The TCP/IP reference model does not specify the responsibilities of the layers below the internet

layer, except that the host should connect to the network using some protocol so that it can
send IP packets.

2.3 A Hybrid Reference Model

The OSI reference model was created to be a guideline for implementing network protocols which
conformed to international standards. However, it was not widely adopted due to its complexity
and due to the widespread use of the TCP/IP protocols. The TCP/IP reference model was
created as an afterthought to describe the existing implementation of the widely used TCP/IP
protocols. The downside of this model was that it was not suitable for describing non-TCP/IP
networks like Bluetooth.

For pedagogical convenience, a hybrid reference model has been widely adopted in literature
which is shown in Figure 2.2c. It essentially looks like the OSI model with the exception of the
session and presentation layers. However, the coverage of the transport and network layers in
this hybrid model will focus on the TCP/IP protocols which is justified by their widespread use.

In this course, we will use the hybrid reference model to organize related topics.

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