Regina Pricilla

Pre Proposal of Dissertation

Food Consumption Motivation, Satisfaction and Repurchase
Intention: Tourists Visiting Queensland
The Effect of the Gastronomic Offer in Choosing Tourism Destination:
The Case of Queensland

Introduction
1. Background to the Study

Eating, which in today’s world is one of the physical needs and in relation with the
developing tourism sector and food and beverage industry, has led to the emergence
of a sector that has become to be seen as leisure time activities and desired to be met
outside. Almost all tourists, no matter the accommodations at which they are staying
provide food and beverages services or not, prefer to eat outside; and get to know and
taste the local food belonging to the region (Sormaz, Akmese Gunes and Aras, 2016).
Within this context, local food of a region have become important means to get to
know and learn more about a different culture (Kastenholz and Davis 1999; Gyimothy
et al., 2000; Joppe et al., 2001).

A tourist might want to visit an area to have some new cultural experience, or they
just want to try local food and different tastes belonging to that area as well. As a
result of this, such reasons as trying local food of an area and observing production
phases of and tasting a local food which is made of a raw material available only in
that specific region have now begun to be among the main reasons that affect tourists’
preferences for destinations to visit.

Food, accommodation and transport are usually viewed as supporting experiences

during a trip; however, the whole travel experience may ‘go sour’ because of
dissatisfaction with the available food. By contrast, supporting experiences such as
enjoyment in eating exotic food, in certain circumstances, may turn into a peak
experience (Quan & Wang, 2004). Moreover, in 2016 the renowned tourism news
resource Skift called food the ‘leading hook in travel’, indicating that globally, food
has become the biggest motivator for consumers to discover new places, and the key
to discovering the essence of each destination (UNWTO, 2017).

Food has assumed a key role in tourists’ decision making, satisfaction and
behavioural intentions, and it has also been central in promotional destination
strategies and for the organisations that make up the tourism industry such as tour
operators, travel agents and airlines (Rimmington and Yüksel, 1998, p. 40; Kivela and
Crotts, 2006, pp. 369-370; Henderson, 2009, p. 317; Chang et al., 2011, p. 307). Food
can help destinations to develop a distinguishing gastronomic identity by branding
their cuisine with a nationality (e.g. Chinese, British Food Journal French, Italian,
Turkish, and Mexican) (Okumus et al., 2007, p. 253; Henderson, 2009, p. 321) and
can provide coherent alternatives for destinations that lack natural and historical
resources. For example, a destination with shortages of sea, sun and sand, could be a
leading tourism destination for its vineyards and wines (Kivela and Crotts, 2006, p.
359). In addition to these factors, the economic benefits that can be obtained from
tourists’ food consumption can substantially influence the economic condition and
 Regina Pricilla

competitiveness of the tourism business and destinations (Henderson, 2009, p. 321;

Mak et al., 2012, p. 929; Sanchez-Cañizares and Castillo-Canalejo, 2015, p. 2405).
These wide-ranging effects of food explain why gastronomy has become the major
focal point of tourism.

Gastronomy tourism is big

Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism or food tourism is a form of tourism that is
based on the strength owned by the culinary aspects of a country, region, or area.
Gastronomy tourism is not only offer various types of dishes as an object of tourism
attraction, but also includes a variety of food-related attributes ranging from
constituent ingredients, preparation and processing method, manner of presentation,
flavor aspects and nutritional contents, cultural values and traditions, as well as other
information can be described by a type of dish (Sukenti, 2014). Food, accommodation
and transport are usually viewed as supporting experiences during a trip; however, the
whole travel experience may ‘go sour’ because of dissatisfaction with the available
food. By contrast, supporting experiences such as enjoyment in eating exotic food, in
certain circumstances, may turn into a peak experience (Quan & Wang, 2004).
Moreover, in 2016 the renowned tourism news resource Skift called food the ‘leading
hook in travel’, indicating that globally, food has become the biggest motivator for
consumers to discover new places, and the key to discovering the essence of each
destination (UNWTO, 2017).
Important
Previous research related to food tourism has indicated that local food products can
help the sustainability of tourism in a region. More specifically, it contributes to brand
identity, enhances destination attraction, and also keeps money in the region by
avoiding the importation of expensive foreign food (Sims, 2009). Local food and
drink is regarded as important for those who want to experience the local culture and
tradition. A study carried out in 2015 by Tourism Australia, found that local cuisine
was actually ranked ahead of the country’s world class beautiful natural attractions
when it came to holiday decision making in the country.

The developed world is experiencing a dramatic upsurge of interest in artisan foods,

food markets and promoting regions on the basis of their local produce. In the global
market long-term competitive advantage will be gained by differentiation on the basis
of what is unique to a place, not on the production of low-value undifferentiated
product. Promotion of the interrelationships between food and tourism should
therefore continue to be an essential component of the place marketing and
development mix if rural places in the developed countries, as elsewhere around the
world, are to thrive in the global food and tourism environment of the twenty-first
century (Hall et. al.l, 2003).

According to Hall & and Sharples (2003), gastronomy tourism is “visitation to

primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and specific
locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food
production region are the primary motivating factor for travel” (Hall & Mitchell,
2002). Thus, they narrow the scope of gastronomy tourism by stating that gastronomy
tourism occurs when the food of a place acts as a primary motivator to travel to the
destination.
 Regina Pricilla

Since the early 1970s rural regions in industrialized societies have been very
substantially affected by successive rounds of economic restructuring. In response to
loss of services and traditional markets, and removal of tariffs and regional support
mechanisms, rural areas have sought to diversify their economic base, with new
agricultural products and tourism being two such responses. Food tourism strategies
are therefore a significant instrument of regional development particularly because of
the potential leverage between products from the two sectors (Hall, 2002; Taylor and
Little 1999; Telfer 2001a; 2001b). Wine and culinary tourism, particularly with a
regional flavour, is becoming big business in Australia. Indeed, a number of
Australian States and regions have placed substantial emphasis on the development of
the food and wine product. For an example, in New South Wales (NSW), former
NSW Tourism Minister, Mr Brian Langton, stated that ‘NSW will embrace food and
wine as an integral part of the visitor experience, and the focus of food and wine will
broaden the destination appeal of NSW, and encourage more first time visitors to
come back for seconds’ (Langton, 1996). As part of the food initiatives the state
government developed a Food and Wine in Tourism Plan and established a culinary
tourism advisory committee (Hall and Macionis, 1998).

Undoubtedly, the extent of expenditure on food as a component of travel and tourism

is significant and helps explain the interests of both government and business.
According to Tourism Research Australia, the average international visitor in
Australia consumed $4,361 in 2015–16, 1.0% more than the previous year. For every
dollar spent by international visitors, 14 cents was spent on accommodation, 17 cents
on long-distance transport, 14 cents on shopping, and 12 cents on takeaway and
restaurant meals; 14 cents on education services, with demand especially high from
Asian markets.

Hence, industries that contributed most to direct tourism employment across each
state and territory in 2015–16 were:
 Food services – a 23% to 31% share of total employment
 Retail trade – a 15% to 19% share of total employment
 Accommodation – a 13% to 22% share of total employment
 Education and training – a 4% to 10% share of total employment.
Chart Figure 1 provides more detailed information on these state and territory
breakdowns.
 Regina Pricilla

ChartFigure 1 - Industry contributions by State and Territory, 2015-16

Sources: TRA’s estimates (for states/territories) and ABS (2016) (for Australia)
*Refers to cafes, restaurants and take-away food services ADD SOURCE(Tourism
Research Australia, 2017)

In the case of Queensland, the four most significant industries for tourism
contribution are transport, accommodation, food services (i.e. cafes, restaurants and
takeaways) and retail trade – in total, making up around 66% of all tourism sector
direct output. According to Queensland Regional Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-
16, tourism consumption1 in Queensland totalledtotaled $30.0 billion, of which
consumption in Brisbane accounted for 27% ($8.0 billion). Other tourism
destinations, such as Gold Coast (21% or $6.4 billion), Tropical North
Queensland/TNQ (14% or $4.2 billion) and Sunshine Coast (13% or $4.0 billion)
made up the bulk of the remaining consumption (refer to Figure Chart 2 for details).

1
Tourism consumption is the total value of goods and services consumed by domestic and
international visitors in Australia. It is measured in purchasers’ prices – the price the visitors pay,
including taxes, subsidies, and other mark-ups
 Regina Pricilla

Chart Figure 2 - Regional tourism consumption at purchasers prices, 2015-16

Source: Deloitte Access Economics’ Regional TSA model (

Previous research related to food tourism has indicated that local food products can
help the sustainability of tourism in a region. More specifically, it contributes to brand
identity, enhances destination attraction, and also keeps money in the region by
avoiding the importation of expensive foreign food (Sims, 2009). Local food and
drink is regarded as important for those who want to experience the local culture and
tradition. A study carried out in 2015 by Tourism Australia, found that local cuisine
was actually ranked ahead of the country’s world class beautiful natural attractions
when it came to holiday decision making in the country.

The relationship between tourism, food, and gastronomy is becoming closer (Boyne,
Hall, & Williams, 2003). Through analysing and discussing the different perspectives
outlined above, the importance, benefits, and necessities of developing food tourism
have been identified. It is clear that food is an important component of tourist
destination promotion world-wide (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000) as well as a useful
attraction for certain visitors (Hegarty & Barry, 2001; Henderson, 2009). However,
although the literature supports the idea that food tourism is needed both by host
countries and tourists, there is a need for further research to explore the food
consumption motivation of tourists who visit Queensland, their satisfactions, and
repurchase intention, as well as examining the relationship between customer
satisfaction, need satisfaction, and repurchase intention. The results of this research
are expected to provide useful information to tourism managers so that they can re-
examine their services, redesign their products, and by developing new marketing
strategies, finally increase their visitor numbers.
 Regina Pricilla

2. Research Aim, Issues and Objectives

Aim of the Research

This research aims to explore the food consumption motivations of tourists who visit
Queensland, their satisfactions, and repurchase intention, as well as examining the
relationship between, need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention.

Research Objectives

To achieve the aim of the research six objectives have been defined. These objectives
are as follows.
1. To explore the food consumption motivations of tourists when visiting
Queensland.
2. To investigate tourists’ need (motivation) satisfaction after visiting Queensland.
3. To investigate tourists’ overall satisfaction after visiting Queensland.
4. To investigate tourists’ repurchase intention after visiting Queensland.
5. To investigate the relationship between need satisfaction and overall satisfaction.
6. To investigate the relationship between need satisfaction and repurchase intention.

3. Justification for the Research

The research is significant and its importance will be discussed in three parts: its
theoretical, methodological and practical contributions.

Theoretical contributions: Previous research investigated the predictive relationship

between tourists’ customer satisfaction and need satisfaction (Kao, 20017). However,
the research did not examine the relationship between need satisfaction and overall
satisfaction, and this research will examine these relationships. Hence, the
relationship between overall need satisfaction and repurchase intention has not been
previously studied, and this research will investigate this relationship. The findings
will help researchers in the field of food consumption motivations and tourist
customer satisfaction, to integrate these two approaches and to help establish that
need satisfaction and overall satisfaction are different concepts, and that the
satisfaction of tourist motivations is influenced by need satisfaction. Furthermore,
overall need satisfaction is also expected to influence repurchase intention.

Methodological contributions: Several researchers (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola 1991;

Iso-Ahola & Allen 1982) have argued that a pre and post methodology was important
for motivation and satisfaction studies because motivations may change after the trip.
Therefore, this research has used a pre and post survey, and this methodology
provides a new approach to examine the relationships between the local food
consumption motivations of tourists, customer satisfaction, motivation (need)
satisfaction and repurchase intention.

Practical contributions:
Food services has become one of the most significant industries for tourism
 Regina Pricilla

contribution in Queensland. The extent of expenditure on food as a component of

travel and tourism is significant and helps explain the interests of both government
and business. This research will benefit managers in the tourism industry because the
results will provide sufficient data about the food consumption motivations of tourists
who visit Queensland, their satisfaction levels, and their future intentions to revisit
Queensland. This data will help managers to make better informed business decisions,
improve services, and develop new promotional strategies.
The Tourism and Events Queensland recorded the international visitors to
Queensland (by region) in the year ending June 2017. The Brisbane market recorded
growth of 3.9% in international visitation, welcoming a record 1.2 million visitors
(holiday visitation was at a record high of 654,000 visitors), with top three source
markets remained China, New Zealand (NZ) and the United Kingdom (UK).
International visitation to the Gold Coast grew by 7.2% to a record-high 1.1 million
visitors (holiday visitation at a record high of 841,000 visitors) with top five source
markets remained China, NZ, UK, Japan and the United States of America (USA).
The Sunshine Coast market recorded high international visitation, with visitor
numbers up by 11.6% to 296,000; holiday visitation was at a record high of 233,000
visitors with top three source markets remained NZ, the UK and Germany.
International visitation to TNQ grew by 4.5% to 898,000, this growth was driven by
the holiday market which grew by 4.7% to reach a record high of 837,000 visitors.
China remains the largest source market, with stable visitation in the year ending June
2017. Visitation grew from USA Japan and Germany while UK visitation softened
(refer to Chart 3 for details)
 Regina Pricilla

Chart 3 - International visitors by region and source market

Source: Tourism & Events Queensland (2017)

 Regina Pricilla

Overall aim
The objective of this study is to identify the local food consumption motivations of tourists
during their holiday.

Theoretical justification
The literature supports the idea that identify culinary tradition creates opportunities to
attract tourists with a new specific element, there is a need for further research on the
motivations for consumption of local food in holiday (Brokaj, 2014).

Methodological justification
This study will also contribute to the theoretical understanding in the field of food tourism
research. This study will use the Means-end Chain (MEC) Theory to capture the motivational
antecedents of tourists’ experiences and and confirm that this theory is appropriate in in
gaining an insight into the motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. Although various scholars have explored aspects of the MEC approach,
most MEC research was conducted for consulting purposes to address practical marketing
problems (Olson and Reynolds, 2001). Thus, it should be admitted that there are still some
methodological and theoretical issues unresolved in MEC theory. For example, more
empirical studies are needed to address problems such as the comparison of different forms of
attribute elicitation, while the impact of situational specificity requires more rigorous
statistical treatment (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001). Should researchers collect sufficient data
and conduct research with rigorous processes, it is believed that all the above challenges are
inherently solvable (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001).

Practical importance
This research could assist the local governments and tourism authorities when planning
promotional activities to attract more people to visit area or to increase tourists spending in
the destination. From the perspective of restaurateurs, they should understand the
expectations of tourists and provide satisfactory service and products by bringing to light
peculiar foods of area with new flavors and authentic ingredients.

4. Literature review
However, although the literature supports the idea that identify culinary tradition
creates opportunities to attract tourists with a new specific element, there is a need for
further research on the motivations for consumption of local food in holiday (Brokaj,
2014).
According to Stanley J. & and Stanley L. (2015), the ‘true’ food tourist is interested in
restaurants that focus on local foods and local traditions. Conventional restaurants would not
fit into the food tourism category. A ‘true’ food tourist restaurant includes restaurants such as
Sat Bains in Nottingham in the UK (www.restaurantsatbains.com). Sat Bains is a Michelin
chef who will only source food that is grown or raised within the local postal code. Research
carried out in January and February 2014 in Australia by Colmar Brunton Omnibus on behalf
of the Australian Farmers Markets Association1 shows that 14% of shoppers now use
farmers’ markets to purchase vegetables and 4% purchase directly from the farmer. Many
businesses around the world are concerned about their viability, in the new world order, food
tourist ventures around the first world are ideally situated to take full advantage of the ‘trust
shift’ taking place in society. The consumer wants to support local businesses who have ideas
and solutions and who appeal to their ‘values’. This means food tourism business operators
have to be proactive and build a strong relationship with target consumers. This is an
 Regina Pricilla

advantage that regional, national and international businesses will find increasingly difficult
to implement and it gives the local businesses an extra opportunity. As an example, a
research on characteristics of soybean sprout locally cultivated in the Jeonju region (South
Korea), used for Bibimbap and Kongnamul-gukbap (traditional food) showed that soybean
sprouts cultivated with groundwater from the Jeonju region resulted in a sweeter taste and a
more delicious and crunchier texture (Lee, 2015). As soybean sprout is one of the essential
food ingredients for Bibimbap and Kongnamul-gukbap, it eventually increased the quality
experience with gastronomy in Jeonju region.
Lastly, the current research is conducted with international tourists’ sample from China, NZ,
UK, Japan, USA and Germany. The Tourism and Events Queensland recorded top source
markets for Brisbane, Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast and TNQ remained China, NZ, UK, Japan,
USA and Germany in the year ending June 2017. This study can help Queensland tourism
authorities and the restaurateurs to pay more attention what tourists may desire to experience
when they visit a destination and motivate the tourists to revisit a destination; the findings of
this study can increase the international tourist arrivals, tourism consumption as well as
tourism employment in Queensland. Queensland Regional Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-
16 recorded that cafes, restaurants and takeaway food services contributed most to direct
regional tourism employment in Queensland, especially in Brisbane, Gold Coast, Sunshine
Coast and TNQ. Hence, the study can increase the Queensland’s economy, since tourist
arrivals, tourism consumption and tourism employment recorded as direct contributors to
Queensland’s economy.

1. Statement of the Problem

The gastronomy tourism and food tourism emerge as special interest tourisms which
are developing fast and have its tourism clientele that considers food and nutrition as the most
important or the only item of the tourist offer. It is of tremendous importance for domestic
tourist potential, especially for the development of gastronomy tourism, to know the requests,
needs and preferences of foreign, as well as of domestic tourists (Aslimoski & Gerasimoski,
2012). This growing interest is fuelledfueled by an increasing number of destinations utilising
their culinary resources in promoting and differentiating themselves from others, for
example, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and Singapore (Chang et al., 2010; Hall & Mitchell,
2002a; Scarpato, 2002). (Kozak, Bigne & Andreu 2003).

The fast development and expansion of gastronomy sector in Queensland has established
itself firmly in tourism industry in Australia. However, the restaurateurs and development of
gastronomy products quality mainly depends on the intuitive decisions of restaurateurs. How
tourists feel about gastronomy in Queensland have not been systematically examined so far.
Therefore, it is now critical to evaluate how gastronomy are received by the tourists, whose
experience and satisfaction are mostly needed for providing implications for investors,
entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders, to further develop this gastronomy sector. Hence, it is
important to understand and meet the needs and desires of tourists in the context of
gastronomic experiences. This can help tourism professionals to pay more attention what
tourists may desire to experience when they visit a destination and motivate the tourists to
revisit a destination. Thus, further research into tourist experiences and motivation in food
tourism will provide opportunities for marketers and regulators to develop more appropriate
products for tourists.
 Regina Pricilla

In the study of tourism experiences, motivation is an important concept with particular

emphasis on their implied deterministic notions (Gomez-Jacinto et al., 1999). People are
motivated to travel to obtain experiences related to their goals, and their motivations also
drive their value perception of destination experiences (Duman and Mattila, 2005). Hence,
Crompton and McKay (1997) identified the importance of understanding visitor motivations
for managers as (1) it is a key to designing products, (2) it can help satisfy customers and
increase repetition of purchase, and (3) it can help to understand the decision making process.
In addition, the monitoring of tourist satisfaction provides feedback for detecting problems
that cause dissatisfaction and have a negative impact on future visitation (Kozak, Bigne &
Andreu 2003).

Previously, there have been many attempts in the literature to explore tourist’s motivations
for purchasing local food, however, Kim, Eves and Scarles (2009) point to the fact that
research in the field is in its infancy and its basic tenets is still being established. The need for
research on this important aspect of hospitality and tourism has been urged by a number of
researchers (Chang et al., 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Stewart, Bramble, & Ziraldo, 2008).
Au and Law (2002) contend that tourist food demand tends to be inelastic. Other studies
indicate that food consumption expenditure can constitute up to one-third of the total tourist
expenditure (Telfer & Wall, 2000). Hence, the economic benefits brought by tourist food
consumption can significantly affect the economic viability and sustainable competitiveness
of a destination and the hospitality businesses operating in the locality. Therefore, it is
important to gain an in-depth understanding of local food consumption motivations of
tourists, satisfactions, and future intentions to help provide answers to this fundamental
question. A review of the literature will be conducted to discuss the existing tourism
motivation theories and clarify the theoretical relationship between motivation, customer
satisfaction, and destination loyalty.
Understanding the drivers of memorable tourist experiences provides valuable insights for
product development and improvement of service delivery.

4.1. However, despite the fact that a variety of studies in the tourism literature of tourist
experiences has been documented over the last three decades, the use of the means-
end chain (MEC) approach as a method of capturing the motivational antecedents of
tourists’ experiences has not yet been discussed thoroughly (Chen et al., 2016). This
study therefore responds to a need for further empirical research to identify the
motivational drivers influencing tourist experiences, and how destination attributes
deliver a tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at the value level.
4.2.
4.3. In the context of tourism experience it is widely accepted that post-experience
satisfaction is related to the realization of motivation perceptions (Dunn Ross and Iso-
Ahola, 1991), and that prior travel experience significantly influences tourists’
behaviour of revisiting a destination. As a result, people are more likely to revisit a
destination if they have had satisfactory past travel experiences in it.
4.4.
4.5. While travel experience has been well documented as a popular topic in the
tourism research field (Mazursky, 1989), it is argued that the concept and its
operationalization are blurred and arguable (Huang and Hsu, 2009). A study of
tourism experience conducted using in-depth interviews (Knobloch, 2014) showed
that: (i) respondents associate different meanings to experiences; and (ii) types of
 Regina Pricilla

experiences might be prominent in the minds of respondents for different reasons.

This calls for a new approach to looking at tourists’ experiences which emphasizes
the multidimensional nature of experiences, as well as the importance of the
associated emotional aspects.
4.6. In conclusion, there is a gap in the food tourism research literature concerning
the tourist experiences and motivation in relation to local food. In order to address this
gap, a review of the literature has beenwill be conducted to discuss the existing
tourism motivation theories and clarify the theoretical relationship between tourist
experiences, motivation, and local food purchase intention. The next section discusses
the theoretical structure of this research.

4.7.

4.8.
4.9. Theoretical Framework

This study aims to gain a better understanding of motivations which influencing tourists’
local food consumption during their holiday. To this end, it involves the theoretical and
empirical examination of tourist experiences, motivation, and local food purchase intention.

This research explores the food consumption motivations of tourists who visit Queensland,
their satisfactions, and repurchase intention, as well as examining the relationship between
need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention.

To do this, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this study. Qualitative
methods used focus group interviews to explore food consumption motivations of tourists
who visit Queensland. Following the focus group interviews, two pre tests using a self-
administered survey were conducted in order to discover the main variables to be used for the
formal survey. Finally, a pre and post survey was administered based upon the suggestions
of several scholars who stated that travel motivations needed to be measured before the trip,
because tourist motivations change after the trip (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola 1991; Iso-Ahola &
Allen 1982). To discover the motivation factors and to examine the construct validity, both
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used. The importance and performance
analysis (IPA) technique was further used to analyse the motivation satisfaction of tourists.
In addition, cluster analysis was used to segment tourists in terms of their different local food
consumption motivations. Finally, several statistical analysis techniques were used to analyse
the data. Multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationships between
customer satisfaction, need satisfaction, and repurchase intention.

The MEC approach provides a means to identify the motivational drivers influencing
tourist experiences, and how destination attributes deliver a tourist their preferred experiences
and satisfy their needs at the value level (Scott, Jun and Ma, 2017). A tourist’s experience is
affected by psychological (e.g. expectation, perception and motivation), socio-demographic
(e.g. education, income), lifestyle (e.g. basic living, moderate living and extravagant living)
and external factors (e.g. weather, regulations and the environment). Therefore, MEC is a
very useful approach for exploring the psychological factors involved in consumer behaviour
and has been used by scholars in the tourism field (McIntosh and Thyne, 2005; McDonald,
Thyne and McMorland, 2008), including naturebased experiences (Klenosky et al., 1998;
Frauman and Cunningham, 2001). The purpose of the following conceptual framework is to
explore, in the context of leisure travel, how experience attributes provide the preferred
 Regina Pricilla

benefits to tourists and satisfy their experience value/goal. The conceptual framework (Figure
3.1) is considered to provide a directed, hierarchically organized structure of the
interconnected levels of travel experience desired by the tourist.

Figure 3-1: Theoretical framework of this study

Source: Visitor Experience Design (2017)

2. Research Aims, Questions and Methodology

The purpose of this study is to explore motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. The specific research aims, questions, and hypotheses are:

4.1 Research Aims

This study therefore responds to a need for further empirical research to identify the
motivational drivers influencing tourist experiences, and how destination attributes deliver a
tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at the value level.
1. To better understand tourist’s purchase intentions concerning Australia local food by applying the means-
end chain theory.
2. To explore the key motivational drivers that influence tourists’ purchase intentions concerning local food.
3. To identify how destination attributes deliver a tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at
the value level.

4.10. 4.2 Research Questions

Investigation of the food consumption motivations of tourists who visit Queensland,

need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention.

A growing body of studies have demonstrated that motivational factors can significantly
affect tourist food consumption (Mak et al., 2012). First of all, a number of studies explore
how food per se can be the major, or one of the major, motivations to travel to a destination
(Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager and Richards, 2002; Long, 2004). Kivela and Crotts
(2006) contend that motivation to travel for food/gastronomy is a valid construct, and that
food plays an important role in affecting the overall tourist experience and intention to revisit
a destination. Ignatov and Smith (2006) found that travel motivations and activities differed
significantly among different Canadian culinary tourist segments. Furthermore, Fields (2002)
adopts the typology of tourist motivators suggested by McIntosh, Goeldner, and Ritchie
 Regina Pricilla

(1995) to elaborate on the interplay between food consumption and tourism. The four
motivators are: physical, cultural, interpersonal, and status and prestige motivators. First,
food can be a physical motivator as the act of eating is predominately physical in nature
involving sensory perceptions to appreciate the food or tourists’ need for sustenance. Second,
food can also be a cultural motivator because when tourists are experiencing new local
cuisines, they are simultaneously experiencing a new culture. Third, it might serve as an
interpersonal motivator as meals taken on a holiday have a social function including building
new social relations and strengthening social bonds. Finally, local delicacies can also be a
status and prestige motivator, as tourists can build their knowledge of the local cuisine by
eating as the locals do, and exploring new cuisines and food that they or their friends are not
likely to encounter at home. While the proposition of Fields (2002) lacks empirical evidence,
it suggests a theoretical linkage between tourist motivation and motivational factors
underlying food consumption in tourism. Tourist motivation is recognised as an important
construct in understanding tourist choice and behaviour (Crompton & McKay, 1997). It can
be defined as the ‘global integrating network of biological and cultural forces which gives
value and direction to travel choices, behaviour, and experience’ (Pearce, Morrison, &
Rutledge, 1998, p. 215). Tourist motivation embraces psychological as well as physiological
facets because travel is expected to satisfy different levels of needs such as psychological
(e.g., intrinsic, personal, and interpersonal rewards) and physiological needs (e.g., food,
shelter, safety, health, and fitness) (Mak, Wong, & Chang, 2009; Witt & Wright, 1992). Since
tourist motivation exerts significant influence over tourist choice and behaviour, it can be a
significant force affecting tourist food consumption. For example, a tourist motivated to visit
a destination by its cultural factors may be more inclined to try local traditional food in order
to explore the local food culture. This has led to the first area of research which was
investigated in this dissertation. This concerns the specific food consumption motivations of
tourists who visited Queensland, their satisfaction and their repurchase intention.

To investigate food consumption motivations of tourists, need satisfaction, overall

satisfaction and repurchase intention, the push and pull motivation approach as defined by
Dann (1977) has been used in this research. The push and pull travel motivation approach has
been widely used (Awaritefe 2004; Kim, S. S., Lee & Klenosky 2003; Kim, S.-S. & Lee
2002; Lubbe 1998; Oh, H. C., Uysal & Weaver 1995; Uysal & Jurowski 1994; You et al.
2000; Yuan & McDonald 1990) because it is easy to understand, visible, and it is not just
about the universal motivations of individuals, but also considers the differences between
countries and cultures (Jamal & Lee 2003; Pearce 1993).

A composite approach to repurchase intention that combines the behavioural and attitudinal
approach was used because this approach increases the accuracy of the findings and the
predictive power (Hanefors & Mossberg 1999; Niininen & Riley 2004).

To examine the satisfaction of these tourist motivations, importance and performance

analysis (IPA) was also used. In addition, segmentation in regard to tourist motivations was
used in order to have a specific understanding of the customer satisfaction and repurchase
intention of different tourist groups.

The relationships between food consumption motivations of tourists who visit

Queensland, need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention.

Understanding tourists’ needs and wants in terms of food consumption is of paramount

importance to hospitality businesses (Santich, 2007). An in-depth knowledge pertaining to
 Regina Pricilla

factors influencing tourist food consumption is, therefore, extremely valuable to the
hospitality sector in providing the appropriate tourism dining experiences that can lead to
tourist satisfaction.

While understanding tourist motivation, satisfaction and repurchase intention is important,

this dissertation will argue that the theoretical relationship between these concepts is not well
understood. The second research area in this dissertation investigates the relationship between
need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention. A review of the literature
related to tourist motivations, satisfaction and repurchase intention has identified two
questions. The first question concerns the link between need satisfaction and overall
satisfaction. In previous research, overall need satisfaction has been used to predict overall
satisfaction. However, push and pull motivation satisfactions were not used to examine the
relationships between the satisfaction of these motivations and overall satisfaction. Do they
have a relationship? Thus, the first question to be answered is: ‘Is there a relationship
between need satisfaction and overall satisfaction?’ If the answer is yes, what kind of
relationship exists between these two variables?

The second question examines the link between need satisfaction and repurchase intention.
Several researchers have found satisfaction and attitude to be major antecedents of customer
repurchase intention (Bearden and Teel, 1983; Innis, 1991; Oliver, 1980, 1981; Roest and
Pieters, 1997). A direct positive relationship between customer satisfaction and repurchase
intention is supported by a wide variety of product and service studies (Anderson and
Sullivan, 1993; Bolton, 1998; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Fornell, 1992; Oliver, 1980;
Patterson and Spreng, 1997; Rust and Zahorik, 1993; Selnes, 1998; Swan and Trawick, 1981;
Taylor and Baker, 1994; Woodside et al., 1989). These studies establish that overall customer
satisfaction with a service is strongly associated with the behavioural intention to return to the
same service provider. However, the need satisfaction linkage to predict future intention to
purchase, or repurchase intention is remained unknown. Therefore, the second question to be
answered is: ‘Does need satisfaction affect repurchase intention?’

Based on these two questions stated above, this study proposes that a tourist experiences a
combination of push and pull tourist motivations to purchase food in order to satisfy their
motivations or needs. These motivations or needs are dis/satisfied through the tourist’s
experiences that are created from interactions with restaurants. Therefore, the first
assumption is that if a tourist or customer is satisfied with his food consumption experience at
a destination, the results will positively influence the tourist’s satisfaction related to their
motivations or needs. If motivations or needs are satisfied, the results will produce feedback
to tourists and affects their repurchase intention. Thus, the second assumption is that if
motivations or needs are satisfied, these results will positively affect repurchase intention (see
Figure 3).
 Regina Pricilla

Tourist Customer Need Need Overall Repurchase

Motivations Satisfaction Satisfaction intention
Destination
Tourists are Loyalty
pushed and pulled The satisfactions The sum of
by travel of needs or satisfactions that
motivations to motivations of result from all If needs or
visit a destination tourists are encounters and an motivations of
consume food in influenced by the overall impression tourists are
order to satisfy customer of the experiences satisfied, the
their needs or satisfaction with attributes of satisfactions
motivations. resulting from the all products and create a feedback
experiences of services The to tourists and
tourists.At the satisfactions of affect their loyalty
destination, needs or to the
tourists experience motivations of destinationintentio
services and these tourists are n to repurchase.
create attribute influenced by the
Figure 3 - Proposed relationship of tourist
satisfaction,
motivation, need
customer
satisfaction, overall satisfaction
and repurchase intention emotion, satisfaction
perceived value, resulting from the
1. Is there a significant connectionand equity. key motivationalexperiences
between drivers and ofthe Australia local food purchase
intention? tourists.
2. How experience attributes provide the preferred benefits to tourists and satisfy their
experience value/goal?

4.11. 4.3 Overview of Methodology

Choice of location for research

fastFast development and expansion of gastronomy sector in Queensland has established
itself firmly in tourism industry in Australia. However, the restaurateurs and development of
gastronomy products quality mainly depends on the intuitive decisions of restaurateurs. How
tourists feel about gastronomy in Queensland have not been systematically examined so far.
Therefore, it is now critical to evaluate how gastronomy are received by the tourists, whose
experience and satisfaction are mostly needed for providing implications for investors,
entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders, to further develop this gastronomy sector. Hence, it is
important to understand and meet the needs and desires of tourists in the context of
gastronomic experiences. This can help tourism professionals to pay more attention what
tourists may desire to experience when they visit a destination and motivate the tourists to
revisit a destination. Thus, further research into tourist experiences and motivation in food
tourism will provide opportunities for marketers and regulators to develop more appropriate
products for tourists.

This research explores the food consumption motivations of tourists when visiting
Queensland and investigates their need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase
intention. In addition, this research also examines the relationships between need satisfaction,
overall satisfaction and repurchase intention. To do this, both qualitative and quantitative
methods were used in this study. Qualitative methods used individual tourist interviews from
China, NZ, UK, Japan, USA and Germany which recorded the top source markets for
Queensland to explore the food consumption motivations of tourists when visiting
Queensland. Following the focus group interviews, two pre tests using a self- administered
survey were conducted in order to discover the main variables to be used for the formal
survey. Finally, a pre and post survey was administered based upon the suggestions of
 Regina Pricilla

several scholars who stated that travel motivations needed to be measured before the trip,
because tourist motivations change after the trip (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola 1991; Iso-Ahola &
Allen 1982). To discover the motivation factors and to examine the construct validity, both
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used. The importance and performance
analysis (IPA) technique was further used to analyse the motivation satisfaction of tourists.
In addition, cluster analysis was used to segment tourists in terms of their different food
consumption motivations. Finally, several statistical analysis techniques were used to
analyse the data. Multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationships between
customer satisfaction, need satisfaction and repurchase intention. A summary of the
methodology and data analysis instruments used is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Summary of methodology and data analysis instruments

Methodology Purpose Data analysis instruments

Individual Tourist To determine the original Scissor-and-sort
Interview push and pull motivations of
tourists who visit
Queensland.
 First pre test (cross- To examine the push and Item analysis, factor analysis
section survey) pull motivation items gained
from individual tourist
interviews
 Second pre test (pre To examine the instruments Factor analysis
and post survey) of motivations, destination
attributes/services, emotion,
perceived value, overall need
satisfaction, overall
satisfaction and repurchase
intention
 Formal survey (pre (1) To verify the instruments Factor analysis,
and post survey) selected from the second pre confirmatory factor analysis
test
(2) To examine the t-test, importance and
motivation satisfaction. performance analysis
(3) To examine the need Cluster analysis, ANOVA,
satisfaction and repurchase discriminant analysis
intention of different tourist
motivation groups
(4) To examine the Multiple regression
relationship between
customer satisfaction, need
satisfaction, and repurchase
intention
This study implements an exploratory mixed methods research approach, based on the
researcher’s philosophical stance, to achieve the research aim and to explore the research
objectives. A sequential exploratory design is adopted with both qualitative and quantitative
methods used to collect data.
Phase one, a literature review will be undertaken focusing on the culinary tourism
phenomenon. It relates to the major factors that have contributed to the increased interesting
 Regina Pricilla

culinary tourism; and the concept of culinary tourism and its various definitions. Hence, a
literature review on strategic measures adopted by the gastronomy chains will be undertaken
focusing on increasing the quality experience with gastronomy in the destination.
Phase two, to build inventory of local foods of the Queensland, the self-report method
together with eye tracking method (psychophysiological method) will be undertaken focusing
on the menus of 16 restaurants in Queensland across a range of tourism locations as Brisbane,
Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast and TNQ. Many tourists’ first experience with local or regional
food and wine is often far removed from its place of production, occurring at their hotel or at
a restaurant. In this context the restaurant and catering sector represents a significant
opportunity to facilitate the development of a regional culinary image and, thereby, an
increased use of regional produce (Hall et all, 2003).
Phase three, to find out inclusion level of local food in restaurants, a document review
method was is usually employed (Patton, 2002; Sterk and Elifson, 2004). Therefore, all the
menus of restaurants in Queensland are reviewed and researchers will carefully noted total
menu items and local foods, which are included in the menu.
Phase four, this study identifies the local food consumption motivations of tourists during
their holiday. It is importance to identify culinary tradition which creates opportunities to
attract tourists with a new specific element (Brokaj, 2014). A questionnaire survey way will
be employed to 240 international tourists which visiting to Queensland. The study will focus
on the potential respondents from China, NZ, UK, Japan, USA and Germany which recorded
the top source markets for Queensland. The instrument used to collect the data is a
questionnaire which will be developed and modified by the researchers. Questions are
divided into five ranks based on Likert scale ranging from that is including: (1=strongly
disagree to 5=strongly agree). The survey time will be taken around 3 months.
The questionnaire had three parts. In the first part the study was focused on the demographic
factors of participants. The second part contained 20 statements that were linked to a 5-point
Likert Scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) to identify what kind of motives
impact tourists local food choose on their holiday. And at the end there are some questions
regarding the expectations of tourists’ from restaurants.

4.4 Contribution of this Research

Previously, there have been many attempts in the literature to explore tourist’s
motivations for purchasing local food, however, Kim, Eves and Scarles (2009) point to the
fact that research in the field is in its infancy and its basic tenets is still being established. The
need for research on this important aspect of hospitality and tourism has been urged by a
number of researchers (Chang et al., 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Stewart, Bramble, &
Ziraldo, 2008). Au and Law (2002) contend that tourist food demand tends to be inelastic.
Other studies indicate that food consumption expenditure can constitute up to one-third of the
total tourist expenditure (Telfer & Wall, 2000). Hence, the economic benefits brought by
tourist food consumption can significantly affect the economic viability and sustainable
competitiveness of a destination and the hospitality businesses operating in the locality.
Therefore, motivation is an important concept in the study of tourism experiences,
although scholars discussing tourist experiences have largely probed the relationship between
motivation and tourist experiences, with particular emphasis on their implied deterministic
notions (Gomez-Jacinto et al., 1999). People are motivated to travel to obtain experiences
related to their goals, and their motivations also drive their value perception of destination
experiences (Duman and Mattila, 2005). The study of motivation in relation to local food can
provide insights for stakeholders and marketers keen to develop their respective food tourism
market. Understanding potential consumers’ desires, allows local governors and tourism
 Regina Pricilla

authorities to develop more appropriate policies, products, and marketing strategies to cater
for the needs and wants of tourists. Hence, with the purpose of exploring tourist’s local food
buying motivation, this study will help to gain a better understanding of food choice from a
tourist’s perspective. This, in turn, can provide local governors and tourism authorities with
practical advice regarding marketing strategies and promotion of their local food to visitors.
From the perspective of restaurateurs, they should understand the expectations of tourists and
provide satisfactory service and products by bringing to light peculiar foods of area with new
flavors and authentic ingredients

This study will also contribute to the theoretical understanding in the field of food tourism
research. This study will use the Means-end Chain (MEC) Theory to capture the motivational
antecedents of tourists’ experiences and and confirm that this theory is appropriate in in
gaining an insight into the motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. Although various scholars have explored aspects of the MEC approach,
most MEC research was conducted for consulting purposes to address practical marketing
problems (Olson and Reynolds, 2001). Thus, it should be admitted that there are still some
methodological and theoretical issues unresolved in MEC theory. For example, more
empirical studies are needed to address problems such as the comparison of different forms of
attribute elicitation, while the impact of situational specificity requires more rigorous
statistical treatment (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001). Should researchers collect sufficient data
and conduct research with rigorous processes, it is believed that all the above challenges are
inherently solvable (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001).

REFERENCES

Anderson, E.W., Sullivan, M.W. (1993), "The antecedents and consequences of customer
satisfaction for firms", Marketing Science, Vol. 12 No.2, pp.125-43.

Aslimoski, P. and Gerasimoski, S. (2012). Food and nutrition as tourist

phenomenon. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 44, pp.357-362.

Au, N., & Law, R. (2002). Categorical classification of tourism dining. Annals of Tourism
Research, 29(3), pp.819-833.

Australian Farmers Markets Association. Colmar Brunton Omnibus Press release 13 March
2014, contact Denise Hamblin (denis.hamblin@colmarburton.com).

Awaritefe, OD 2004, 'Motivation and other considerations in tourists destination choice: a

case study of Nigeria', Tourism Geographies, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 303-30.

Bearden, W.O., Teel, J.E. (1983), "Selected determinants of consumer satisfaction and
complaint reports", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 20 No.February, pp.21-8.

Bolton, R.N. (1998), "A dynamic model of the duration of the customer's relationship with a
continuous service provider: the role of satisfaction", Marketing Science, Vol. 17
No.1, pp.45-65.
 Regina Pricilla

Boyne, S., Hall, D., & Williams, F. (2003). Policy, support and promortion for food-related
tourism initiatives: A marketing approach to regional development. Journal of Travel
& Tourism Marketing, 14(3/4), 131-154.

Brokaj, M. (2014). The Impact of the Gastronomic Offer in Choosing Tourism Destination:
The Case of Albania. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies.

Chang, R. C. Y., Kivela, J., & Mak, A. H. N. (2010). Food preferences of Chinese tourists.
Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4), pp.989-1011.

Chang, R.C., Kivela, J. and Mak, A.H. (2011), “Attributes that influence the evaluation of
travel dining experience: when East meets West”, Tourism Management, Vol. 32 No. 2,
pp. 307-316.

Chen, C.C., Huang, W.J. and Petrick, J.F. (2016) Holiday recovery experiences, tourism
satisfaction and life satisfaction – Is there a relationship? Tourism Management, 53,
pp.140–147.

Chen, J. and Gursoy, D. (2001). An investigation of tourists’ destination loyalty and

preferences. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
13(2), pp.79-85.

Cohen, E., & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in Tourism: Attraction and Impediment. Annals of
Tourism Research, 31(4), pp.755-778.

Crompton, J. L., & McKay, S. L. (1997). Motives of visitors attending festival events. Annals
of Tourism Research, 24(2), 425-439.

Cronin, J.J. Jr, Taylor, S.A. (1992), "Measuring service quality: a reexamination and
extension", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56 No.3, pp.55-68.

Deloitte Access Economics (2017). Queensland Regional Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-
16

Duman, T. and Mattila, A. (2005). The role of affective factors on perceived cruise vacation
value. Tourism Management, 26(3), pp.311-323.

Dunn Ross, E. and Iso-Ahola, S. (1991). Sightseeing tourists' motivation and

satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), pp.226-237.

Fields, K. (2002). Demand for the Gastronomy Tourism Product: Motivational Factors. In A.
M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 37-50). London:
Routledge.

Fornell, C. (1992), "A national customer satisfaction barometer: the Swedish experience",
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56 No.1, pp.6-21.

Frauman, E. and Cunningham, P. (2001) Using a means-end approach to understand the

factors that influence greenway use. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration,
19(3), pp.93–113.
 Regina Pricilla

Gomez-Jacinto, L., Martin-Garcia, J.S. and Huyze, C.B. (1999) A model of tourism
experience and attitude change. Annuals of Tourism Research, 26(4), pp.1024–1027.

Grunert, K.G. and Bechmann, S.C. (2001) Means-end chains and laddering: an inventory of
problems and an agenda for research. In: Reynolds, T.J. and Olson, J.C. (eds)
Understanding Consumer Decision-making: The Means-end Approach to Marketing
and Advertising Strategy. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 63–90.

Gyimothy, S., Rassing, C., Wanhill, S., (2000). Marketing works: a study of restaurants on
Bornholm, Denmark. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
12, 371–379.

Hegarty, & Barry, O. m. (2001). Gastronomy: A phenomenon of cultural expressionism and

an aesthetic for living. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 20(1), 3-13.

Hjalager, A. M., & Corigliano, M. A. (2000). Food for tourists?determinants of an image.

International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(4), 281-293.

Hall, C. M. (2002). Local initiatives for local regional development: the role of food, wine
and tourism. In Tourism and Well Being (Arola, E., Kärkkäinen, J. and Siitari, M., eds),
pp. 47–63, Jyväskylä Polytechnic. Second Tourism Industry and Education
Symposium, held at Jyväskylä Polytechnic, Jyväskylä, Finland 16–18 May.

Hall, C. M. and Macionis, N. (1998). Wine tourism in Australia and New Zealand. In
Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas (Butler, R. W., Hall, C. M. and Jenkins, J.,
eds), pp. 197–224, Wiley.

Hall, C.M., and Sharples, L (2003). The consumption of experiences or the experiences of
consumption, pp. 1-24.

Hall, C. M., & Mitchell, R. (2001). Wine and Food Tourism. In N. Douglas & R. Derrett
(Eds.), Special Interest Tourism: context and cases (pp. 307-329). Brisbane: John
Wiley.

Hall, M., Mitchell, R., Sharples, L. (2003a). Consuming places: the role of food, wine
tourism in regional development. Food Tourism Around The World, London

Hall, M. & Mitchell, R. (2002). Tourism as a force for gastronomic globalization and
localization, pp. 71-87.

Hall, M., & Mitchell, R. (2002a). The Changing Nature of the Relationship Between Cuisine
and Tourism in Australia and New Zealand: from Fusion Cuisine to Food Networks. In
A. M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 187-206). London:
Routledge.

Hall C.M., Sharples L., Mitchell R., Macionis N. & Cambourne B. (2002). Food Tourism
Around the World: Development, management and markets, pp. 59 & 283.
 Regina Pricilla

Hanefors, M & Mossberg, LL 1999, 'Package tourism and customer loyalties', in A Pizam &
Y Mansfeld (eds), Consumer behavior in travel and tourism, The Haworth Press, Inc.,
Binghamton, pp. 185-203.

Henderson, J.C. (2009), “Food tourism reviewed”, British Food Journal, Vol. 111 No. 4, pp.
317-326

Hjalager, A. M., & Richards, G. (Eds.). (2002). Tourism and Gastronomy. London:
Routledge.

Huang, S. and Hsu, C. (2009) Travel motivation: linking theory to practice. International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(4), pp.287–295.

Ignatov, E., & Smith, S. (2006). Segmenting Canadian Culinary Tourists. Current Issues in
Tourism, 9(3), 235-255.

Innis, D.E. (1991), "Customer service, repurchase intentions, market orientation and firm
performance in the channel", Ohio State University.

Jamal, T & Lee, J-H 2003, 'Integrating micro and macro approaches to tourist motivations:
toward an inter-disciplinary theory', Tourism Analysis, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 47-59.

Joppe, M., Martin, D., Waalen, J., (2001). Toronto’s image as a destination: a comparative
importance satisfaction analysis by origin of visitor, Journal of Travel Research,
39,252–260.

Kao, C. (2007). Travel Motivation, Satisfaction and Destination Loyalty:

Taiwanese Group Package Tourists Visiting Australia. Doctor of
Philosophy. University of Queensland.

Kastenholz, E., Davis, D., Paul, G., (1999). Segmenting tourism in rural areas: the case of
north and central Portugal, Journal of Travel Research, 37, pp.353–363.

Kim, SS, Lee, C-K & Klenosky, DB 2003, 'The influence of push and pull factors at Korean
national parks', Tourism Management, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 169-80.

Kim, S-S & Lee, C-K 2002, 'Push and pull relationships', Annals of Tourism Research, vol.
29, no. 1, pp. 257-60.

Kim, Y. G., Eves, A., & Scarles, C. (2009). Building a Model of Local Food Consumption on
Trips and Holidays: A Grounded Theory Approach. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 28, pp.423-431.

Kivela, J. and Crotts, J.C. (2006), “Tourism and gastronomy: gastronomy’s influence on how
tourists experience a destination”, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Vol. 30
No. 3, pp. 354-377
 Regina Pricilla

Klenosky, D.B., Frauman, E., Norman, W.C. and Gengler, C.E. (1998) Nature-based tourists’
use of interpretive services: a means-end investigation. Journal of Tourism Studies 9,
pp.26–36.

Knobloch, U., Robertson, K. and Aitken, R. (2014) (Mis)understanding the nature of tourist
experiences. Tourism Analysis 19, pp.599–608.

Langton, B. (1996). News. Tourism New South Wales Newsletter, Spring, 3.

Lee, Y. (2015). Characteristics of soybean sprout locally cultivated in the Jeonju region, used
for Bibimbap and Kongnamul-gukbap. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 2(2), pp.84-89.

Long, L. M. (2004). Culinary Tourism. Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky.

Mak, A. H. N., Wong, K. K. F., & Chang, R. C. Y. (2009). Health or Self-indulgence? The
Motivations and Characteristics of Spa-goers. International Journal of Tourism
Research, 11(2), 185-199.

Mak, A., Lumbers, M., Eves, A. and Chang, R. (2012). Factors influencing tourist food
consumption. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3),
pp.928-936.

Mazursky, D. (1989) Past experience and future tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism
Research, 16(3), pp.333–344.

McDonald, S., Thyne, M. and McMorland, L.-A. (2008) Means-end theory in tourism
research. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), pp.596–599.

McIntosh, A.J. and Thyne, M.A. (2005) Understanding tourist behavior using means-end
chain theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), pp.259–262.

McIntosh, R. W., Goeldner, C. R., & Ritchie, J. R. (1995). Tourism: Principles, Practices,
Philosophies. Chichester: John Wiley.

Niininen, O & Riley, M 2004, 'Towards the conceptualization of tourism destination loyalty',
in GI Crouch, RR Perdue, HJP Timmermans & M Uysal (eds), Consumer psychology
of tourism, hospitality and leisure, CAB International, Oxfordshire, vol. 3, pp. 275-
84.

Oh, HC, Uysal, M & Weaver, P 1995, 'Product bundles and market segments based on travel
motivations: a canonical correlation approach', International Journal of Hospitality
Management, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 123-37.

Okumus, B., Okumus, F. and McKercher, B. (2007), “Incorporating local and international
cuisines in the marketing of tourism destinations: the cases of Hong Kong and Turkey”,
Tourism Management, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 253-261.
 Regina Pricilla

Oliver, R.L. (1980), "A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction
decisions", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 17 No.November, pp.460-9.

Oliver, R.L. (1981), "Measurement and evaluation of satisfaction processes in retail settings",
Journal of Retailing, Vol. 57 No.3, pp.25-48.

Patterson, P.G., Spreng, R.A. (1997), "Modelling the relationship between perceived value,
satisfaction and repurchase intentions in a business-to-business, services context: an
empirical examination", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 8
No.5, pp.414-34.

---- 1993, 'Fundamental of tourist motivation', in DG Pearce & RW Butler (eds), Tourism
research: critiques and challenges, Routledge, London, pp. 113-34.

Pearce, P., Morrison, A. M., & Rutledge, J. L. (1998). Tourism: Bridges across Continents.
Sydney: McGraw-Hill.

Quan, & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: An
illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25(3), pp.297-305.
Queener

Rimmington, M. and Yüksel, A. (1998), “Tourist satisfaction and food service experience:
results and implications of an empirical investigation”, Anatolia, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 37-
57

Roest, H., Pieters, R. (1997), "The nomological net of perceived service quality",
International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 8 No.4, pp.336-51.
Roselius

Rust, R.T., Zahorik, A.J. (1993), "Customer satisfaction, customer retention and market
share", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 69 No.2, pp.193-215.

Sanchez-Cañizares, S. and Castillo-Canalejo, A.M. (2015), “A comparative study of tourist

attitudes towards culinary tourism in Spain and Slovenia”, British Food Journal, Vol.
117 No. 9, pp. 2387-2411.

Santich, B. (2007). Hospitality and Gastronomy: Natural Allies. In C. Lashley, P. Lynch & A.
Morrison (Eds.), Hospitality: A Social Lens (pp. pp.47-59). London: Elsevier.

Scarpato, R. (2002). Sustainable gastronomy as a tourist product. In A. M. Hjalager & G.

Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 132-152). London: Routledge.

Scott, N., Jun, G. and Ma, J. (2017). Visitor experience design. Croydon: CABI, p.53.

Second Global Report on Gastronomy Tourism. (2017). Madrid: UNWTO.

Selnes, F. (1998), "Antecedents and consequences of trust and satisfaction in buyer-seller

relationships", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 32 No.3/4, pp.305-22.
 Regina Pricilla

Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: local food and the sustainable tourism
experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), pp.321-336.

Sormaz, U., Akmese, H., Gunes, E. and Aras, S. (2016). Gastronomy in Tourism. In: 3rd
Global Conference on Business Economics, Management and Tourism. Rome: Procedia
Economics and Finance, 39, pp.725 – 730.

Stanley, J. and Stanley, L. (2015). Food tourism. Wallingford: CABI.

Stewart, J. W., Bramble, L., & Ziraldo, D. (2008). Key challenges in wine and culinary
tourism with practical recommendations. International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, 20(3), pp.302-312.

Swan, J.E., Trawick, I.F. (1981), "Disconfirmation of expectations and satisfaction with a
retail service", Journal of Retailing, Vol. 57 No.3, pp.49-67.

Taylor, C. N. and Little, H. M. (1999). Alternative enterprises on New Zealand farms:

obstacles, challenges and potential. Paper prepared for the 1999 NZARES/AARES
Conference Christchurch, New Zealand, Agribusiness Perspectives, Paper 23, available
online: www.agrifood.info

Taylor, S.A., Baker, T.L. (1994), "An assessment of the relationship between service quality
and customer satisfaction in the formation of consumers' purchase intentions", Journal
of Retailing, Vol. 70 No.2, pp.163-78.

Telfer, D. (2001). Strategic alliances along the Niagara Wine Route. Tourism Management,
22(1), pp.21-30.

Telfer, D. (2001). From a Wine Tourism Village to a Regional Wine Route: An Investigation
of the Competitive Advantage of Embedded Clusters in Niagara, Canada. Tourism
Recreation Research, 26(2), pp.23-33.

Telfer, D. and Wall, G. (2000). Strengthening backward economic linkages: Local food
purchasing by three Indonesian hotels. Tourism Geographies, 2(4), pp.421-447.

Tourism Research Australia (2017). State Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-16.

Tourism & Events Queensland (2017). International Tourism Snapshot.

Uner, E.H., (2014). Her Sey Dahil Sistemde Turkiye Gastronomi Turizmi Potansiyelinin
Degerlendirilmesi, Atılım University, Institute of Social Sciences, MA Thesis, Ankara

Uysal, M & Jurowski, C 1994, 'Testing the push and pull factors', Annals of Tourism
Research, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 844-6.

Witt, C. A., & Wright, P. L. (1992). Tourist motivation: life after Maslow. In P. Johnson & B.
Thomas (Eds.), Choice and Demand in Tourism (pp. 33-55). London: Mansell.
 Regina Pricilla

Woodside, A.G., Frey, L.L., Daly, R.T. (1989), "Linking service quality, customer
satisfaction, and behavioral intention", Journal of Health Care Marketing, Vol. 9 No.4,
pp.5-17.

World Economic Forum (2017). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017.

Wolf, E. (2002). Culinary Tourism: A Tasty Economic Proposition. [online] Available at:
http://www.culinarytourism.org/ [Accessed 8 Jan. 2018].

You, XR, O'Leary, JT, Morrison, A & Hong, G 2000, 'A cross-cultural comparison of travel
push and pull factors: United Kingdom vs. Japan', International Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Administration, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 1-26.

Yuan, S & McDonald, C 1990, 'Motivational determinates of international pleasure time',

Journal of Travel Research, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 42-4.
Aslimoski, P. and Gerasimoski, S. (2012). Food and nutrition as tourist
phenomenon. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 44, pp.357-362.

Au, N., & Law, R. (2002). Categorical classification of tourism dining. Annals of Tourism
Research, 29(3), pp.819-833.

Australian Farmers Markets Association. Colmar Brunton Omnibus Press release 13 March
2014, contact Denise Hamblin (denis.hamblin@colmarburton.com).

Brokaj, M. (2014). The Impact of the Gastronomic Offer in Choosing Tourism Destination:
The Case of Albania. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies.

Chang, R. C. Y., Kivela, J., & Mak, A. H. N. (2010). Food preferences of Chinese tourists.
Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4), pp.989-1011.

Chen, C.C., Huang, W.J. and Petrick, J.F. (2016) Holiday recovery experiences, tourism
satisfaction and life satisfaction – Is there a relationship? Tourism Management, 53, pp.140–
147.

Cohen, E., & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in Tourism: Attraction and Impediment. Annals of
Tourism Research, 31(4), pp.755-778.

Deloitte Access Economics (2017). Queensland Regional Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-
16

Duman, T. and Mattila, A. (2005). The role of affective factors on perceived cruise vacation
value. Tourism Management, 26(3), pp.311-323.

Dunn Ross, E. and Iso-Ahola, S. (1991). Sightseeing tourists' motivation and

satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), pp.226-237.
Frauman, E. and Cunningham, P. (2001) Using a means-end approach to understand the
factors that influence greenway use. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 19(3),
pp.93–113.
 Regina Pricilla

Gomez-Jacinto, L., Martin-Garcia, J.S. and Huyze, C.B. (1999) A model of tourism
experience and attitude change. Annuals of Tourism Research, 26(4), pp.1024–1027.

Grunert, K.G. and Bechmann, S.C. (2001) Means-end chains and laddering: an inventory of
problems and an agenda for research. In: Reynolds, T.J. and Olson, J.C. (eds) Understanding
Consumer Decision-making: The Means-end Approach to Marketing and Advertising
Strategy. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 63–90.

Hall, C. M. (2002). Local initiatives for local regional development: the role of food, wine
and tourism. In Tourism and Well Being (Arola, E., Kärkkäinen, J. and Siitari, M., eds), pp.
47–63, Jyväskylä Polytechnic. Second Tourism Industry and Education Symposium, held at
Jyväskylä Polytechnic, Jyväskylä, Finland 16–18 May.

Hall, C. M. and Macionis, N. (1998). Wine tourism in Australia and New Zealand. In
Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas (Butler, R. W., Hall, C. M. and Jenkins, J., eds), pp.
197–224, Wiley.

Hall, C.M., & Sharples, L (2003). The consumption of experiences or the experiences of
consumption, pp. 1-24.

Hall, M., Mitchell, R., Sharples, L. (2003a). Consuming places: the role of food, wine
tourism in regional development. Food Tourism Around The World, London

Hall, M. & Mitchell, R. (2002). Tourism as a force for gastronomic globalization and
localization, pp. 71-87.

Hall, M., & Mitchell, R. (2002a). The Changing Nature of the Relationship Between Cuisine
and Tourism in Australia and New Zealand: from Fusion Cuisine to Food Networks. In A. M.
Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 187-206). London: Routledge.

Hall C.M., Sharples L., Mitchell R., Macionis N. & Cambourne B. (2002). Food Tourism
Around the World: Development, management and markets, pp. 59 & 283.

Huang, S. and Hsu, C. (2009) Travel motivation: linking theory to practice. International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(4), pp.287–295.

Kim, Y. G., Eves, A., & Scarles, C. (2009). Building a Model of Local Food Consumption on
Trips and Holidays: A Grounded Theory Approach. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 28, pp.423-431.

Klenosky, D.B., Frauman, E., Norman, W.C. and Gengler, C.E. (1998) Nature-based tourists’
use of interpretive services: a means-end investigation. Journal of Tourism Studies 9, pp.26–
36.

Knobloch, U., Robertson, K. and Aitken, R. (2014) (Mis)understanding the nature of tourist
experiences. Tourism Analysis 19, pp.599–608.

Langton, B. (1996). News. Tourism New South Wales Newsletter, Spring, 3.

 Regina Pricilla

Lee, Y. (2015). Characteristics of soybean sprout locally cultivated in the Jeonju region, used
for Bibimbap and Kongnamul-gukbap. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 2(2), pp.84-89.

Mazursky, D. (1989) Past experience and future tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism
Research, 16(3), pp.333–344.

McDonald, S., Thyne, M. and McMorland, L.-A. (2008) Means-end theory in tourism
research. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), pp.596–599.

McIntosh, A.J. and Thyne, M.A. (2005) Understanding tourist behavior using means-end
chain theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), pp.259–262.

Quan, & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: An
illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25(3), pp.297-305.
Queener

Scarpato, R. (2002). Sustainable gastronomy as a tourist product. In A. M. Hjalager & G.

Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 132-152). London: Routledge.

Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: local food and the sustainable tourism
experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), pp.321-336.

Stanley, J. and Stanley, L. (2015). Food tourism. Wallingford: CABI.

Stewart, J. W., Bramble, L., & Ziraldo, D. (2008). Key challenges in wine and culinary
tourism with practical recommendations. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 20(3), pp.302-312.

Sukenti, K. (2014). Gastronomy Tourism in Several Neighbor Countries of Indonesia: a Brief

Review. Journal of Indonesian Tourism and Development Studies, 2(2), pp.55-63.

Taylor, C. N. and Little, H. M. (1999). Alternative enterprises on New Zealand farms:

obstacles, challenges and potential. Paper prepared for the 1999 NZARES/AARES
Conference Christchurch, New Zealand, Agribusiness Perspectives, Paper 23, available
online: www.agrifood.info

Telfer, D. (2001). Strategic alliances along the Niagara Wine Route. Tourism Management,
22(1), pp.21-30.
Telfer, D. (2001). From a Wine Tourism Village to a Regional Wine Route: An Investigation
of the Competitive Advantage of Embedded Clusters in Niagara, Canada. Tourism
Recreation Research, 26(2), pp.23-33.

Telfer, D. and Wall, G. (2000). Strengthening backward economic linkages: Local food
purchasing by three Indonesian hotels. Tourism Geographies, 2(4), pp.421-447.

Tourism Research Australia (2017). State Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-16.

Tourism & Events Queensland (2017). International Tourism Snapshot.

 Regina Pricilla

Uner, E.H., (2014). Her Sey Dahil Sistemde Turkiye Gastronomi Turizmi Potansiyelinin
Degerlendirilmesi, Atılım University, Institute of Social Sciences, MA Thesis, Ankara

World Economic Forum (2017). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017.

Scott, N., Jun, G. and Ma, J. (2017). Visitor experience design. Croydon: CABI, p.53.

Second Global Report on Gastronomy Tourism. (2017). Madrid: UNWTO.

Wolf, E. (2002). Culinary Tourism: A Tasty Economic Proposition. [online] Available at:
http://www.culinarytourism.org/ [Accessed 8 Jan. 2018].