objectives have been spelled out. The programme objectives should greatly influence
the design issues described in the following topic, as well as the selection of training methods used
to conduct or implement training. In this topic, we will focus in more detail on the collection of
methods available for conducting training. Some of the most exciting developments in HRD concern
the increased use of technology in programme implementation. Technological developments will be
discussed toward the end of the topic.

4.1 TRAINING DELIVERY METHODS

We have discussed earlier topics the differences between expert and novice levels of employee
performance. To improve the expertise of trainees in a certain area, training is required. It is
important to look at the expertise level of the employees before deciding on the types of trainings to
be conducted. Figure 4.2 depicts a learning continuum and suggests that novice trainees usually
need more directed or instruction-centred training approaches.

The training methods will change to exploratory or experiential when the trainees achieve a higher
level of expertise through the training (Yin, 2000). More time is required to complete an experiential
method compared to instruction centred approaches. However, they are not usually used to reach
large number of individuals hence, the triangular shape to Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Learning continuum to guide in the selection of appropriate training methods
Source: Yin (2000)

Figure 4.1 is also consistent with the distinction made in the earlier topic between declarative and
procedural knowledge, that is, in most cases, an individual must first learn what to do (declarative
knowledge) before they can learn how to do it (procedural knowledge). An effective training or HRD
programme should first identify where trainees fall along this continuum, and then provide
assistance for all trainees to “move up” toward an expert level of performance. In most cases,
guided and experiential approaches will be used; we will discuss each of the delivery methods.

As mentioned in the following topic, training methods can be classified by whether they take place
on the job versus away from the employee’s normal work setting. We will first discuss on-the-job
methods, and then discuss classroom approaches, which typically take place away from the job (such
as in a conference room or classroom). Yet a third category of training methods includes those that
use a self-paced or individualised approach. For example, computer training can take place on the
job (for example, when an employee works at a computer at his or her desk) or in a computerised
classroom. However, much of the recent growth of computer training has used a self-paced
approach (for example, CD-ROM, Web-based or distance learning) that may be done in a variety of
different settings. Table 4.1 lists the on-the-job, classroom and self-paced training methods that we
will discuss in this topic. Other training methods used for particular audiences (such as mentoring for
management development) will be discussed later in the appropriate topics.
 Table 4.1: Training Method and Techniques
KAEDAH TEKNIK
• Job instruction training
• Job rotation
On-the-job training
• Coaching
• Mentoring
• Lecture
• Conference/discussion
• Audio-visual
− Static media (for example, handouts, books)
− Dynamic media (for example, film, video)
− Telecommunication (for example, satellite
Classroom
transmission, Internet)
• Experiential techniques
− Case study
− Business games
− Role play
− Behaviour modelling
• Computer-based training
• Computer-aided instruction (for example, multimedia CD-ROM)
Self-paced
• Intranet/Internet
• Intelligent computer-assisted instruction

4.2 ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (OJT) METHODS

When training is conducted at a trainee’s regular workstation, it is considered to be on-the-job
training (OJT). Almost all the employees will receive some type of training and coaching done on the
job and this is a common type of method used for training. Any form of training that has one-on-one
interaction between the employees and the supervisor can be classified as on-the-job training. This
form of training is currently being used by most of the organisations to solve the lack of skills among
employees to perform multiple jobs (Scott, 1999). Most of the training are conducted informally
without making use of formal structure, planning and careful thought. Based on research, increased
error rates, lower productivity and decrease in efficiencies are caused by informal on-the-job
training (Jacobs & Jones, 1995). Why do you think that might be? To provide relevant instructional
methods, a well-trained, recognised trainer will be appointed. A survey of OJT practices found that:

(a) Most of the structured OJT programmes are being conducted by supervisors, co-workers and to a
lesser degree, HRD staff members;
(b) For these assigned OJT trainers, train-the-trainer programmes are given in a majority of the
organisations; and
(c) For the structured OJT programmes, they always receive support from the top management.

OJT has two main advantages over classroom training. Firstly, the trainee has an instant chance to
practice the work task on the job and OJT simplifies transfer of learning to the job. Since the learning
environment is the same as the performance environment, transfer of learning is improved. Since no
training facilities are required, OJT reduces the cost of the training. For example, all the training
conducted in Hard Rock Café are OJT. Most training are conducted at the beginning of the new work
shift. Job aids are used comprehensively. Rather than using lengthy training material, there is an
extensive use of graphics and bullet points. This approach was well received by the younger workers
and they are the main workforce of the restaurant chain (Knight, 2000).
However, some limitations do exist for OJT. During OJT, some distractions may occur like incoming
work and some other physical constraints and this could interfere with the learning process. The use
of expensive equipment for training may have constraints to the production schedule. If the OJT is
conducted during the presence of a customer, this may make the customer feel uncomfortable and
thus leads to reduced quality of customer service. If there is a usage of heavy equipment or
chemicals during OJT, this may have effect on the safety of others who are working nearby. The
trainer should be taking proper precautions in order to reduce any problems that might occur from
the areas listed above.

In a lot of incidents, OJT is used together with off-the-job training. For example, classroom-based
training is used to provide training for the new flight attendants of KLM Royal Dutch Airline. During
the evaluation flights, follow-up training is done. Trainings are conducted in front of a senior flight
attendant to show their skills learnt during the training (Jacobs & Jones, 1997). It shows that when
there is strong support from top management and line managers are committed; and the training is
done in a systematic manner, the success of OJT is certain. This is based on a study done on best OJT
practices in the UK. For more difficult tasks, classroom training, OJT and computer-based training are
all used to be more effective (Cannell, 1997).

There are at least four identifiable OJT techniques, including job instruction training (JIT), job
rotation, coaching and mentoring. We will focus on JIT and job rotation for now, and discuss
coaching and mentoring in later topics.

4.2.1 Job Instruction Training (JIT)

JIT is defined as a system of instructional processes used by the trainer to train employees while they
work in their assigned job. This is also a form of OJT. Simplicity is the basis for the content of JIT
programme. There is a simple four step process shown in Table 4.2 which will assist the trainer
prepare the worker, present the work, permits time for practice and follow-up.

Table 4.2: Job Instruction Training

Step 1: Prepare the Worker
(a) Put the trainee at ease
(b) Find out what the trainee knows
(c) Motivate
(d) Setup the task
Step 2: Present the task
(a) Tell
(b) Show
(c) Explain
(d) Demonstrate
Step 3: Practice
(a) Have the trainee to perform the task(s)
(b) Have the trainee explain the steps
(c) Give feedback on performance
(d) Reinforce correct behaviour
Step 4: Follow-up
(a) Have the trainee to perform on his/her own
(b) Encourage questioning
 (c) Check performance periodically
(d) Gradually taper off training
Source: Wexley & Latham (1991)

It is crucial that the workers are prepared as they will know what is expected from them. Training
aids like handouts, training manuals can be used as guidance during the preparation. Trainee should
be able to understand and follow exactly what is done during training. This is how presenting the
task should be carried out. Before the task is being repeated by the trainee, some trainers do show
the task. In order for the trainee to master the relevant skills, practice time is crucial for the trainee.
Finally, follow-up should be done by the trainer as it is to make sure that there is some progress in
the trainee. Coaching techniques can be applied during the follow-up session if required.

For example, Cummins Engine Company combined the JIT approach with the Japanese philosophy of
continuous improvement, referred to as kaizen, in a programme they called just do it training (JDIT).
The JDIT approach begins with instruction on basic principles and then moves to the job where a
need for improvement has been identified. The improvement process follows five steps (Taylor &
Ramsey, 1993):

(a) Identifying issues while observing the work processes is taking place;
(b) Brainstorm possible improvements;
(c) Analysing options for improvement;
(d) Implementation of improvements; and
(e) Analysing results and make changes.

By using this approach, the trainer is supposed to assist the learners and guide them to identify the
possible problem and the solution. The trainer than can reinforce training and provide sufficient
feedback. Based on the capacity of the trainer to bring in their own style into the training process
will determine the success of JIT. Before the start of any training, the trainee’s co-worker or the
supervisor in particular should be able to assess the trainee’s requirements. The training should be
modified to meet the requirements of the trainee.

4.2.2 Job Rotation

By observation and doing a task by just receiving an instruction is called job rotation. As the term
states, rotation includes a series of assessment for several positions or departments for specified
period of time. Supervisors who are in charge of orientation, training and evaluation of the trainee
and they are also in charge of supervising the trainees. The trainee is required to learn how each
department in functioning, policies and procedures throughout the training cycle. The decision to
keep the trainee will depend on the accumulated evaluations done. This is usually done at the end of
the cycle.

Usually for the first-level management training especially for new trainees, job rotation is commonly
used. Before a manager is assumed to be successful is when this technique is used. It is assumed that
the managers have to develop a working knowledge. Recently, Tyson Foods and the Tribune
Company have begun formal job rotation programmes for their information technology (IT) workers,
with the goal of broadening their skills outside the IT area, and preparing them for future
promotions (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994).
4.2.3 Coaching and Mentoring
Coaching and mentoring are the other two forms of OJT. Coaching naturally happens among an
employee and that person’s supervisor and emphases on observing employee performance and
taking actions to retain current performance and correct performance problems. For the purpose of
providing support, junior employee will be paired with a senior manager. These techniques will be
discussed in the following topics, respectively.

4.3 CLASSROOM TRAINING APPROACHES

Classroom training methods are considered as trainings which are being held out of the usual work
settings. Classroom can be anywhere like meeting rooms or even cafeteria where the training can be
conducted. Most large organisations have dedicated space for training while many other
organisations will use any available space to conduct their training. The large organisations will
usually have their own curricula which covers wide range of skills and content areas.

There are always upper hands in conducting training away from the work settings. Conducting
training away from the work setting has several advantages over on-the-job training:

(a) Classroom settings permit the use of a variety of training techniques, such as video, lecture,
discussion, role playing and simulation;
(b) The environment can be designed or controlled to minimise distractions and create a climate
conducive to learning; and
(c) Classroom settings can accommodate larger numbers of trainees than the typical on-the-job
setting, allowing for more efficient delivery of training.

On the other hand, the two potential disadvantages of classroom methods, as a group, include
increased costs (such as travel and the rental or purchase and maintenance of rooms and
equipment) and dissimilarity to the job setting, making the transfer of training more difficult.

Figure 4.2 shows us five primary categories of classroom training.

 Figure 4.2: Five primary categories of classroom training
4.3.1 Lecture Approach
The lecture technique includes the oral presentation of information by a subject matter expert to a
group of listeners. One of the most popular training methods would be lecture. This is because by
providing lecture you can transfer information to a large audience in a short period of time. Together
with the usage of visual aids like charts, maps and hand-outs, it can be effective for a lecture to take
place where theories, concepts and other factual materials can be transferred.

Since lecture method is mostly a one-way communication, it is highly criticised. It has been
recommended that the lecture technique remains the traditional authority structure of
organisations, thus promoting negative behaviour and is poorly suited for facilitating transfer of
training and individualising training (Korman, 1971). Likewise, the lecture has little value in enabling
attitudinal and
behavioural changes even if skilled lecturer may effectively communicate conceptual knowledge to
trainees who are prepared to receive it (Bass & Vaughn, 1966). Trainees must be driven to learn
because when it is used alone, the lecture method does not allow the trainer to provoke audience
response.

4.3.2 Discussion Method

A two-way communication with the trainees and with each other is called the discussion method.
Since active input is stimulated, the discussion technique offers trainees a chance for feedback,
clarification and sharing points of view. To overcome the limitations of the lecture method,
discussion method can be used. The trainer would be the key person who decides the success of this
method as
the trainer has to initiate and manage class discussion by asking any the following questions:

(a) To explain or produce a very narrow response, direct questions can be used;
(b) By making a repetition what others have said makes sure that the message was received as
intended by reflective questions; and
(c) To test the trainees understanding on a precise topic; here open-ended questions can be used.
By just questioning the participant’s discussion are not managed, it is more than that. The trainer
must make sure that trainees are in charged for their responses. The trainer also has to make sure
that the discussion is not controlled by few people but it has to be participated by the entire
participant. It can be difficult to manage discussion in large training classes which comprises more
than 30 trainees. Some of the participant may find it intimidating not get involved in the discussion
when they see large number of people. Opportunity for discussion can be created by dividing large
class into smaller discussion group.

There are some disadvantages on discussion method. The discussion process has to be facilitated by
a skilled manager. This skill is not easy to have. The facilitators would have gone a thorough exercise
and has to be well prepared before conducting a discussion. Enough time should be allocated for
fruitful discussion to take place. There must a general reference point for a discussion to be
successful. Providing reading material will be beneficial before engaging in the discussion as the
participants can have some points to discuss on.

As a whole compared to a traditional lecture, it is believed that well-done discussion is more fruitful
and interesting for most of the trainers and trainees. For this to work in favour for the trainers and
trainees, sufficient materials should be provided and this goes for any type of training being
conducted
(Welty, 1989).

4.3.3 Audio-visual Media

To sufficiently portray dynamic and complex events, there is a limited ability in both the discussion
and lecture methods. To demonstrate the training material, audio-visual methods can be used. This
method is frequently used when it is difficult to describe, show and details. We will look in the
categories of audio-visual which comprises of three methods which are static media, dynamic media
and telecommunications (Kearsley, 1984).

(a) Static Media

Typically involve fixed illustrations that use both words and images, for example, printed materials,
slides and overhead transparencies. By having the printed material like handouts, charts, guides,
reference books and textbooks, permits the trainees to refer to them at any point of time during and
after training. By projecting the information slides, it can be used for common discussion. For a
consistent presentation to take place, slides can be combined with audiotapes. A skilled trainer is
not required for this method. Trainers also can make use of the overhead transparencies to portray
images or other information on the screen. It is more flexible for the trainer to use transparencies as
it allows the trainer to write on it.

(b) Dynamic Media

Techniques that present dynamic sequences of events are considered dynamic media and include
audiocassettes and compact discs (CDs), film, videotape and videodisc. Videos remain one of the
most commonly used training techniques. A recent survey found that 69 per cent of organisations
surveyed use videos for employee training. Audiocassettes are also widely used (by 36 per cent of
organisations surveyed) (Industry Report, 1999). Organisations as diverse as Taco Bell and New
England Mutual Insurance are taking advantage of the ease with which videotaped training
programmes can be sent to employees around the country. By making use of the resources like film
libraries, retail outlets and professional society, there are many ways that a professional HRD can get
hold of commercially produced films and videos. A lot of training vendors focus on the sale or rental
of training videos.

Besides that, many videos are being created by organisation for a lower cost. For example,
Southwest Airlines produced a 9-minute rap music video that introduces employees to work
procedures and all aspects of the company’s operations, while at the same time conveying the team
spirit and fun-oriented culture that typifies the company. The Travelers, a Hartford-based insurance
company, maintains a USD20 million education centre that produces videos and transmits satellite
broadcasts of training programmes throughout the company (Eurich, 1990). Entire training
programmes can be
self-contained within a single film or video presentation.

An effective film or video takes advantage of the capabilities of the medium rather than simply
reproducing a printed or static presentation. Unfortunately, many videos at indeed little more than
reproductions of traditional lectures. Producing an effective training video is not as simple as owning
the audio-visual equipment and having the desire to be the next “Steven Spielberg's company.” Film
and video development involves many activities, including design (like storyboarding), pre-
production (including scheduling, casting, crew and equipment selection), prop and set
(preparation), shooting the film or video, post-production (including editing and sound mixing) and
distribution (Kearsley, 1984). It would be wise for the inexperienced HRD professional to consult a
trained professional to produce (or assist in producing) company films and videos.

Some HRD professionals argue that baby boomers and later generations, who grew up watching
films and television, may actually prefer this form of presentation. Yet, one potential limitation of
this technique is that trainers may rely too much on the film or video and focus too little on the
actual training content. Such reliance can lead to complacency among trainees who view the films
and videos as entertainment, rather than as opportunities to learn.

Videotape is also used as a visual aid for behaviour modelling training by recording actual role plays
and then asking group members to critique their experience while they watch the video. For
example, a sales training programme may include a videotaping segment, so that trainees can
observe themselves performing an in-class exercise on how to close a sale. This approach also
provides an opportunity for the trainer to reinforce desired behaviours. One potential limitation of
this technique is that trainees may feel intimidated by the camera and may even resent the process.
To offset this limitation, the trainer must be supportive and create a” safe” environment during the
programme.

(c) Telecommunication
It is now possible with the use of the satellite, microwave, cable and fibre optics, the transmission of
training programmes to different locations via telecommunication can be conducted. For example,
there are also courses being offered in colleges delivered wholly by cable television and satellite
(Watkins, 1991). The National Technological University (NTU) network also offers interactive,
satellite-transmitted continuing-education courses to engineers and computer scientists in
companies like IBM, General Electric and Hewlett-Packard (Stackel, 1988).

Telecommunication technology also allows organisations to conduct conferences between remote

locations. This technique, known as teleconferencing or videoconferencing, is being used by
organisations such as JC Penney, IBM, AT&T, Domino’s Pizza and Texas Instruments. JC Penney also
sells this service to other organisations (Eurich, 1990). Colleges and universities use teleconferencing
to benefit both their students and corporate clients.

Teleconferencing helps organisations to reduce trainer, travel and facility costs, and it increases the
availability of training to remote locations (Lowenthal & Jankowski, 1983). It is estimated that about
23 per cent of organisations use video teleconferencing (Berdiansky, 1985). The North Carolina
Office of Day Care Services conducted a study comparing the average cost of traditional classroom
training with teleconferencing. It concluded that while teleconferencing cost more for curriculum
and materials development, traditional classroom training cost more for trainer, travel and delivery,
but both methods are considered to be equally effective (Berdiansky, 1985). Further research should
be done to know the extent to which teleconferencing affects the interaction between the trainer
and
trainees (Wittock, 1986).

Computer conferencing is not as widely used as other training techniques. However, given the
availability of personal computers and terminals that are being linked into company communication
networks (for example, corporate intranets) and public networks such as the Internet and World
Wide Web, its use has grown dramatically.

Also, while most organisations use communication networks primarily for business operations, they
have an unlimited potential as training vehicles. It has been suggested that computer networks
should be used to train adults nationwide, although the start-up cost of hardware and the low level
of reading and writing skills may keep some low-income and other potential learners from benefiting
from such a system (Eurich, 1990). The rapidly decreasing cost of videoconferencing systems has
made this technology increasingly available, even to small- and medium-sized organisations (Fister,
2000).

engineers and computer scientists in companies like IBM, General Electric and Hewlett-Packard
(Stackel, 1988). Telecommunication technology also allows organisations to conduct conferences
between remote locations. This technique, known as teleconferencing or videoconferencing, is being
used by organisations such as JC Penney, IBM, AT&T, Domino’s Pizza and Texas Instruments. JC
Penney also sells this service to other organisations (Eurich, 1990). Colleges and universities use
teleconferencing to benefit both their students and corporate clients.

Teleconferencing helps organisations to reduce trainer, travel and facility costs, and it increases the
availability of training to remote locations (Lowenthal & Jankowski, 1983). It is estimated that about
23 per cent of organisations use video teleconferencing (Berdiansky, 1985). The North Carolina
Office of Day Care Services conducted a study comparing the average cost of traditional classroom
training with teleconferencing. It concluded that while teleconferencing cost more for curriculum
and materials development, traditional classroom training cost more for trainer, travel and delivery,
but both methods are considered to be equally effective (Berdiansky, 1985). Further research should
be done to know the extent to which teleconferencing affects the interaction between the trainer
and
trainees (Wittock, 1986).

Computer conferencing is not as widely used as other training techniques. However, given the
availability of personal computers and terminals that are being linked into company communication
networks (for example, corporate intranets) and public networks such as the Internet and World
Wide Web, its use has grown dramatically. Also, while most organisations use communication
networks primarily for business operations, they have an unlimited potential as training vehicles. It
has been suggested that computer networks should be used to train adults nationwide, although the
start-up cost of hardware and the low level of reading and writing skills may keep some low-income
and other potential learners from benefiting from such a system (Eurich, 1990). The rapidly
decreasing cost of videoconferencing systems has made this technology increasingly available, even
to small- and medium-sized organisations (Fister, 2000).

4.3.4 Experiential Methods

We have already discussed training methods which mainly concentrate on presentation of training
content. In this method, the learner is always assumed to be passive, they only receive the
information. David Kolb and experienced learning advocate states that active participation is
required for an effective learning to take place. Keys and Wolfe (1988) summarise this point of view
as follows: This is accomplished by creating a contrived, yet realistic, environment that is both
challenging and psychologically safe for the participant to investigate and to employ new concepts,
skills and behaviours.

Experiential instructors recognise that learners bring to the learning environment a set of
accumulated knowledge and learning methods that are simultaneously functional and/or
dysfunctional depending on the learning situation (Kearsley, 1984; Romiszowski, 1988). Case studies
is one of the methods used in experiential training. These methods fall more toward the exploratory
level of the learning continuum. Each of these methods is described:

(a) Case Study

By presenting other peoples’ story in the organisation who are facing the same problem will help
trainees learn analytical and problem-solving skills.
Real events may be taken as a case or it can be created. We can find the case studies in mostly in
management courses, public administration, law, sociology and similar subjects. They are
increasingly available using video and other media.

While cases differ in difficulty and element, sufficient information should be provided to the trainees
to examine the condition and suggest their own solutions. In resolving the issues, the trainees are
normally required to use a sensible problem-solving procedure that comprises the following steps:

(i) Restating important facts;

(ii) Drawing;
(iii) Stating the problem or problems;
(iv) Developing alternative solutions and then stating the consequences of each; and
(v) Determining and supporting a course of action.

A whole analysis and solutions can be studied by small groups and individuals and later present it to
the rest of the class. According to a 1999 survey in Training magazine, the case study method is used
in about 33 per cent of organisations for employee and management training (Industry Report,
1999).

Proponents of the case study technique claim that this method of problem solving within a
management setting offers illustrations of the concepts students are expected to learn and use,
improves communication skills, and facilitates the linkage between theory and practice. Proponents
also claim that cases allow students to discuss, share and debate the merits of different inferences,
problems and alternative courses of action. Such insight can help students to develop better
analytical skills and improve their ability to integrate new information (Barnes, Christensen &
Hansen, 1994; Naumes, 1999; Wassermann, 1994).

Vigorous critics claims that the case study method can make the group think too much of the past,
inhibits the teaching role of the trainer, lack of ability to come up with generalisations, reinforces
passivity on the part of the learner and endorses the quantity of interaction among students at the
expense of the quality of interaction. It is claimed by Andrews & Noel (1986) that the case study
methods usually lack in complexity and reduce the development to collect and gather information.
In addition, trainees may get caught up in the details of the situation, at the expense of focusing on
the larger issue and concepts they are trying to learn.

(b) Business Games and Simulations

Similar to the case technique, business games are planned to improve or enhance problem-solving
and decision-making skills. This method intends to emphasis mainly on business management
decisions (such as maximising profits). It is estimated that 23 per cent of organisations use non-
computer-based games or simulations, with 9 per cent using computer based-games or simulations
(Industry Report, 1999).

One example is a business game titled Looking Glass, Inc., developed by the Centre for Creative
Leadership. The game requires participants to role play decision makers in a fictitious glass
manufacturing company and use realistic organisational data to make a variety of decisions.

The three-day Looking Glass training programme includes one day each for performing the
simulation (in which participants operate the company), giving feedback and practicing the skills
emphasised during the feedback sessions. Martin Marietta has used Looking Glass as a diagnostic
and feedback tool in its executive development programme (Thornton & Cleveland, 1990). The
developers of Looking Glass have reported research that shows the activities of trainees in the
simulation are similar to those of managers in the field”, and suggests that the programme is
effective, at least in the short term. Business games, particularly computer simulations of
organisations and industries, are widely used in business schools. A review of 61 studies reported
support for the effectiveness of business games in strategic management courses. Whether these
results can be generalised to organisational settings is still an open question (Keys & Wolfe 1988).
Another type of simulation used in management development programmes and assessments
centres is the in-basket exercise. The goal of this technique is to assess the trainee’s ability to
establish priorities, plan, gather relevant information and make decisions. The sequence of events
involved in an in-basket exercise typically includes the following:

(i) The trainees are told that they have been promoted to a management position that was suddenly
vacated. They are given background information about the organisation including personnel,
relationships, policies and union contracts;
(ii) The trainees then receive the contents of the manager’s in-basket. This material includes
documents such as telephone messages, notes, memos, letters and reports;
(iii) The trainees are then asked to read, organise, prioritise and make decisions regarding the issues
presented by the in-basket material; and
(iv) At the end of the decision period, the trainees’ decisions are then evaluated by trained scorers.
The main aim of this method is to force the trainees to make decisions within the given time period.
Since there is lack of time to read all the relevant documents, the trainee is required to make
accurate decision in a timely manner. Based on how the trainees set their priorities and effectively
deal with the crucial documents will be the Benchmark on which they will be evaluated. It is proven
that in-basket technique has helped trainees to improve their effectiveness and in forecasting the
effectiveness of managers, either with the combination of other devices or by itself.

It is difficult to copy the organisation’s culture, history and politics, social pressures in a simulation.
This will decide to what extent the knowledge learned through the simulation back to the job.
Quantitative analysis is used mainly in most of the games and simulation. This analysis is used in
making business decisions and understates the importance of interpersonal issues in the managerial
effectiveness. Based on circumstantial evidence, simulation methods have claimed popularity.

(c) Role Plays

Around 37 per cent of organisations seem to be using role plays as a popular training technique.
During role plays, trainees will be given with a situation related to the organisation, then assign a
role or character and finally act out the situation together with other trainees. Trainees will be able
to learn and discover more about themselves by using this method. A good example that can be
given would be on conflict that may rise between the manager and the subordinates. In order to
have better understanding of the situation, the management trainee will be given a chance to act as
a manager and also the subordinate. There will be an added advantage by using the techniques if a
feedback session is given after the role play where the trainees will be given critics. Most of the
organisation will record the role plays conducted for self-improvement.

Even this method has their limitations. Some trainees will hesitate to act in front of others. So the
trainer should provide enough time in introducing the exercise, detail explanation given and
emphasising how this will help the trainee and others to understand and apply various interpersonal
skills.

A second constraint of the method is the degree to which the trainees are able to transfer this
learning to their job. Trainees might not take the role plays seriously and do not accept them as a
learning tool. They will also disrupt other trainees as well during the training. The trainer has to keep
emphasising the importance of the role play continuously.

(d) Behaviour Modelling

A lot of our behaviour patterns are learned from looking at others. This is suggested by social
learning theory. This theory forms the basis for behavioural modelling. By observing how the
supervisors, managers, union leaders and co-workers behave, the employees will learn their
behaviours. They are sometimes considered as role models. Usually role models can have a great
impact on an individual’s behaviour.

In this method, trainees spot a model acting out a target behaviour correctly and this is usually
recorded on film or video. A discussion of key component of the behaviour will follow. Then the
behaviour will be used in role plays and later obtain feedback and reinforcement for the behaviour
they have demonstrated. Behaviour modelling seems to be a general element in management
training programmes and it is used extensively for interpersonal skills training. We will discuss more
on this method as it seems to be a very effective training method (Burke & Day, 1986; Werner &
Crampton, 1992).
(e) Outdoor Education
Outdoor-based education, such as ropes courses, have generated significant interest from employers
and employees alike, with estimates of over $100 million spent annually on such efforts (Weaver,
1999). This can include work teams being involved with outdoor games, orienteering or rafting.
Frequently, such programmes include either low ropes or high ropes elements. A low ropes course
typically has limited physical risks, whereas high ropes courses typically have higher perceived risks.
Low ropes courses can also be conducted indoors. Both types of courses usually have a strong focus
on group problem solving and team building. While there is evidence that such courses can impact
work team functioning and performance, overall, the empirical results to date have been mixed
(Wagner & Roland, 1996).

Those considering use of such programmes should make sure that the programmes match the
objectives set out for training and that follow-up evaluation is conducted. As Weaver (1999) has
stated, “Too often, the fun, engaging methodology has outweighed the transfer to workplace
issues”.
Given the current popularity of outdoor education, HRD professionals should ensure that proper
assessment and evaluation are included in a programme that is offered.

4.3.5 Self-paced/Computer-based Training Media and Methods

There is a big impact on the delivery of training in organisations by using computers (Marquardt &
Kearsley, 1999). Computer-base-training (CBT) are being used by 54 per cent of the organisations via
CD-ROM in their training programmes, with other multimedia-based efforts certainly pushing the
number of computer-based training approaches much higher than this. One of the main impacts on
the growth of CBT is the arrival of microcomputers and the fast growth in their abilities. During the
early days, one has to access terminals connected to a mainframe computer and software to get
access information. This is time consuming. PCs are now present in virtually all organisations, and
important advances in hardware and software are occurring at a dizzying pace.

Interactivity is the main benefit CBT has over other methods. The communication between the
learner’s computers in many CBT programmes reflects the one-on-one relationship with the student
and tutor: questions and responses can go back and forth; this will result in immediate feedback.
Progressive forms of CBT, like intelligent computer-aided instruction can even investigate the design
of a student’s reactions and errors, draw conclusions and tailor the lesson the learner receives
accordingly. An additional advantage of technology-based training is that it is well suited to “on-
demand learners,” that is, trainees who need (and increasingly demand) greater control over when
and how training is delivered. Three approaches to CBT include computer-aided instruction (CAI),
intranet training and intelligent computer-assisted instruction (ICAI).

(a) Computer-aided Instruction

CAI programmes can range from electronic workbooks, using the drill-and practice approach, to
compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) presentation of a traditional training programme. CAI
software packages are available at relatively lower cost for an extensive variety of material, from
teaching basic skills such as reading and typing, to highly technical scientific, engineering and
machine maintenance topics. CAI programmes are available not only as part of business software
programmes but also through retail outlets, and some have become software best-sellers. Some
organisations do their software themselves from beginning or modify existing programmes to meet
the special requirements. Compared to CAI programmes, multimedia programmes offer better
enhancement because they offer more attractive visual and audio content. Learning process can be
exciting by using the multimedia platform. CD-ROM disk are used to store the video and audio files
as it usually takes a lot of space. Many organisations are using CD-ROMs instead of instructor-led
courses.

Considering the interactive nature of CAI, it has some advantages over other training methods. Till
the trainee reaches an expert level, the computer will provide numerous levels of materials based on
the trainee’s responses. The trainees are also able to control on the speed of the training and make
them self-sufficient learners (Ganger, 1990). Another advantage of this method is that it is made
accessible through organisations internal distribution system or able to get it from the main
computer. This will help to reduce the travel and per diem cost. Finally, CAI offers an instructional
management and reporting system that automatically “tracks student progress and the allocation
and use of instructional resources, including terminals, instructor, and classrooms (Hillelsohn, 1984).

For about RM400, CD-ROMs can be bought off the shelf. However, it is not suitable for an
organisation that has special needs. Another alternative would be creating their own programmes.
Based on Munger’s report, it takes about two to ten hours of development time to produce each
hour of instruction at an average cost of 55,000 per hour of instruction (Munger, 1996). Trainings
that require interpersonal skill building would prefer role plays as the method of training. Also,
traditional training methods might be more suitable for unmotivated trainees who may find it
difficult to complete a CAI programme without the assistance of a trainer.

(b) Internet- and Intranet-based Training

One of the fastest growing technologies would be the Internet. Today, tens of millions of computers
are connected to one another via modems, telephone and cable lines, superconducting (ISDN)
transmission lines, and the Internet (Wexley, 1984). There are five main usage of the Internet (see
Table 4.3).
TAHAP LATIHAN
General Communication
Online Reference
Need Assessment,
Administration and
testing
Distribution of CBT
Delivery of Multimedia
Table 4.3: Five Level of Internet Training
PENERANGAN
Can be used for communication between trainers and trainees for
such things as course announcements, assignments and questions.
Also used for all types of collaborations including threaded discussion
groups, forum and chat sessions between trainees working on joint
and group projects.
Using Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML), the universal
programming language on World Wide Web, trainers can create an
entire library of hyperlinked references. A trainee can access all types
of training-support materials including product manuals, safety
manuals and technical documents.
Trainers can conduct a need assessment (for example, person
analysis), on-line registration, pre-tests and post-tests, scoring,
evaluations and record keeping. Test results can be sent back quickly
and efficiently.
Delivering of CBT programmes can be downloaded as needed any
time of the day or night by authorised employees. A file transfer
protocol, a method for sending computer files over the Internet can
be set up for this purpose.
Interactive multimedia in real time is now possible with the release of
new programming languages. Trainees can now experience
 interactive lessons complete with sound, animation and video.
Source: Kruse (1997)

Intranets are computer networks that use Internet and World Wide Web technology, software tools,
protocols for finding, managing, creating and distributing information within one organisation (Croft,
1996). Based on a survey done in the US, 61 per cent of the workers would prefer to get training
through computers, Internet and TV but another 26 per cent mentioned that they received training
in this manner. (Boehle, S, et al., 2000). Similarly, in the 2000 State of the Industry Report published
by ATD (2000), less than 9 per cent of training is currently being delivered using “learning
technologies” (for example, CBT, CD-ROM, and intranets). However, of this amount, 32.2 per cent
was conducted via an intranet in 1998, and it is projected that 77.1 per cent of technology-based
training will be conducted via intranet by 2001 (State of the Industry Report, 2000). A lot of
technology-based training today is referred to as e-learning, for electronic learning and most of this
makes use of either Internet or intranet technology and systems (Hartley, 2000).

Individuals with different OS like Windows, Mac and other use the personal computers together with
TCP/IP networking protocol to communicate with each other, transfer and download data. To ensure
privacy, limited access is provided by the current technology. Firewalls, encryption and password
would be some of the safeguards. Firewalls are “hardware or software that sit between the Internet
and your company’s private network to form a barrier between your organisation and the outside
world and which keeps track of everyone who tries to access your site” (Glener, 1996). Encryption
capability allows individuals to transmit messages through a deciphering mechanism that encodes
data when transmitted and then decodes at the destination.

For the purpose of training, internal computer networks are used for Intranet-based training. By
using these methods for training an employee, he or she can even be overseas and still undergo
training. Through this method, HRD professionals are able to get in touch with the learners through
many ways. They are also able to perform administrative tasks, needs assessment can be conducted
and course material and documents can be conveyed as well. The main thing here is the tests can be
conducted
throughout the organisation. Large international organisation may find IBT to be very useful.

Most features found in multimedia CD-ROM programme can be found in IBT as well and the ability
to communicate fast for users. With current advances in real-time multimedia technology (for
example, Java, Shock ware and Virtual Reality Modelling Language) IBT is now fully interactive with
sound, video and 3-D imaging, and will compete with disk- based media like CD-ROMs as a primary
means of providing training via technology. Companies like Ernst & Young, whose CBT training
consisted of over 100 CD-ROMs in 1995, now rely on IBT for distributing and updating CBT (Croft,
1996).

An innovative development with technology-based training was the development in 1996 of the
LearnShare consortium. Learn Share, based in Toledo, Ohio, consisted of seventeen non-competing
organisations, including Owens Corning, 3M, General Motors, Motorola, Northwest Airlines and Levi
Strauss. These organisations agreed to share some of their existing training material with one
another, with a particular focus on building up their online training course offerings. In 1999, 103
programmes
were available for use by LearnShare member organisations (Anfuso, 1999). However, in April 2000,
Pensare acquired the distribution rights for LearnShare material. Interestingly, the model of
partnership among the various organisations “has since been overshadowed" by new learning
collaboration options ushered in by the web and e-learning advantages. It is unclear at this time
exactly what will become of the LearnShare partnership.

(c) Intelligent Computer-assisted Instruction

In terms of flexibility and the ability to assess learner in a qualitative manner, ICAI is far better than
CAI. If a CAI able to let the learner to choose from several presentation levels for example, novice,
intermediate and others, ICAI programme able to distinguish the learners ability from the response
pattern by the learner and analyse the errors made by the learner as well. The main aim of ICAI is to
offer the learners with assistant teachers that can provide guidance patiently to the individual
learners. ICAI also encourages the learners to practice and encourage learner’s inquisitiveness
through experimentation. This would possibly make the teacher more accessible for more creative
activities, or for assisting learners to overcome delicate or tough problems outside the ability of ICAI
(www.learningcircuits.org).

While the availability of ICAI programmes is limited compared to that of CAI, the potential for ICAI is
enormous. Some examples of ICAI programmes are the LISP computer language tutor from
Carnegie-Mellon University and the Navy’s STEAMER programme, which allows students to learn to
operate and repair a ship’s complex steam propulsion system. Expert systems, like Campbell Soup’s
cooker maintenance programme ALDO, which capture the knowledge and experience of experts in a
particular field or content area, are also considered ICAI programmes. With the foundation of
artificial intelligence, ICAI programmes are developed which include engineering some features of
the human thought process into a computer.

Artificial intelligence research is uncovering ways to improve ICAI programmes’ capability to use
natural language to interact with the learner and to understand the learner (by tracking learner
responses and learning from them). Given the rate of progress in computer hardware, software,
artificial intelligence, and knowledge engineering (designing and organising information and finding
effective ways to present it), it would not be surprising to see ICAI programmes become common in
training and educational programmes in the not-too-distant future.
4.4 ISSUES CONCERNING TRAINING PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION
How can we select which method to use in delivering training? Trainers should make this decision
while simultaneously considering the objectives to be achieved, the resources available and trainee
characteristics and expertise. While trends are clearly moving in the direction of technology-based
training, this may not be the best solution for every training situation. In this regard, we present to
you an interesting response to the “e-learning bandwagon”.

The primary responsibility for implementing the training programme lies, of course, with the trainer.
In Topic 3, we discussed the preparation of training objectives and the lesson plan, as well as issues
involved in determining the best schedule. In this topic, we focused on the selection of training
methods. Obviously, at some point, the trainer must pull all of these issues together and put them
into practice. Some final thoughts are presented toward this end.

4.4.1 Arranging the Physical Environment

For the learners to be comfortable and able to concentrate during training, the environment plays a
crucial role especially in on-the-job training. If the OJT area has a number of distractions (like noise
and phone calls) that may interfere with the training process, so trainer must find ways to remove or
minimise them. Interruptions are another common OJT distraction, particularly when the supervisor
is the trainer. Interruptions can be avoided by setting aside certain times of the day or a special
location for training that is free from distractions.

Alternatively, the supervisor can arrange for someone who is not receiving training to handle calls
and inquiries during the time established for training. In a classroom setting, a number of factors
should be considered when arranging the physical environment. These include the seating
arrangement, comfort and physical distractions. Seating is important because it establishes a spatial
relationship between the trainer and the trainees. For example, a classroom with fixed seats in
vertical rows limits what the trainer can do in that setting, but this arrangement may be preferred
for the lecture technique because it allows the participants to focus on the lecturer. In a classroom
with movable seats, the trainer can arrange the seats to facilitate the programme objectives.
Arranging the rows on angles (or a chevron shape) or in a semi-circle allows the trainees to view one
another during a class discussion. This arrangement can encourage interaction and feedback among
the participants. In a large class, the seats can be arranged in small groups to facilitate group
discussion.

The physical comfort level is also important for successful learning. Extreme room temperature can
inhibit learning. A warm, stuffy room can make participants feel tired. A room that is too cold can
distract participants and reduce manual dexterity. One of the authors recalls participating in a
management development seminar in a room so cold that trainees spent more time focusing on
how uncomfortable they were (and consuming hot beverages) than dealing with the training
content.

The third factor that should be considered when arranging the physical environment is the potential
for physical distractions, such as noise, poor lighting and physical barriers. Noise, including activity
outside the classroom, can often be controlled by closing the door or placing a sign stating, “Quiet:
Training in session,” outside the area. Inappropriate lighting can make it difficult for participants to
take notes, read printed material or overheads, or render projected material unviewable. If possible,
the trainer should inspect the room in advance to determine whether any physical barriers, such as
poles, fixed partitions and the like, will interfere with the planned activities. If such problems exist, it
may be possible to find a more suitable location.

Additional physical factors a trainer may want to consider include wall and floor coverings and
colours (carpeted rooms are quieter), the type of chairs, the presence of glare, windows (a view may
distract participants), acoustics and the presence of electrical outlets to run necessary equipment
(Nilson, 2000). Also, whenever possible, the screen for overheads or computer slides should be
arranged in such a way that it does not block off simultaneous use of the white board or flip chart.

4.4.2 Getting Started

Having all the elements needed to implement a HRD intervention or programme − a viable lesson
plan, materials, audio-visual and/or computer equipment on hand and the physical environment
ready − the final step is to do it! It is important for the trainer to get the programme off to a good
start and maintain it. If multiple sessions are scheduled, the first session sets the tone for the
remainder of the programme. As we discussed, a trainer can establish clear expectations by
preparing a course outline or syllabus that explains the purpose, objectives, topics and requirements
that establish class norms for relevant issues (punctuality, participation, participant interaction, etc.).
The course outline should be handed out and explained in detail during the first session and, if
needed, restated and reinforced periodically throughout the training programme.
In addition to establishing expectations, the trainer should try to determine each Trainee’s capacity
and motivation to learn, if he or she has not already done so before the session. One way to make
this determination is to conduct an initial exercise or pre-test to assess initial ability. This may be
particularly important in one-on-one OJT sessions. Rather than assess participant motivation, it may
be more beneficial to include activities that reinforce motivation. Such activities could include asking
participants what they would like to accomplish, illustrating the benefits of achieving the training
objectives, explicitly addressing participants’ fears or concerns, or having participants complete a
learning contract.

Many training programmes include some sort of icebreaker exercise to help participants get to know
one another and establish rapport with one another and the trainer. This is important for at least
two reasons. First, one of the benefits of many HRD programmes is the opportunity for participants
to network and get to know their colleagues in other parts of the organisation. Second, in HRD
programmes, as in any group setting, people generally seek social acceptance. For instance, in
classes with one or two minority group members (ethnic, racial, gender, etc.), these individuals may
feel socially isolated, which can affect their ability to perform effectively in that setting. It is
important that the trainer be sensitive to the social needs of trainees and respond in ways that
enhance their feelings of belonging.

Finally, the trainer should make every effort to build a climate characterised by mutual respect and
openness. This in turn will make it easier for trainees to seek help when they need it. Many skills are
involved in effectively running a group meeting, teaching or facilitating learning. The trainer is
encouraged to read about the subject and seek out opportunities to build the trainees’ platform and
interpersonal skills. One good source of reference for inexperienced trainers is the book Training and
Development Yearbook by Carolyn Nilson (Nilson, 2000). This annual yearbook includes reprints of
articles, cases and other materials concerning HRD. A final section is entitled “The trainer’s
almanac,” and includes a list of conferences, print resources and a rating of training websites.
Professional journals like Training & Development and Training also include frequent articles on
effective training skills. In addition, becoming involved in a local talent development association can
be very beneficial.

RUJUKAN.

Assiociation for Talent Development (ATD). (2000). State of the industry report. Alexandria, VA:
Author.

Boehle, S, et al. (2000) Workers praise Internet but bemoan lack of training. Training, 37(5), 26.

Fister, S. (2000). Tech trends. Training, 30, 32.

Hartley, D. (2000). All aboard the e-learning train. Training & Development, 54(7), 37-42.

Knight, J. (2000). The school of hard rocks. Training, August, 36-38.

Nilson, C. (2000). Training development yearbook. Pilamus, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Yin, L. R. (2000). Learning continuum, Retrieved from http://facstaff.uww.edu/yinl/
edmedia2000/dlp-ppt/sld018.htm.