Electrical General Knowledge Genny Etc PDF

School of Marine Engineering
Glasgow College of Nautical Studies

Class – 2

ELECTRICAL –
Engineering Knowledge (General)

EK (General) – “ELECTRICAL” CLASS ‐ 2
Table of Contents
1 Batteries .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Types of Cell ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Lead‐acid cell .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Construction ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Principle of Operation ............................................................................................................................ 12
Charging Lead‐acid cells ......................................................................................................................... 14
Discharging Lead‐acid cells ..................................................................................................................... 14
Effects of temperature on battery performance ................................................................................... 15
Laying up Lead‐acid cells ........................................................................................................................ 15
Alkaline Cells ............................................................................................................................................... 15
The Cadmium‐nickel oxide cell ............................................................................................................... 15
Construction ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Operating principle ................................................................................................................................. 16
Charge and discharge of Alkaline Cell .................................................................................................... 17
Discharging ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Charging ................................................................................................................................................. 17
Positive plates ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Negative plates ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Specific gravity ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Characteristic charging and discharging curve ....................................................................................... 17
Charging alkaline cells ............................................................................................................................ 18
Memory effects ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Comparison of lead acid and alkaline cells ................................................................................................. 18
Advantages of lead acid batteries .......................................................................................................... 18
Advantages of alkaline cells .................................................................................................................... 18
Maintenance of Lead acid and alkaline cells .......................................................................................... 19
Sealed cells ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Sealed Nickel Cadmium cells .................................................................................................................. 19
Cell Efficiency .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Glasgow College of Nautical Studies – School of Marine Engineering 1

Battery safety ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Battery compartments ........................................................................................................................... 21
Regulations for shipboard storage batteries .......................................................................................... 21
Emergency battery supplies ....................................................................................................................... 22
Lead acid ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Alkaline cells ........................................................................................................................................... 23
2 Electrical Protection ................................................................................................................................ 23
Purpose of protection equipment .......................................................................................................... 23
Fire risk is mainly due to ......................................................................................................................... 23
Discrimination ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Protection devices .................................................................................................................................. 24
Fuses ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
Circuit breakers ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Circuit breaker types .............................................................................................................................. 27
Miniature circuit breakers, MCB ............................................................................................................ 27
Moulded case circuit breakers, MCCB .................................................................................................... 27
Main circuit breakers .............................................................................................................................. 28
Main contacts ......................................................................................................................................... 30
Arc illiminators ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Operating Mechanism ............................................................................................................................ 31
Tripping mechanism ............................................................................................................................... 33
Circuit breaker trips .................................................................................................................................... 33
Overcurrent trips .................................................................................................................................... 33
Undervoltage protection ........................................................................................................................ 35
Reverse power protection ...................................................................................................................... 36
Circuit breaker maintenance .................................................................................................................. 36
3 Electrical Power Distribution System ...................................................................................................... 38
A typical ship’s electrical power distribution system ............................................................................. 38
Distribution voltages .............................................................................................................................. 38
High voltage installations ....................................................................................................................... 40
Essential and non essential services ....................................................................................................... 41
Preference trips ...................................................................................................................................... 41

Emergency power supplies ..................................................................................................................... 42
Common requirements for emergency generators and batteries (extracted from SOLAS) .................. 42
Additional requirements for emergency batteries ................................................................................ 43
Additional requirements for emergency generators ............................................................................. 43
Certain circuits on a ship should be supplied via the emergency switch board, these include ............. 43
Emergency switch board arrangement .................................................................................................. 44
Emergency switchboard change over arrangements ............................................................................. 45
MGN 52 (M+F) ............................................................................................................................................ 45
Testing of emergency sources of power ................................................................................................ 45
Navigation lights ..................................................................................................................................... 45
4 Electronic devices .................................................................................................................................... 46
P and N type Semiconductors ................................................................................................................ 46
Doped semiconductors........................................................................................................................... 47
p‐n junction ............................................................................................................................................ 47
Forward biased p – n junction ................................................................................................................ 48
Reverse biased p ‐ n junction ................................................................................................................. 49
Diodes ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
Zener diodes ........................................................................................................................................... 51
Transistors .............................................................................................................................................. 52
Biasing of transistors .............................................................................................................................. 52
Operation of an n‐p‐n transistor ............................................................................................................ 53
Transistor configurations ........................................................................................................................ 53
Practical transistor circuits ..................................................................................................................... 54
d.c. amplifier ........................................................................................................................................... 54
Smoke detector ...................................................................................................................................... 55
a.c. amplifier ........................................................................................................................................... 55
Thyristors ................................................................................................................................................ 55
Thyristor circuit waveforms .................................................................................................................... 57
Resistance temperature detectors ......................................................................................................... 57
5 Rectification ............................................................................................................................................. 58
Half wave rectification ............................................................................................................................ 58
Full wave bi‐phase rectification .............................................................................................................. 59

Full wave rectification ............................................................................................................................ 59
Smoothing .............................................................................................................................................. 60
Controlled rectification .......................................................................................................................... 61
6 Single Phase Power .................................................................................................................................. 62
Power factor ........................................................................................................................................... 63
Power factor correction ......................................................................................................................... 63
7 A.C. GENERATORS .................................................................................................................................... 64
Operating principle of an a.c. generator ................................................................................................ 64
Types of generator ................................................................................................................................. 66
Stationary field type ............................................................................................................................... 66
Revolving field type ................................................................................................................................ 66
Constructional details of A.C. generators ................................................................................................... 67
Generator rotors .................................................................................................................................... 67
Cylindrical rotors .................................................................................................................................... 67
Salient pole rotor .................................................................................................................................... 69
Damper windings .................................................................................................................................... 71
Stator construction ................................................................................................................................. 71
Cooling .................................................................................................................................................... 72
Generator excitation .................................................................................................................................. 73
Types of excitation ................................................................................................................................. 73
Rotary excitation .................................................................................................................................... 73
Brushless excitation ................................................................................................................................ 73
Static excitation ...................................................................................................................................... 74
Voltage regulation .................................................................................................................................. 75
Regulation of an uncompounded generator .......................................................................................... 75
Regulation of a compounded generator ................................................................................................ 76
Regulation using an AVR ......................................................................................................................... 76
Transient voltage regulation .................................................................................................................. 77
Automatic voltage regulators A.V.R. .......................................................................................................... 78
A.V.R. Component parts ......................................................................................................................... 78
Operating principles ............................................................................................................................... 79
Voltage comparison circuit ..................................................................................................................... 80

Operation of comparison circuit ............................................................................................................ 80
Firing circuit ............................................................................................................................................ 81
A.C. generator maintenance and testing ................................................................................................... 81
8 A.C. switchboards and paralleling ........................................................................................................... 83
A.C. switchboards ................................................................................................................................... 83
Current transformers.............................................................................................................................. 83
Potential transformers ........................................................................................................................... 83
Paralleling of alternators ........................................................................................................................ 83
Synchronising ......................................................................................................................................... 85
Synchronising lamps ............................................................................................................................... 85
The Synchroscope ................................................................................................................................... 86
A.C. Load Sharing .................................................................................................................................... 88
KW Load sharing ..................................................................................................................................... 88
KVAR Load Sharing ................................................................................................................................. 89
System Voltage and Frequency .............................................................................................................. 89
Hunting ................................................................................................................................................... 89
11 Earth Faults and Earthing Systems ........................................................................................................ 90
System faults .......................................................................................................................................... 90
Open circuit ............................................................................................................................................ 90
Short circuit fault .................................................................................................................................... 90
Earth fault ............................................................................................................................................... 91
Earthing systems ........................................................................................................................................ 91
Neutral earthed systems ........................................................................................................................ 91
Disadvantages of earthed systems ......................................................................................................... 93
Advantages of earthed systems ............................................................................................................. 93
Neutral insulated system ........................................................................................................................ 93
Disadvantages of insulated neutral systems .......................................................................................... 94
Advantages of insulated neutral systems ............................................................................................... 94
Earth lamps ................................................................................................................................................. 94
Single phase system earth lamps ........................................................................................................... 94
Three phase earth lamp system ............................................................................................................. 95
Earth resistance meters .......................................................................................................................... 96

12 Induction motors ................................................................................................................................... 96
Construction ........................................................................................................................................... 97
Rotor construction .................................................................................................................................. 97
Cage rotor construction.......................................................................................................................... 97
Lamination pack ..................................................................................................................................... 97
Rotor ....................................................................................................................................................... 98
Wound rotor construction. .................................................................................................................... 98
Stator. ..................................................................................................................................................... 98
Principle of operation ............................................................................................................................... 101
Rotating magnetic field ........................................................................................................................ 101
Slip ........................................................................................................................................................ 102
Effects of voltage and frequency variation on an induction motor. ........................................................ 103
Voltage increase or decrease ............................................................................................................... 103
Speed .................................................................................................................................................... 103
Torque .................................................................................................................................................. 103
Induction motor maintenance ................................................................................................................. 104
Bearings ................................................................................................................................................ 104
Cooling. ................................................................................................................................................. 104
Electrical testing ................................................................................................................................... 105
Terminals, cables and glands ................................................................................................................ 105
Single Phase Induction Motors ................................................................................................................. 105
Split phase single phase induction motor ............................................................................................ 105
Induction Motor Starting Methods .......................................................................................................... 107
Induction motor starting characteristics .............................................................................................. 107
Induction motor starting methods ....................................................................................................... 108
Direct on line starting ........................................................................................................................... 108
Operation of a DOL starter ................................................................................................................... 109
Resistance starting ............................................................................................................................... 110
Rotor winding resistance ...................................................................................................................... 110
Primary resistance starting ................................................................................................................... 110
Auto transformer starting .................................................................................................................... 111
Star delta starter ................................................................................................................................... 112

Soft starting .......................................................................................................................................... 114
15 Single phasing of induction motors ..................................................................................................... 115
Star connected stator windings ............................................................................................................ 115
Delta connected stator windings .......................................................................................................... 116
Single phase protection ........................................................................................................................ 117
16 Synchronous Motors ............................................................................................................................ 117
Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 117
Operation ............................................................................................................................................. 117
Starting a synchronous motor .............................................................................................................. 118
Pony motor starting .............................................................................................................................. 119
Starting by exciter ................................................................................................................................. 119
Asynchronous / synchronous starting .................................................................................................. 119
Power factor correction ....................................................................................................................... 119
17 Speed control of electric motors ......................................................................................................... 120
and ............................................................................................................................................................ 120
Diesel Electric Propulsion ......................................................................................................................... 120
Passenger ships .................................................................................................................................... 120
Survey vessels ....................................................................................................................................... 120
Advantages of diesel electric systems .................................................................................................. 120
Electric drive options ............................................................................................................................ 120
D.C. electric propulsion systems and motor speed control ................................................................. 120
1. d.c. generation, d.c. motor ............................................................................................................... 121
2. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using resistance banks ........................................... 121
3. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using Ward Leonard system .................................. 121
4. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using thyristor controlled bridge rectifiers ............ 122
A.C. electric propulsion systems and speed control ................................................................................ 123
Synchronous motors............................................................................................................................. 123
Induction motors .................................................................................................................................. 123
1. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. synchro converter powering a synchronous motor .......................................... 123
Cycloconverter Method of Speed Control ............................................................................................ 124
3. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. pulse width modulation converter powering an induction or synchronous motor
.............................................................................................................................................................. 126

Azipods ..................................................................................................................................................... 126
18 Shaft Alternators ................................................................................................................................. 127
Shaft alternators and controllable pitch propellers ............................................................................. 127
Shaft alternators and fixed pitch propellers ......................................................................................... 127
a.c. to d.c. to a.c shaft alternator systems ........................................................................................... 127
19 Static Electricity .................................................................................................................................. 129
Static fire and explosion risk ................................................................................................................. 129
21 Personal Electrical Safety .................................................................................................................... 131
Electric shock ........................................................................................................................................ 131
First aid treatment for electric shock ....................................................................................................... 131
Portable appliances .................................................................................................................................. 131
Portable appliance voltages ................................................................................................................. 131
Centre tapped transformer .................................................................................................................. 132
Maintenance of electrical equipment ...................................................................................................... 132
Permit to Work ......................................................................................................................................... 133
General ................................................................................................................................................. 133
Earthing ................................................................................................................................................ 133
Permit to Work ......................................................................................................................................... 134
Confirming circuits are dead ................................................................................................................ 136
22 Electrical Testing ................................................................................................................................. 137
Insulation resistance ............................................................................................................................. 137
Procedure for insulation testing between a winding and earth .......................................................... 138
Continuity testing ................................................................................................................................. 139
Resistance testing ................................................................................................................................. 139


Electrical Topics
1. Batteries.
2. Protection.
3. Distribution.
4. Semi conductor devices- Diodes.
Transistors.
Zeners.
Thyristors.
RTD thermistors.
5. Rectification.
6. Single phase power.
7. A.C. alternators – Construction,
Maintenance,
AVR
Testing.
8. A.C. switchboards – Paralleling
Synchronising lamps
Synchroscope.
Load sharing.
9. Instrument transformers and induction instruments.
10. Shore power.
11. Earthing and earth lamps.
12. A.C. Induction motors.
13. Induction motor starting.
14. Induction motor braking.
15. Motor single phasing.
16. Synchronous motors.
17. Diesel Electric propulsion and speed control.
18. Shaft Alternators.
19. Static electricity.
20. Tankers.
21. Personal electrical safety.
22. Electrical testing.

1 Batteries
The basic single unit in a battery is referred to as a cell; cells are connected in a series
arrangement to form a battery. The e.m.f. of a cell is quite small, typically 1 to 3 V, the series
connection of cells in a battery enables larger and more useful voltages to be made available.
A cell produces electrical current by chemical reaction, it consists of two electrodes, anode and
cathode, of different materials, which are connected by an electrolyte; a chemical which reacts
suitably with both electrodes.
Types of Cell
1. Primary cell - this cannot be recharged and is discarded after its energy is exhausted, e.g.
a torch battery.
2. Secondary cell - this can be recharged, e.g. a car battery.
Both primary and secondary cells can be made of various materials although the most commonly
used cells on board ships are:
1. Lead Acid cells.

2. Alkaline cells - e.g. nickel cadmium, nickel iron.
Leadacid cell
Construction
A lead acid cell consists of positive and negative plates separated by an electrolyte of dilute
sulphuric acid. The plates are assembled into parallel stacks which are then interleaved with
separators, retainers and spacers inserted between them.
The plates are constructed in the form of lead grids, which serve as a frame to support an active
paste. The paste is a mixture of lead oxides and sulphuric acid. This paste sets hard and during
the initial (forming) charge is converted to lead dioxide on the positive plate and spongy lead on
the negative plate.

The plates and electrolyte are contained within a moulded plastic case which has terminal
connections passing through it. The case is also fitted with vent plugs to allow any gas to escape
freely from the cell.
The plates do not extend to the bottom of the case so a space is left for lead deposits to build up
without shorting out the cells.
A battery will consist of several cells all connected together in series to give the desired output
voltage, these connections can be made internally or externally.

Principle of Operation
The cell shown above is being discharged.
The lead acid cell has a negative electrode of porous (spongy) lead and a positive electrode of
lead dioxide (PbO2), when charged; both electrodes are immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid.

discharge
Porous Lead Sulphuric Lead Water
+ + +
lead dioxide acid sulphate
charge
As the cell is discharged the positive electrode of lead dioxide (PbO2) combines with both the H2
and the SO4 of the electrolyte to produce lead sulphate ( PbSO4) and water. The negative
electrode of lead combines with the SO4 of the electrolyte to produce lead sulphate (PbSO4).
As the cell is discharged sulphuric acid is consumed and water is formed, this means that the
specific gravity of the electrolyte will change as the state of charge changes. The change in
specific gravity gives a good indication of the state of charge of the cell.

Item Discharged Charged
Positive plate Tends to lead sulphate Lead dioxide.
Negative plate Tends to lead sulphate Spongy lead
E.M.F. Voltage falls as the battery approx 2.2 V per cell.

discharges.
Voltage should be measured

with the battery on load.
Voltage should not be

allowed to fall below 1.8 V
per cell.
Specific gravity Falls to approx 1.1 at the Rises to approx 1.25 when
end of the useful discharge fully charged
period.
lead acid cell specific gravity lead acid 12 V battery voltage
1.28 12.8
1.26 12.7
1.24 12.6
1.22 12.5
voltage
1.2 12.4
S.G.
1.18 12.3
1.16 12.2
1.14 12.1
12
1.12 11.9
1.1 11.8
0 50 100 0 50 100
% charge % charge
The state of charge of a lead acid cell can be ascertained by measuring the terminal voltage when
on load, or by measuring the relative density of the electrolyte.

Charging Leadacid cells
Lead acid cells gas when they are nearing the top of their charge so they should be charged until
gassing freely, and charging should then continue until the voltage per cell is about 2.6 V.
Hydrogen and oxygen gases are evolved during charging due to the chemical breakdown of the
water in the electrolyte. The cells are vented to allow gases to escape and prevent internal
pressure build up.
Gassing presents several problems, hydrogen is a highly dangerous and explosive gas and the
evolved gases carry with them a mist of corrosive acid.
Overcharging causes overheating, distortion of cell plates and consequent dislodging of plate
active materials. Expansion distorts the plates and may dislodge the lead dioxide paste which
falls to the bottom of the cell and if allowed to accumulate will ultimately short circuit the cell.
The temperature of the electrolyte must not be allowed to exceed 43oC, since charging causes a
rise in temperature it may be necessary to reduce the charge current or stop charging in the
tropics.
Discharging Leadacid cells
If discharging of lead acid cells is continued after the voltage per cell has fallen below 1.8V or
the S.G. below 1.18, the normal coating of lead sulphate is transformed to hard white lead
sulphate which is non-conducting and also hard to remove once it is formed. The plate is then
said to be sulphated.
A small amount of sulphation can be removed by prolonged charging at a low rate 0.25 of
normal, with weak acid until the S.G. reaches 1.15 when the solution is replaced with pure water,
when sulphation is removed fill with correct S.G.
Lead acid cells should be charged regularly because if they remain discharged for a long period
the plates become covered with a hard white deposit of lead sulphate which will permanently
damage the cell, this is called sulphation.

Lead acid cells suffer self discharge. If left idle an internal discharge would slowly dissipate the
charged energy. A fully charged cell must be maintained on a trickle charge, a low rate charge, to
make up this loss.
Effects of temperature on battery performance
The relative density of a lead acid cell changes with temperature so temperature corrections must
be used to assess its true state of charge, the values of relative density given previously are given
at 15oC.
Relative density readings should be corrected by adding 0.007 for each 10oC above 15oC and
subtracting 0.007 for each 10oC below 15oC.
The maximum operating temperature of a lead acid cell is 50oC and the minimum operating
temperature is the freezing point of the electrolyte. Lead acid batteries can operate down to –
32oC fully charged but only –9oC fully discharged.
The capacity of lead acid batteries reduces as temperature reduces.
Laying up Leadacid cells
If the battery is to be out of use for a long period it should be:
1. Fully charged,
2. Emptied and washed out with distilled water,
3. Dried in a dry atmosphere and stored in a dry state.
When re-commissioning, the cells should be:
1. Filled up to correct S.G,

2. Allowed to stand for 24 hours,
3. Then trickle charged at half normal rate and put into use again.
Alkaline Cells
The most common form of alkaline cell is the Nickel cadmium type, but there are other types
notably the nickel-metal hydroxide and the zinc magnesium dioxide cells.
The Cadmiumnickel oxide cell
This is commonly referred to as a nickel cadmium cell.

Construction
The nickel cadmium cell is made up of:
1. Positive electrodes of nickel hydroxide,

2. Negative electrodes of cadmium,
3. An electrolyte of potassium hydroxide and water.
The active material in the plates is contained in perforated steel compartments, which are set up
in rigid steel frames. The frames, or plates, of the same polarity are properly spaced by steel
washers and bolted together, positive and negative plates being separated by ebonite rods. The
whole assembly is mounted on a welded steel sheet containing the electrolyte.
The electrolyte attacks glass and various other materials so the battery casing is made from
welded sheet steel which is either nickel plated or moulded in high impact polystyrene. The
positive plates are connected to the casing this means the casing must be supported in a wooden
crate.
Operating principle
The active material of positive plates is mainly made of nickel hydroxide and the negative plates
of cadmium oxide.
On discharge the nickel hydroxide losses oxygen and is reduced to a lower form, while the
cadmium in the negative plates is oxidised to cadmium oxide.

On charge the reverse occurs, the oxide being reduced to its original condition.
The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide. No chemical change occurs in the

electrolyte and the specific gravity remains constant whether it is charging or discharging. The
relative density of an alkaline cell does not change with the state of charge but does reduce with
the age of the cell.
The state of charge is found by connecting a voltmeter across the battery terminal when it is
working the pd per cell should be 1.2 V.
Charge and discharge of Alkaline Cell

Item
Discharging Charging
Loses oxygen Restored to Nickel
Positive plates hydroxide
Gains oxygen, oxidises Restored to Cadmium

Negative plates
E.M.F. Usually falls to 1V at end of Rises to approximately 1.4
useful discharge. V.
Remains constant at 1.17 Remains constant at 1.17

Specific gravity

Characteristic charging and discharging curve
1.4
Voltage
1.2
Charging
1.0
Discharging
Ampere hours

Charging alkaline cells
Alkaline cells will normally gas continually whilst charging, giving off hydrogen, the cells
should be charged until gassing freely and the voltage per cell is 1.7 V.
Alkaline cells are able to retain their full charge for a considerable period and do not suffer self
discharge except at high temperatures. Periodically they should be given a short refresher charge
of 2-3 hours.
Alkaline cells are well suited to the float charge mode of operation of standby power batteries.
Here the battery is connected across the load supply and is charged up to the supply voltage after
which the battery merely floats on the supply, neither taking or supplying electrical energy.
Memory effects
The term memory effect is used to describe a reversible process which results in the temporary
reduction of the capacity of a nickel-cadmium cell following repetitive shallow charge-discharge
cycles.
If following shallow cycling a deep discharge is attempted, a step in the discharge voltage curve
is noted at the capacity value where the shallow cycle was reversed, the cell remembers the depth
of the shallow cycling. The total capacity of the cell is not affected since if the cell is now fully
discharged (to 0.9V) and then recharged the step voltage drop will no longer be present.
Comparison of lead acid and alkaline cells
Advantages of lead acid batteries
1. Lead acid cells are cheaper.
2. Lead acid cells are more efficient.
3. Lead acid cells are more efficient at lower temperatures.
Advantages of alkaline cells
1. Alkaline cells have a longer life span, typically 20 years compared to 5 to 10 years for the
lead acid.
2. Alkaline cells are more suitable to long periods of idle operation on standby.
3. Alkaline cells are more reliable.

4. Alkaline cells are more robust.

5. Alkaline cells are unaffected by overcharging and no permanent damage is done by
overdischarging.
Maintenance of Lead acid and alkaline cells
1. Cell tops must be kept clean and dry, vents clear and free of deposits.
2. Terminal connections tight, free of corrosion and coated with petroleum jelly to prevent
corrosion.
3. The evolution of gas and evaporation causes water to be lost from both types of cell so
electrolyte levels should be checked and topped up with distilled water to cover the
plates.
Sealed cells
Sealed cells are commonly located within equipment. Sealed cells, both acid and alkaline types,
have specially designed electrodes so that gas build up does not occur in normal regular service.
The cells can thus be sealed without danger of pressure build up, require no topping up, demand
little maintenance and are safe for installation at sites out of bounds to the vented cells.
Sealed Nickel Cadmium cells
Sealed batteries were introduced as maintenance free batteries requiring no topping up of
electrolyte. When a non-sealed cell has finished charging it starts to gas and oxygen is produced
at the positive plate and hydrogen at the negative plate, this gas is usually vented off through the
vent plug. In a sealed cell there is no vent plug so that there is no loss of electrolyte due to
gassing but if gas were to be evolved from the electrolyte then pressure would build up inside the
cell at it would eventually burst. The electrodes of the sealed cell have to be specially designed to
prevent gassing.
The negative electrode is made with surplus cadmium hydroxide so that it will only be partially
charged when the positive plate is fully charged. Oxygen is produced by the charging current at
the positive plate but no hydrogen is generated at the negative plate because some active material
remains available for conversion. The oxygen from the positive side is reduced with water at the
negative plate so replacing the hydroxyl ions used in the previous action. The process leaves the
electrolyte quantity unaffected.

Cell Efficiency
The efficiency of a cell may be given in 2 ways:
1. ampere-hour efficiency.
2. watt-hour efficiency.
The ampere-hour efficiency is the ratio of ampere-hours during discharge divided by ampere-
hours during charging.
The watt-hour efficiency is the ratio of watt-hours during discharge divided by watt-hours during
charging.

Battery safety
1. Wear suitable protective clothing, rubber apron, rudder gloves, goggles.
2. Use insulated spanners and none metallic jugs to prevent sparks and short circuits.
3. No source of naked light should be taken into the battery compartment.
4. Sulphuric acid splashes on the skin should be washed off with fresh water and treated
with saline solution.
5. Potassium hydroxide splashes should be washed off with fresh water but treated with
boracic acid solution or boracic powder.
6. Because of the heat that is evolved when adding acid to the electrolyte, the acid should
only be added a little at a time and allowed to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte and
cool before any more is added.
7. Because of the considerable heat evolved it is dangerous to add water to acid, when
electrolyte is being prepared the acid must be added to the distilled water.
8. Use a respirator if using acid in powder form.
Battery compartments
1. Well ventilated to remove explosive hydrogen gas.
2. Illuminated by explosion protected lights.
3. Steel work painted with acid resisting bitumastic paint as the fumes given off by lead acid
batteries are corrosive.
4. No naked flames.
5. No sparks should be made in the compartments.
6. Lead acid and alkaline cells should not be in the same compartment because of possible
damage to the alkaline cells by acid.
7. Always add acid to water.
8. Mix electrolyte in a non corrosive container capable of withstanding heat.
Regulations for shipboard storage batteries
These regulations are taken from the IEE regulations.
The cells should be constructed to prevent spilling of electrolyte due to the ship motion up to 40o,
and withstand vibration.

Batteries should be accessible from both top and one side, the cells of the batteries should be
assembled in crates or trays, they should be insulated by non-absorbent material. Lead acid and
alkaline cells should not be in the same compartment.
The deck and up to 150mm on all sides must be protected from corrosion by special paint and
trays to protect against spills.
A notice for stop smoking and naked lights must be visible in the compartment.
Batteries requiring charging over 2kW should be installed in battery lockers or compartments
with good ventilation. Batteries from 0.2 to 2kW can be in a battery room, in a locker on deck or
in the machinery space with a protective cover to stop things dropping on it. Under 0.2kW
batteries can be installed in the open with a protective cover.
Ventilation should be enough to stop any build up of gases, it can be natural or forced.
Emergency battery supplies

Lead acid
Certain emergency circuits can be arranged to switch over to battery power if the mains power
fails.
The following circuit suits lead acid cells; if the mains power fails the batteries will be switched
from charging to discharging.
The batteries are maintained on a trickle charge to make up for any losses that occur naturally
but after they have been discharged to the emergency loads the batteries require a higher rate of
charge so they are switched onto the quick charge until they are recharged.
The trickle and quick charge circuits use different size resistors to limit the charging current.
(Note: Please refer to Lecture presentation for relevant charging circuit diagram)

Alkaline cells
Alkaline cells can be charged up and discharged cyclically but they can also be used on the float
charge system.
In a float charge system the alkaline cells are always connected to the load so that there will be
no delay in switching from main to emergency power, this gives uninterrupted power supplies.
2 Electrical Protection
Purpose of protection equipment
Protection equipment is required in a distribution system to:
1. To disconnect faulty equipment in order to maintain the power supply to healthy circuits.
2. To prevent damage to equipment from thermal and magnetic forces that occur during a
short circuit.
3. To protect against electric shock.
4. Prevent electrical fires.
Protection is achieved by using devices that monitor and act on the following:
1. Overcurrent.
2. Over voltage / under voltage.
3. Over / under frequency.
4. Earth leakage.
5. Unbalanced loading.
6. Over temperature.
7. Reverse power.
Fire risk is mainly due to
1. Sustained overheating of cabling and equipment, a fuse or circuit breaker prevents
overloading.
2. Bad contacts or connections. Connections etc must be properly made as a loose or poor
connection can attain a high temperature even when a small current is flowing. Arcing

between connections can cause extremely high temperatures and the over current device
offers little protection under these circumstances.
3. Earth leakage current. Earth leakage currents are a major source of fire risk due to the
excessive current flow. This is prevented ashore by fuses or circuit breakers, however an
indication is given by earth lamps etc on board ship and fuses do not blow due to earth
faults.

Discrimination
Protective discrimination is when the protection systems of a distribution system act to
disconnect only the faulty component and leave the rest of the system operational. This is
achieved by arranging the current settings and the time ratings of the various protective devices.
The protective devices nearest the load will need a lower current rating and a faster operating
time than the protective devices at the generator.
Protection devices
1. Fuses.
2. Circuit breakers.
3. Contactors.
4. Overcurrent relays.
5. Under voltage relays.
6. Reverse power relays.
Fuses
Fuses must be capable of safely and rapidly interrupting a short circuit current and they must be
mechanically strong enough to withstand the thermal and magnetic forces produced by the fault
current.
The breaking capacity is the maximum fault current a fuse can safely interrupt. Fuses are
insensitive to small overcurrents they may take a long time to blow on small overcurrent levels
so they are used as short circuit protection.
There are three types of fuse:

Rewireable type, this has one advantage, cheapness, its disadvantages include: it may be
replaced by another size, it often deteriorates due to oxidation and it may deteriorate under faulty
conditions and damage surrounding property.
Cartridge fuse, the rating is accurately known and the element is less likely to deteriorate,
however it is unsuitable for extremely high values of fault current.
High rupture capacity (HRC) fuse. HRC fuse characteristics are controlled by the
manufacturer to suit any load and they can clear heavy fault currents safely. They will blow in
approx 0.25 to 3 cycles, this reduces the danger to personnel and also reduces electromagnetic
stresses which tend to distort apparatus etc.
HRC fuses reduce damage to equipment under fault conditions and the fire risk as arcing is
eliminated.
For motor circuits their main duty is to provide short circuit protection and minimise fault
damage.
1. Connectors and caps. These are of copper or brass, the connectors being attached to the
end caps by welding or riveting and soldering. The whole component is electro-tinned.
Current rating and reference numbers are stamped on either the cap or the tag.
2. Body. High grade ceramics are chosen to withstand high thermal, mechanical and
electrical shock.

3. Filler. A quartz filler of controlled size, free from organic and metallic impurities, and in
a moisture free form is compacted into the ceramic body.
4. Fuse element. Pure silver strip elements manufactured to close limits are used. The lower
current ratings are of pure silver wire. The silver is of a hardness within specified limits,
to ensure consistency in performance. On each strip element there are accurately
machined restrictions, the configuration being designed with the aid of a computer to
provide the required operating characteristics. Behaviour under conditions of small
overloads is controlled by the use of special alloy rivets fixed to the elements.
If a fuse in a three phase system blows replace all three as the other 2 may have been seriously
weakened by the overcurrent.
Good discrimination occurs when the fuse nearest the fault blows leaving all other fuses or
circuit breakers intact.
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers must be capable of safely and rapidly interrupting a short circuit current and
they must be mechanically strong enough to withstand the thermal and magnetic forces produced
by the fault current.
The breaking capacity is the maximum fault current a circuit breaker can safely interrupt.
A circuit breaker is a device for making and breaking a circuit both under normal and abnormal
conditions, the circuit being isolated automatically in the latter case. It has a release mechanism
which is operated by a trip coil or a hand trigger. The operating current can be accurately
predetermined and thus circuit breakers can replace fuses.
A circuit breaker has many advantages over a fuse, these include:
1. In the event of a fault all poles are disconnected from the supply, whereas a fuse may
blow in one phase only and this may cause single phasing.
2. A circuit breaker can be easily and accurately adjusted to give either delayed or
instantaneous operation, discrimination and preference tripping.
3. Remote control is easily obtained.
4. Supply failure causes automatic opening and thus eliminates unexpected starting of plant.

5. The circuit can be closed quickly.

Circuit breakers have 2 ratings:
1. Normal, which is the current the breaker can carry continuously without the temperature
rise of the current carrying parts exceeding the specified maximum value.
2. Breaking, which is the current it can break under fault condition.

Circuit breaker types
The main types of circuit breaker are:
1. MCB.
2. MCCB.
3. Main circuit breakers.
All types of circuit breakers consist essentially of pairs of mating contacts, each pair comprising
fixed and moving elements. In normal service these elements are in contact to carry the load
current, but under fault conditions the two elements will part company to interrupt the circuit. At
the instant of separation an arc will be struck between them and will continue until interrupted.
Interruption of the arc depends on aid given either by high pressure, forced convection,
lengthening of the arc, vacuum or by a combination of two or more of these.
Miniature circuit breakers, MCB
These are very small and have current ratings of 5 to 100A, they include thermal overload trips
and magnetic overcurrent trips. MCB’s have low breaking capacities e.g. 3000A. No
maintenance is possible on these breakers.
Moulded case circuit breakers, MCCB
These are small, compact air circuit breakers fitted in a moulded plastic case, they have current
ratings of 30 to 1500 A.
MCCB’s are fitted with thermal overloads and magnetic overcurrent trips, undervoltage trips can
also be fitted.

Main circuit breakers
Many types of main circuit breaker exist, the type used in a particular location depends on the
current to be carried. Main circuit breaker types are distinguished by the method employed to
extinguish the arc caused by breaking the contacts, some common types are:
1. Air break.
2. Vacuum break.
3. Air blast.
4. Compressed gas.
5. Oil.
The commonest type of main circuit breaker found on board is the air break type, although on
high voltage ships other types will be found.
Air break circuit breakers
Large circuit breakers, 600-6000A, are usually of the air break type ACB, this means that the
circuit breaker contacts separate in air.


A main circuit breaker contains several components.
Main contacts
Contacts in a circuit breaker provide a method for connecting the circuit with the system. They
also provide a method for isolating a part of a circuit from the rest of the system. A contact set
contains a fixed and movable contact. As a circuit breaker opens or closes, the fixed contact
maintains its position while the movable contact moves to close (make) or open (break) the
circuit.
Arc illiminators
When a circuit is broken an arc usually occurs and may damage the breaker contact and
surrounding property especially under fault conditions, depending on the amount of current and
the self inductance of the circuit being broken. Methods of reducing the arc and damage caused
by it in air break circuit breakers are:

1. Quick break i.e. spring action.

2. Using arc chutes / splitters to cut the arc.
3. Blowing out the arc by a magnetic blow out coil.
4. Providing auxiliary carbon contacts which make before and break after the main contacts.

When the circuit breaker is opened the main contacts part and the arc is drawn out in a horizontal
direction and transferred to arcing contacts. Arcing contacts are sacrificial contacts which are
designed to make before and break after the main contacts, this ensures that any arc will be on
these contacts so minimal arcing damage is done to the main contacts.
Simultaneously the blow out coil is connected into the circuit and provides a magnetic field to
draw the arc upwards into the arc chutes. The arc accelerates upwards into the arc chutes, aided
by the magnetic field and natural thermal effects, where it is elongated, divided into small
segments, cooled and extinguished; after which it does not re-establish itself. A.C. arcs are easier
to interrupt than D.C. arcs because the current passes through zero.
Operating Mechanism
Circuit breakers require some type of operating mechanism to open and close the contacts. This
operating mechanism can be mechanical or a combination of mechanical and power. Depending
upon the type of circuit breaker being considered, the operating mechanism could be called upon
to:
• Open and close the contacts manually
• Open and close the contacts on demand
• Open the contacts automatically
A basic three phase circuit breaker is designed such that all three sets of contacts open or close
simultaneously, this requires that all the contacts be linked together in some manner. This part of
the mechanism might be connected mechanically to a common handle. The handle, when
operated, puts the mechanism into motion and opens or closes the circuit breaker by
opening or closing the contacts.

Circuit breakers, by virtue of their size and/or some standards requirement, need additional
assistance to set the mechanism in motion to open or close the contacts.
This additional assistance takes the form of springs. Springs play a big role in the precise
functioning of circuit breaker mechanisms. Springs are stretched or compressed to provide the
energy necessary to assist with the proper opening or closing of the contacts.
There are two types of spring-assisted mechanisms: Over-Toggle and Two-Step Stored
Energy.
Over-Toggle Mechanism
A manual handle on the circuit breaker is operated to set the mechanism in motion.
The handle is moved, whether opening or closing the circuit breaker, until a point is
reached where the handle goes over-toggle (past the point of no return) , and the spring-
assisted mechanism automatically opens or closes the circuit breaker.
This toggle mechanism is called the Quick-Make, Quick-Break type, which means that the
speed with which the contacts open or close is independent of how fast the handle is moved.
Two-Step Stored Energy Mechanism
A motor operator can be used to operate the handle automatically in lieu of manual operation.
The design is such that the circuit breaker would trip open when required, even if the manual
handle was held in the ON (closed) position. The two-step stored energy mechanism is used
when a lot of energy is required to close the circuit breaker and when it needs to close
rapidly. The two-step stored energy process is to charge the closing spring and release energy to
close the breaker. It uses separate opening and closing springs. This is important because it
permits the closing spring to be charged independently of the opening process. This allows for an
open-close-open duty cycle. The closing spring can be charged (or recharged) manually via a
charging handle or electrically via a motor. The motor can be operated remotely, allowing
maximum safety for the operator. The major advantages of the two-step stored energy
mechanism are rapid reclosing and safety. Rapid reclosing is achieved by storing charged
energy in a separate closing spring. Safety is achieved by providing remote charging of the
spring.
Air break circuit breakers operate through two-step stored-energy spring mechanisms. The
springs used to close the circuit breaker contacts, called closing springs, can be manually or

electrically charged. The springs used to open the circuit breaker, called opening springs, are
usually charged automatically when the breaker is closed.
Because of the increased closing forces required and the closing speed, air break circuit breakers
use two-step, stored energy mechanisms. That is, the closing springs are charged and remain
charged with the breaker open until a “close” button or some other type of release is activated to
close the breaker.
Tripping mechanism
When a large air circuit breaker is closed, the operating mechanism is latched. As the circuit
breaker is closed, a set of tripping springs, or coils, are compressed, and the circuit breaker may
then be tripped by means of a trip latch. The trip latch mechanism may be operated
either manually or remotely by means of a solenoid trip coil.
A circuit breaker must be tripped in the event of certain fault conditions existing, these include:
1. Overcurrent.
2. Short circuit.
3. Reverse power, used on generators.
4. Low or no voltage trips, used on generators.
The trips each require a sensing element which will cause the tripping mechanism to operate and
open the circuit breaker by releasing the opening spring.
Circuit breaker trips
Overcurrent trips
Overcurrent relays detect a fault current and initiate a trip action, there are three main types:
1. Magnetic.
2. Thermal.
3. Electronic.
All methods use an inverse definite minimum time characteristic, this means that the bigger the
current the faster the circuit breaker will operate.

A thermal relay utilises the bending action of a bimetallic bar to trip the circuit breaker, the time
taken to heat the bimetal gives the necessary time lag. Thermal trips are usually used to protect
against overloads as they have a definite minimum operating time.

The magnetic method drives a solenoid to operate a trip switch, the core movement is slowed by
an oil dashpot. Magnetic trips are usually used to protect against short circuits as they have very
fast operating times.
Electronic trips are the type in common usage they operate by converting the current level into a
proportional voltage signal that is compared to a reference level, this will then initiate the trip if
the level is too high.
The current passing through the overcurrent relay can either come from a current transformer
measuring the circuit current or it can be directly connected into the circuit i.e. in series.
All over current relays can be tested by injecting a calibrated test current into them to check the
operation of the trip and the time delay.
Undervoltage protection
Fitted to all generator breakers, they trip the breaker when a severe voltage dip occurs but they
also prevent a breaker being closed when the generator voltage is too low. If the circuit breaker
of a stopped generator were to be connected to the busbars it would have the same effect as
connecting a complete short circuit across the busbars. Undervoltage trips can be either
electronic or electromagnetic.
3‐ph 440 V bus bars

Circuit breaker
u/v relay coil
Circuit breaker
Generator l h

Reverse power protection
These devices measure the direction of power flow and act to disconnect a generator that goes
into reverse power. Reverse power trips use the same principle as old fashioned Kwhour meters,
the power being supplied by a generator causes a disc to try to spin in a set direction, the disc is
prevented from turning by a spring. If power were to flow into the generator the disc would try
and spin in the opposite direction, this would cause the first spring to be released and a second
spring to be stretched which would in turn release a trip bar.
Circuit breaker maintenance
Each main circuit breaker is mounted on guide rails inside a main switchboard cubicle from
which it must be withdrawn and isolated from the bus-bars for maintenance and testing. The
breaker and its guide rails are usually mounted in a special cassette bolted into the switchboard
cubicle and electrically connected to the bus-bars.
The breaker can be set in one of three positions as shown in the diagrams:
Connected position
Test position.


Isolated position
A mechanical interlock is provided to stop a circuit breaker being racked out of the connected
position if the breaker contacts are made. When the breaker is completely removed from the
switchboard a safety shutter covers the live bus-bar connections at the rear of the cubicle.
Insulation should be checked for tracking especially near exposed live contacts and earthed
metal, and also for blistering. If made of bonded laminated construction it should be inspected
for splits along the sides. Porcelain insulation should be examined for cracks. Check for loose
contacts and poor contact pressure of incorrectly aligned contacts.
Copper and carbon contacts may be dressed by a fine file or glass, not emery paper. Silver, or
silver plated, contacts rarely require maintenance despite their black appearance due to oxidation

as silver oxide is a good conductor. Should cleaning be necessary most metal polishes are
suitable.
A slight smear of Vaseline on contacts, except carbon, is beneficial as it aids good contact and
reduces mechanical abrasions, but excess Vaseline could cause burning and pitting. Dashpot oil
levels should be checked and if necessary topped with the original grade of oil otherwise the time
lag is altered.
A circuit breaker is rapidly disconnected from the board by energy stored in a spring. Should this
spring be rendered inoperative and the circuit breaker was disconnected using other means i.e.
crowbars, huge arcs would be formed between each pole and the fixed bus bar contacts causing
short circuit and fire hazards and probably bus bar and breaker damage.
Should the generator circuit breaker contacts become welded to the switchboard contacts all the
generators must be stopped i.e. the ship is blacked out. The welded contacts are then removed
and the supply restored. The damaged circuit breaker contacts must be renewed prior to the
generator being returned to service.
3 Electrical Power Distribution System
A typical ship’s electrical power distribution system
The diagram represents the basis of the electrical power distribution network on board ship, there
are many possible variations to this system. If the ship’s installed power is in excess of 3MW it
must be possible to split the main bus bar into two parts.
Distribution voltages
Electrical power on board is usually generated at low voltage ( 50 – 1000V ) either:
1. 440V 60 Hz 3ph
2. 380V 50 Hz 3 ph (older ships 415V 50Hz)
Ships with a very high electrical load, usually passenger ships may generate at much higher
voltages usually:
1. 3.3 KV 3 ph
2. 6.6 KV 3 ph

3. 11 KV 3 ph
Lighting and other low power ancillaries are usually supplied by transformers at lower voltages
and are only single phase, the voltages are usually:
1. 220V single phase.
2. 110 V single phase.
Various essential services are powered by batteries and the main supply, the voltage being either:
1. 12V D.C.
2. 24V D.C.


High voltage installations
High voltage installations are now being used on ships with very heavy electrical loads.
The size and therefore weight of electrical conductors depends on the current they must carry, in
high power applications it becomes economically necessary to reduce the amount of current

carried by increasing the voltage. The higher voltage systems can give a large weight saving on
equipment and a cost saving with the reduced quantity of copper.
High voltage systems are usually earthed to the ship’s hull, although this is done through a
resistor, special arrangements have to be used on tankers as earthed systems are not allowed
forward of the engine room bulkhead.
Essential and non essential services
The distribution system is arranged into:
1. Essential supplies.
2. Non essential supplies.
The essential supplies consist of those necessary for the safety of personnel and the safe
navigation of the vessel, they include items such as:
steering gear,
lubricating oil pumps.
Winches.
Anchor windlass.
The distribution system should be arranged so that the essential supplies are the last to be
disconnected in the event of a partial blackout, this is done using preferential tripping.
Lighting in passageways and machinery spaces must be arranged so that a failure of any one
circuit will not produce a completely blacked out area.
Preference trips
Preference trips are used on board to reduce the electrical load on the distribution system in the
event of a partial power failure or an overload situation, this should ensure that any generators
still connected to the system will not be overloaded and trip off. A distribution system will have
several levels of preference tripping, the first equipment to be disconnected will include the least
essential equipment whilst the essential equipment will not be disconnected by a preference trip.
Preference tripping is achieved by using overload relays, if a generator overload develops the
preference trip relay sets an alarm and acts to trip selected non-essential loads.

Each generator has its own overload trip operating its circuit breaker, the overload trip is
typically set high at 150% at 20 sec delay. In addition each generator has its own preference
overload trip, this being set low at 110% instantaneous operation.
If a generator overload condition develops, its preference overload trip will operate to energise
the timing relay. The timing relay then operates to disconnect non-essential services in a definite
order and at definite time intervals, i.e. 1st trip 5 sec, 2nd trip 10 sec and 3rd trip 15 sec.
Emergency power supplies
An emergency electrical power service must be provided on board in the event of a main power
failure. The emergency power source can be an emergency generator, batteries or both, which
ever is used it must be self contained and independent of the engine room power supply.
Common requirements for emergency generators and batteries (extracted
from SOLAS)
1. They should normally be located above the water line.
2. They should not be located forward of the collision bulkhead.
3. They should be located in a compartment that is outside and away from the engine room.
4. The compartment should be accessible from the open deck.

5. The system should be capable of operating with a list of up to 22.5o and a trim of up to
10o.

Additional requirements for emergency batteries
6. Emergency batteries should not be located in the same space as the emergency
switchboard.
7. They must carry the emergency load throughout the discharge period without being
recharged and without its voltage changing by more than 12%.
Additional requirements for emergency generators
8. Emergency generators must have their own prime movers, fuel supply tanks (fuel closed
flash point not less than 43oC), starting equipment capable of three starts (at least two
methods ) and switchboards.
9. The generator must start automatically upon failure of the main supply, connect to the
emergency switchboard and supply the emergency circuits; this must all take place within
45 seconds.
Certain circuits on a ship should be supplied via the emergency switch
board, these include
1. Emergency lighting.
2. Navigation lights.
3. Navigation aids, gyro.
4. Radios.
5. Internal communication equipment required in an emergency situation.
6. Water tight doors.
7. Life boat launching equipment.
8. 1 steering motor.
9. Emergency battery charging.
10. Emergency bilge pump.
11. 1 Fire pump.
12. Automatic sprinkler pump if fitted.
13. Fire detection and fire alarm systems and the fire door holding and release system.

14. One air compressor.

15. Winches.
16. E/R supply and exhaust fan to restart generator.
17. L.O. priming pump for generator.
18. Boiler control pan
It is not normally possible to parallel the main generators and the emergency generator and there
are interlocks to prevent this from happening.
Emergency switch board arrangement

E K (General) – ELECTRICITY Class – 2 School of Marine Engineering ‐ GCNS
Emergency switchboard change over arrangements
The emergency power system must be ready and available at all times; it must be tested
regularly to check that it will operate correctly when required. Regulations governing
emergency power supplies are detailed in the SOLAS documents.
MGN 52 (M+F)
Testing of emergency sources of power
This M notice details the weekly testing required for the emergency generator and testing of
the emergency supply arrangements.
Navigation lights
There are usually 2 lamps at each position, commonly in the same fitting. Each lamp is
separately supplied, switched and fused and has an indicator and a failure alarm in the
wheelhouse.
Power to the navigation lights panel is usually 220 V supplied from the essential services
section of the main board with an alternative supply from the emergency board, supply is
changed over by a switch on the navigation light panel.
45

When a nav. light is on there will be an indicator lamp on the navigation light panel, if the
bulb or circuit fails then the indicator bulb will go out and an alarm will sound.
NUC, not under control, lights are usually supplied from the emergency 24V d.c. system.
4 Electronic devices
P and N type Semiconductors
Conduction in pure semi conductors
Semiconductors are a class of materials with conductivity between that of metals and that of
insulators. Silicon and germanium are the two most commonly used semiconductor materials.
At absolute zero pure semi conductors behave as insulators as there are no free charge
carriers to conduct electricity. As the semiconductor temperature increases, more charge
carriers are produced and the conductivity increases as now explained.
Silicon and germanium have four electrons which form covalent bonds with neighbouring
atoms. At absolute zero temperature there are no thermal vibrations to disturb the electrons in
the material so they remain within their bonds. As the temperature rises the thermal energy of
vibration is sufficient to displace some electrons and give them enough energy to become
free. The electrons attached to atoms are said to be in the valence band of energy. Free
electrons are in the conduction band, which is a band of higher energy values. There is an
energy gap between these bands and the thermal vibrations can give some electrons in the
valence band enough energy to cross the gap.
46

If an electron, charge –e, leaves an atom, then that atom is left with a net positive charge, +e.
This region of positive charge can move as units +e of positive charge and are called holes. In
a semiconductor the electric current will be carried by positive holes moving in the
conventional current direction, and electrons moving in the opposite direction. In general,
however, the electrons are much more mobile and move with a greater speed when a p.d. is
connected across the semiconductor. For this reason the predominant charge carriers of a
semiconductor are negative, although holes and electrons are present in equal numbers.
Doped semiconductors
Semiconductors can be doped be the addition of impurities, typically 1 part per million.
Arsenic has 5 valence electrons and if this is added to germanium, the arsenic atom will take
the place of a germanium atom in the crystal lattice. There is, however, one valence electron
spare and this becomes free to move. Thus each arsenic atom contributes a free electron.
There is also a fixed positive ion at that lattice site in the nucleus of the arsenic atom, this
positive charge is not free to move and so is not a hole. The doping with arsenic thus
produces a majority of negative charge carriers and this is called an n type semiconductor.
There are still electrons and holes produced thermally, as described above, but these are
comparatively few in number. The electrons are called majority carriers and the holes
minority carriers.
Boron and indium are trivalent elements. If these are used to dope the germanium then there
is one valence electron too few at impurity sites. Thus a positive hole is formed which is free
to migrate. At the impurity lattice there is a fixed negative ion. . In this type of doped
semiconductor the majority carriers are positive holes and so the material is called p-type.
pn junction
p-n junctions are made by fusing together a p-type and an n-type semiconductor so that a very
thin junction is formed between them.
Immediately the junction is formed some positive holes on the p side of the junction will drift
across the junction into the n-type region and recombine with electrons. This means that there
is a net positive charge in the n type material in the region immediately next to the junction
since that region was previously neutral.
47

Similarly, some electrons will diffuse into the p type material and recombine with holes,
making that region electrically negative.
Thus a p.d. is set up across the junction which prevents further diffusion of charge carriers.
This p.d. is called a barrier p.d. and is about 0.6 volts in value.
Since recombination has taken place either side of the junction, this area is deficient in charge
carriers and is called the depletion layer or depletion region.
Forward biased p – n junction
If a p.d. greater than the barrier p.d. is applied to the p-n junction as shown in the figure
below good conduction takes place and the junction is said to be forward biased.
The current flow is due to the fact that the positive holes in the P type material are repelled
from the battery positive terminal and the negative electrons in the N type tend to move away
from the negative terminal of the battery. This means that both positive and negative carriers
move towards the central junction. Holes and electrons start to recombine in the depletion
layer so the depletion layer decreases in width.
For each combination of an excess electron and hole that occurs an electron from the –ve
terminal of the external battery enters the N type, drifts towards the junctions, and near the
+ve terminal breaks its bond and enters the +ve terminal of the external battery. The net
effect is to produce a current in the circuit, which is carried by holes along AB and electrons
along CB.
48

Only a small voltage is required to cause all holes and all electrons to flow to the junction.
Reverse biased p n junction
If the p.d. is applied as shown in the figure, the junction is said to be reverse biased.
In this case the holes in the p type material are pulled away from the junction towards the
battery –ve terminal and the electrons in the n type material are pulled away from the junction
towards the battery +ve terminal.
The depletion layer increases in width and the voltage across it increase until it equals the
applied p.d. and there is no current flow due to holes and electrons.
The only conduction which takes place is by the minority charge carriers in each
semiconductor region. Thus the current is very low.
49

Voltage characteristics of p – n junctions
In the forward biased direction a small voltage needs to be applied to the diode before it will
start to conduct, this depends on the material the semiconductor is made from, for example;
Silicon 0.6 – 0.8 V forward volt drop.
Germanium 0.2 – 0.3 V forward volt drop.
after this point it will conduct freely in the forward direction.
If voltage is applied across the diode in the reverse direction then only a small leakage current
will flow through the diode with the rest being blocked, there is a point known as breakdown
where the diode will start to conduct in the reverse direction. Notice the different scales on
the graph.
Diodes
Diodes are 2 layer semi conductor devices, as can be seen previously they will only conduct
in one direction. If a voltage is applied across a diode in the direction that will cause
conduction it is said to be forward biased otherwise it is said to be reverse biased.
50

The symbol commonly used for a diode is:
Zener diodes
Zener diodes are devices which use the breakdown characteristic of reverse biased diodes.
Zeners are designed to be used in circuits in the reverse biased state.
Symbol:
In the reverse biased state if a voltage smaller than the breakdown voltage is applied to a
zener it will not conduct more than its leakage current but if a high enough voltage is applied
the zener will start to conduct. As can be seen from the normal diode characteristic when the
diode breaks down the voltage across it is constant regardless of the current that it is carrying.
Zener diodes are manufactured with specific breakdown voltages ranging from a few volts to
a few hundred volts. If they are incorporated in circuits with resistors then the voltage across
the zener will be constant even in the event of a surge in supply voltage.
Zeners are used as:
1. Voltage stabilisers,
2. Reference signals,
3. Voltage barriers for intrinsically safe devices,
51

Transistors
Transistors are three layer semi conductor devices made out of two p-n junctions, they can be
either designed as PNP type or NPN type, the symbols commonly used for the two types are
shown below.
Biasing of transistors
In use the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse
biased as shown.
52

Operation of an npn transistor
If the base emitter junction is not correctly biased or has a voltage below the barrier voltage,
i.e. 0.6 V for silicon, then the base emitter junction will not conduct and only a leakage
current will pass through the transistor.
When the transistor is correctly biased, electrons from the emitter flow into the base region. If
the base region were wide, these electrons would recombine with holes in the p type base and
the emitter current IE would be equal to the base current IB. However the base is made
deliberately very thin, much smaller than the average distance travelled by an electron before
recombining with a hole. Thus only a small number of electrons combine with holes in the
base region and so IB is much less than IE. Most electrons travel on into the n type material of
the collector and so give rise to the collector current IC, it is clear that
I E = I B + IC
The amplifying property of the transistor stems from the fact that IC is much greater than IB.
A roughly constant fraction of the electrons from the emitter recombine in the base, so if IB
changes by a small amount there is a large change in IE, this represents the current
multiplication.
A transistor is basically an electronic switch which uses a very small current to turn on the
switch and allow a much larger current to flow, it also acts as an amplifier because the
amount of current that flows between the base and the emitter is directly proportional to the
current flow between the collector and the emitter.
Transistor configurations
Common emitter configuration, this allows high current and voltage gains.
53

The common base circuit has a current gain which is slightly less than unity but a high
voltage gain.
The opposite is true of common collector circuits. These circuits are used where impedance
matching to input signal sources and output loads is important for maximum power transfer,
e.g. a microphone input and loudspeaker output.
All of these configurations must have a d.c. power supply, a bias circuit to set up the desired
d.c. voltages and currents together with a load to make up a practical amplifier circuit.
Practical transistor circuits
Before any signal amplification can take place the circuit must be set up with d.c. voltages
and currents. When using an n-p-n transistor in the common emitter configuration as a
voltage amplifier, the usual object is to fix the collector voltage at approximately 0.5 V.
d.c. amplifier
This circuit can be used to amplify a signal or to simply act as a switch.
54

Smoke detector
No smoke: Light falls on the photo-cell so it produces a voltage which forward biases the
base emitter junction of the transistor, this allows the transistor to conduct between the
collector and the emitter and energise the relay coil. With the relay coil energised the relay
contacts are held in the open position so the alarm is not energised.
Smoke present: Smoke will obscure light from falling on the photo-cell so its generated
voltage will fall. When its voltage falls below 0.6V the transistor will no longer be forward
biased and it will turn off, i.e. stop conducting. If there is no current flowing through the relay
coil the relay’s contacts will close due to a return spring, this will cause the battery to be
connected with the alarm horn and the alarm will sound.
a.c. amplifier
The resistors R1 and R2 provide positive d.c. biasing to the base emitter of the transistor and
d.c. current flows through the transistor, the load and R3.
A small a.c. signal is applied between the base and the common line through C1, this alters
the base emitter current which in turn alters the collector current and the collector voltage
across the load which varies according to the input signal.
This changing voltage is picked up after the capacitor C2 to become the a.c. output voltage, it
is in anti phase to the input signal.
Thyristors
Thyristors are 4 layer semi conductor devices which have 3 p-n junctions.
55

Thyristors are essentially diodes that will only conduct in the forward biased direction when a
firing signal is applied to them, they will stop conducting when the voltage across them falls
to zero. The forward voltage drop across a thyristor is approximately 2V.
Symbol
anode cathode
gate
A B C
anode cathode
P N P N
gate
When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode junctions A and C are forward biased
and thus have a low resistance to the flow of current but junction B is reverse biased and
presents a high resistance to the flow of current.
If the voltage applied across the thyristor is increased, when the anode is positive with respect
to the cathode the forward leakage current increases until the breakdown voltage is reached,
at this point junction B breaks down and the thyristor will start to conduct. As soon as the
thyristor starts to conduct its resistance falls.
If a positive current is fed into the gate it increases the current through junction A. The flow
of gate current decreases the value of the supply voltage required to cause breakdown of
junction B and thus the thyristor can be made to act as a switch.
Breakdown conditions will persist as long as the anode current is above the holding value,
giving an almost constant voltage drop across the thyristor irrespective of the current flow.
In the conducting state the thyristor behaves like a single p-n diode, the anode current being
limited only by the resistance of the load. The thyristor can be restored to its high resistance
value by reducing the anode current below the holding value.
56

Thyristor circuit waveforms

a.c.
load
waveform
The dotted line represents the voltage waveform that a diode would pass; the solid line shows
the waveform passed by the thyristor when the firing signal is applied.
Resistance temperature detectors
The RTD is an electrical circuit element consisting of a solid conductor, usually in the form
of wire, characterised by a positive temperature coefficient of resistivity. Platinum, nickel and
nickel-iron alloy are the types in widest use. The construction of the RTD platinum film
transducer is shown.
Laser trimmed Ceramic Gold contact

platinum film substrate plates

connections
57

The platinum film is trimmed with a laser to provide a resistance of 100 ohms, or multiples of
100 ohms at 0oC.
RTD sensitivity can be determined from typical values of the linear fractional change in
resistance with temperature. For platinum this is in the order of 0.004/oC whereas nickel is
0.005/oC
If the temperature changes by 1oC then the change in resistance of a platinum RTD would be
0.4 ohms, for a 100 ohm RTD.
5 Rectification
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current to direct current. A wave form is
said to be rectified if it does not change polarity during a cycle.
There are several types of rectification depending on the output waveform that is required.
Half wave rectification
This uses a single diode. The diode will only pass current when it is forward biased, that is
when the voltage at the anode is more positive than the voltage at the cathode. This means
that the diode will only allow half of an a.c. waveform to be connected to the load.
The output voltage across the load pulses with a ripple frequency equal to the a.c. line
frequency.
a.c.
load
waveform
58

The average d.c. voltage is found from the following equation;
0.636
V DC = VMAX
2
Full wave biphase rectification
This system requires the use of 2 diodes and a centre tapped transformer. Although in this
system both the positive and negative half cycle of the a.c. are transmitted to the load they
only have half the voltage of the supply.
The ripple of this type of system is 2 x the a.c. frequency.
V DC = 0.636VMAX
Full wave rectification
Full wave rectification uses 4 diodes, it is often referred to as a bridge rectifier circuit.
This system allows both the positive and the negative cycle of the supply voltage to be used.
59


V DC = 0.636VMAX
Smoothing
The output from each of the rectification systems has a large amount of ripple, ripple is the
difference between the highest and lowest value of output voltage, the ripple has a frequency
of either 1 or 2 times the supply a.c. voltage frequency.
The ripple voltage can be reduced by using either capacitors or inductors, both of these
devices basically store power during the voltage peaks and release it during the voltage lows.
Capacitors are added into a circuit after the rectifying diodes and in parallel with the load,
inductors are added in series with the load.
60

Load voltage waveform
Load
voltage
Controlled rectification
If a thyristor is used in a rectification circuit instead of a diode then the value of the output
d.c. voltage can be adjusted without adjusting the input a.c. waveform. Thyristors can be used
in any of the rectification circuits previously described although they are most commonly
used in bridge rectifiers with smoothing circuits; this allows a good d.c. output to be
produced at a range of voltages.
In practice a thyrisor controlled bridge rectifier only needs to use 2 thyristors and 2 diodes as
shown.
a.c.
supply load
Load voltage
Load
voltage
Input a.c.
61

The longer the firing delay on the thyristors the more ripple will be seen on the output
waveform as the capacitors are unable to completely smooth the d.c., the average value of
this d.c. is dependent on the amount of ripple. The average value of the d.c. will be lower the
longer the firing delay.
6 Single Phase Power
In a.c. circuits the voltage and current supplied by a generator may or may not be in phase
with each other due to the presence of resistors, inductors and capacitors in the load.
The product of voltage and current is power but which current, in phase or 90o out of phase.
There are three expressions for the power of an a.c. circuit, active power, reactive power and
apparent power.
In a circuit where voltage is taken as the reference the components of current are as shown
below.
I
I sin φ
φ I cos φ Voltage

reference
The product of r.m.s. voltage and r.m.s. current is known as apparent power symbol S, it is
always quoted in units of VA .
S = VI
The product of r.m.s. voltage and in phase r.m.s. current is known as active power, true
power, useful power or in phase power symbol P, it is always quoted in units of Watts or
KW.
P = VI cos φ
The product of r.m.s. voltage and r.m.s. current at 90o is known as reactive power symbol Q,
it is always quoted in units of VAr or kVAr.
Q = VI sin φ
62

The three types of power can be drawn using the same triangle as above.
S
Q

φ P
Reactive power can be either leading as shown in the diagram or lagging. If a system includes
inductors it will have a lagging reactive power, in order to reduce the total circuit current
leading reactive power needs to be introduced to the system, this is done by adding capacitors
to a system.
Reactive power is necessary in any a.c. system that requires a magnetic field to be
established.
Power factor
The power factor of a system is given as the cosine of the angle between the apparent power
and the active power.
P
p. f . = cos φ =
S
If a system has a power factor of unity this means that the cosine of the angle is 1, in other
words the apparent and active power are the same and there is no reactive power in the
system.
Power factor correction
The lower the power factor of a circuit the greater the current flow for a given load. Thus
generators, transformers, switchgear and distribution cables all have to carry an increased
current if the pf is less than unity. This involves an increase in the cross sectional area of
cables, increased copper losses and with a lagging pf, an increased voltage drop. It is usually
advantageous to the user to install apparatus (capacitors or synchronous motors) to improve
pf. The commonest method of pf correction is to connect capacitors in parallel with the load.
63

Capacitors take a leading reactive current which opposes the lagging reactive current taken
by an inductive load.
Induction motors demand active power to satisfy their mechanical load and to supply losses
but they also demand reactive power to supply their magnetisation. Whereas active power
will vary with load, magnetisation remains virtually constant and independent of loading,
since the rotating field is present whether the motor is working or running light. Therefore the
reactive loading can be regarded as constant while the active loading varies with loading.
Active power originates from the generator’s prime mover as mechanical output from the
engine. Reactive power emanates from the generator’s excitation system through its main
field. At a motor the reactive power is used to magnetise the machine and the active power
supplies the variable mechanical load and the losses.
7 A.C. GENERATORS
Operating principle of an a.c. generator
Fleming’s right hand rule states that movement of a conductor in a magnetic field will cause a
voltage to be induced in the conductor. If this conductor is incorporated into a circuit a
current will flow.
The size of the voltage induced into the conductor depends on the strength of the magnetic
field and the speed of movement of the conductor through the magnetic field.
Therefore: E ∝ Nφ
Where E - induced voltage.

N - speed of rotor.
φ - magnetic flux strength.
Simple 3 phase generator
All generators consist of a rotor and a stator one of which carries the magnetic field and one
of which carries the conductors.
It is common practice for the rotor of a 3 phase generator to carry the magnetic field in the
form of electro magnets, in the simple diagram the generator has only 2 magnetic poles, a
north N and a south S.
64

The stator has to carry the conductors, the conductors are made up of windings, the
windings have a start and a finish end, in the drawing the start is denoted by R, Y and B and
the finish is denoted by R1, Y1 and B1, three windings are provided on the stator in order to
produce a 3 phase output.
In the position shown in the diagram the north pole is just passing the R phase start end so
according to Flemings law there is a maximum current being induced into winding R, at the
same time the south pole S is passing the end of the same winding R1, due to Flemings law a
maximum voltage is induced at this point as well and this voltage is acting in the same
direction as that produced by the north pole.
As the rotor turns through one complete revolution the current induced in winding R will go
through a complete sine wave.
The start of winding B is exactly 120o away from the start of winding R so the north pole will
be directly under the B winding 120o later than it was under the R winding, this means that
the B winding will have a sine wave induced in it that lags the sine wave in R by 120o .
The start of the Y winding is 240o from the start of winding R so it will have a sine wave
induced in it that lags the one in R by 240o. In this way three phase a.c. is developed in the
windings.

R

B
Y1
N

S
Y B

R1
Simple 3 phase generator arrangement.

65

The 3 phase output from the stator is shown below.
Types of generator
There are two types of generator:
1. Stationary field.
2. Revolving field
Stationary field type
Small generators, up to 250kVA at 1500 rpm, are made with stationary field systems, this
means that the magnetic field is on the stator and the conductor windings are on the rotor.
Generators with this design are generally used for special purposes or as pilot exciters.
Revolving field type
These are standard for larger machines and for those with a large number of poles. The rotor
carries the magnetic field whilst the stator contains the current carrying conductors. There are
2 types of design for rotors:
Laminated rotor, also called cylindrical rotor.
Salient pole
All the following information refers to revolving field type generators.
66

Constructional details of A.C. generators
Generator rotors
The poles on the rotor are arranged in pairs, the core of each pole is iron, this allows it to
retain some residual magnetism.
Permanent magnet poles are only used for very small generators the poles on all larger
machines are in effect electro magnets powered by a d.c. supply.
It is the strength of the magnetic field that produces the required output voltage from the
generator, for a system with varying loads the d.c. current to the poles needs to be adjusted to
ensure a constant terminal voltage.
Rotors can carry one or many more pairs of poles it all depends on the speed of the prime
mover and the output frequency required, the faster the rotor turns the lower the number of
poles required.
Cylindrical rotors
A cylindrical rotor consists of a solid shaft passing through the centre of a cylindrical body.
The cylindrical body is built up in laminations of circular steel plates with a layer of oxide as
insulation, the laminations are arranged to prevent the flow of stray currents along the length
of the rotor.
The Laminated rotor has axial slots punched into its circular steel plates, the field windings
are then wound into these slots. The field windings are made of varnished copper wire and
are insulated from the slots, they are retained in the slots by wedges, in order to ensure a good
standard of insulation the rotor is varnished or emersed in resin.
The slots for the field windings do not cover the whole surface of the rotor, sections of the
surface function as pole faces and these are left free of field windings.
Cylindrical rotor construction gives a very robust winding able to withstand considerable
oscillatory torsional stresses caused by modern reciprocating prime movers and able to cope
with high centrifugal forces.
Cylindrical rotor machines are suitable for prime movers which operate at medium or high
speeds, they are almost always found in conjunction with steam turbine prime movers and
67

will usually only have 1 or 2 pairs of poles. Slower speed machines usually use salient pole
rotor construction.
2 pole cylindrical rotors.
68

Salient pole rotor
Salient pole field types are manufactured in two general forms to suit the application but all
of them use a projecting pole attached to the rotor, the two forms are high speed construction
and low speed construction.
In general a salient pole rotor consists of a solid shaft with a rotor hub keyed onto it. The
rotor hub is cylindrical in form but has flats arranged on it, the poles are attached to the rotor
at the flats. In high speed construction the pole unit is dovetailed to the steel rotor hub and in
low speed construction the poles are bolted to the steel hub.
The poles of the salient pole machine consists of a centre core of laminated iron with a cap
around which is wound a coil. The coil is insulated from the iron core and each turn of the
coil is insulated from the others, the coils can be wound from copper wire or from rectangular
copper strip. All coils are securely fixed against movement by coil clamps where necessary.
Salient pole construction is not used for high speed machines due to the large centrifugal
forces that they are subjected to.
Salient pole rotors.

69

70

Damper windings
Damper windings are built into the pole faces of all generators and are interconnected
between poles. These are of robust construction and are designed to provide the maximum
damping of torsional oscillation and to minimise waveform distortion and local overheating
due to unbalanced and single phase loads.
Stator construction
The stator carries the three sets of conductors that will have an e.m.f. induced in them.
The stator is made of laminated silicon iron, iron is used as it strengthens the magnetic field
which cuts the conductors. As the stator is made of iron a circulating current will be induced
in it as well as into the windings, to stop this circulating current (known as an eddy current)
the stator is laminated with a layer of oxide on each lamination which acts as an insulating
material. The laminations are arranged to stop the flow of current in an axial direction.
The stator has axial slots cut in it which are insulated to hold the windings. The stator slots
may be skewed along the length of the generator to reduce pulsation and waveform ripple.
The conductors are made from copper wire or solid bar and are held in the slots by wedges.
71

The conductor to slot insulation is porous and needs to be sealed, this is done by
impregnating them with varnish.
The stator laminations are built into packs with distance pieces between them to ensure a path
for cooling air.
The stator windings are interconnected this can take place in the terminal box or inside the
generator itself, one end of each winding is connected together to make a star point, if this is
extended outside of the motor into the terminal box it can be used as a neutral point.

Cooling
To prevent overheating the generator is cooled by forced air circulation, the air flows
between stator and rotor and through the stator cooling gaps. The cooling air forms a closed
circuit to prevent the ingress of airborn engine room contaminants into the generator, this
means that the air itself needs to be cooled, this is achieved by using a heat exchanger with
water as the cooling medium.
Due to the possibility of overheating or cooling water ingress into the generator certain
alarms are included:
1. Water leakage.
2. Stator winding temperature x 3.
72

There are usually electric heaters fitted inside the generator to ensure that no condensation is
formed on the windings when the generator is shut down, these may operate automatically or
may be manually switched on.
Generator excitation
Excitation is the name given to the process of supplying the correct current to the magnetic
poles of the rotor in order to create the correct generator output voltage.
Types of excitation
These can be either:
1. Rotating
2. Static
Rotary excitation
Rotary exciters use a shaft mounted exciter that rotates with the main shaft. Exciters can use
either a.c. or d.c. techniques but the commonest system is a.c. which uses a brushless system
which is in effect a small a.c. generator itself but with the field on the stator and the current
induced onto the rotor, these are more common for marine use due to the reduced
maintenance.
The power supply for the excitation is taken from the automatic voltage regulator.
Rotary excitation gives a relatively sluggish response to load changes.
Brushless excitation
This is a rotational method of excitation. The brushless exciter is a small a.c. generator
attached to the end of the main generator shaft. The stator of the brushless exciter carries the
magnetic field and the rotor carried the conductors which will have a voltage induced in
them.
The stator of the exciter consists of electromagnets whose d.c. supply is provided by an a.v.r.
As the prime mover turns it turns the conductors on the exciter rotor in the magnetic field
produced by the stator, this induces a voltage in the rotor conductors, this is an a.c. voltage.
The induced voltage is passed through diode rectifiers and converted into d.c., the diodes are
mounted on the shaft and are often referred to as rotating diodes.
73

The rectifier d.c. voltage from the brushless exciter rotor is next passed to the field windings
of the main generator where it will produce the magnetic field required by the main
generator.
The output voltage of the main generator is controlled by the strength of its magnetic field, so
in order to increase the generator’s ouput voltage the supply current to its field must also
increase, this is increased by increasing the supply current to the brushless exciters field. An
a.v.r. is used to control the size of the brushless exciter’s field.
The power for the brushless exciter’s field is derived from the generator’s output power by
the a.v.r, this means that when the generator first starts up there is no output so there will be
no power to the field of the exciter. To solve the problem of their being no power to the
brushless exciter operating the brushless exciter may well have permanent magnets
incorporated in it. The permanent magnets ensure that there is some magnetic field for the
shaft to rotate in when it first starts up.
Brushless exciter
Static excitation
In a static excitation system the generator field draws its d.c. current via a static excitation
transformer / rectifier unit fed directly from the generator voltage and current output. This
arrangement is known as compounding as it is controlled by voltage (shunt effect) and
current (series effect) feedback.
Response times as low as 0.1 seconds to correct a 15% voltage dip are common with static
excited compound generators.
74

The static excitation equipment may be located away from the generator itself with the
excitation current supplied to the shaft via slip rings on the main rotor.
In the drawing PRI stands for the transformer primaries.
SEC stands for the transformer secondarys.
On no load PRI. 1 provides the generator excitation.
On load PRI. 2 adds additional excitation current.
The drawing shows a system for a single phase generator for simplicity.
Static exciter

Voltage regulation
The regualtion of a generator is a term that describes how the generator output voltage will
vary with a change in load. There are two regulation curves the one showing the response to a
large sudden load change and the response showing the change over the whole range of load
outputs.
Regulation of an uncompounded generator
The following graph shows the regulation curve of an uncompounded generator (with or
without brushes) at a fixed value of excitation current i.e. there is no automatic voltage
regulator changing the excitation current. It can be seen that as the current drawn from the
75

generator increases its terminal voltage falls following a very steep curve. This type of
generator is of very limited use.
Voltage regulation of an uncompouded

generator at 0.8 p.f.
80
%Terminal voltage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% Full load current

Regulation of a compounded generator
The regulation curve of a compounded generator is much flatter than an uncompounded one.
For many duties where accurate voltage regulation is not necessary, the inherent regulation of
this type of generator is adequate and further trimming by an a.v.r. is not necessary. Such
duties would include the supply of motors at constant or variable frequency.
Voltage regulation of a compounded

generator at 0.8 p.f.
110
% Terminal voltage
105
100
95
90
85
80
0 50 100 150
% Full load current

Regulation using an AVR
If an AVR is fitted to an uncompounded or a compounded generator it will improve the
voltage regulation, that is the drop in voltage from no load to full load will be reduced, an
AVR can in fact control the voltage to within +/- 2.5%.
76

Transient voltage regulation
A momentary transient voltage dip is caused when a generator is subject to switching loads,
this dip is due to the internal voltage drop in the generator increasing due to the increased
load current. If a large electrical load is suddenly disconnected from the busbars then the
voltage will momentarily rise.
The transient voltage dip must be limited to a safe value to prevent maloperation of
equipment. It is usual to allow a maximum of a 15% dip at the generator terminals,
which gives a small margin for line drop and a recovery time of 1.5 seconds. If there is no
AVR fitted the voltage dip will be excessive.
Voltage recovery profile for an

unregulated generator
150
% Termina
voltage
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8
time in seconds
voltage recovery profile for a generator with an

AVR.
120
% Terminal voltage
100
80
60
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time in seconds

77

Automatic voltage regulators A.V.R.
Under constant excitation conditions we know that a generator terminal voltage drops with
increasing load, to control this drop we must vary the excitation current which is supplied to
the machine.
An A.V.R. senses a generator’s terminal voltage and output current and uses these values to
adjust the excitation to the generator. A simple A.V.R. system will only sense terminal
voltage but if better regulation is required both terminal voltage and output current need to be
used to determine the level of excitation required.
An A.V.R. can be incorporated into a system in one of two ways:
1. Excitation supply, this supplies the whole of the required excitation current under
normal operating conditions.
2. Compounding control, the generator is compounded to supply excessive excitation
which the A.V.R adjusts to the correct level.

A.V.R. Component parts
An A.V.R. can be considered as a number of blocks each performing a specific function,
these blocks are.
1. A voltage comparison circuit for the detection of any discrepancy between generated
and required voltage.
2. An amplifier and conditioning circuit which converts the signal from the voltage
comparator circuit into a suitable control signal.
3. A control element which varies the excitation current.
4. Other non essential elements which only improve on basic performance.
A typical circuit diagram for direct self excitation is as follows.

78

A.V.R. circuit diagram

Operating principles
The generator output voltage is sensed in the sensing element, this element produces a low
voltage output which is proportional to the generator output.
The low voltage output from the sensing unit is compared to a set value representing normal
terminal voltage in the reference bridge. The reference bridge will generate an error signal
which is proportional to the difference between the generator output and its required output.
The error signal may well be amplified to create enough signal strength for the rest of the
circuit.
The amplified error signal will be used in a firing circuit, the firing circuit will use the size of
the error signal to determine at which position in the cycle the thyristors, which supply the
excitation field, should be turned on. If the generator output voltage has dropped then the
position of firing for the thyristors needs to be brought closer to the start of the a.c. cycle.
The final component is the generator field supply circuit, this circuit may be directly
supplying the power to the generator field through slip rings or it may supply the power to a
brushless exciter field which will in turn supply the main field. The power for the field is
79

drawn from an a.c. source, this power is rectified from a.c. to d.c. via a thyristor rectifier, i.e.
a controlled bridge. The firing circuit controls the point at which the thyristors turn on and
therefore they control the power passing to the field.

Voltage comparison circuit

The voltage comparison circuit firstly converts the a.c. input, which is proportional to the
generator’s votage output, into a d.c. output by using a bridge rectifier and smoothing. The
signal is then compared with the required value by using a zener bridge.

L

Z1 R2

From
To
gen C
amp
term
R2 Z2

Voltage comparison circuit.

Operation of comparison circuit
A zener diode will always drop the same voltage across it when it is reversed biased, no
matter what voltage is applied across it and its in-series resistor.
The bridge is arranged to be in balance when the generator output is correct, i.e. the voltage
to the amplifier is zero. This is achieved in the following way, if the zeners are 10 V zeners
and the voltage from the generator, when it has the correct terminal voltage, is 20 V then the
voltage dropped across both resistors is 10 V and the voltage across the two terminals leading
to the amplifier is 0V.
If the generator output reduces and the sensed voltage goes down to 18 V each zener will still
drop 10 V, this means that the resistors each drop 8 V but now because of the arrangement of
the zener bridge there is now a 2 volt difference between the terminals leading to the
amplifier.
80

If the generator output increases to 22 V each resistor will drop 12 V and there will be a 2 V
difference between the terminals leading to the amplifier but this time it will have a different
polarity from before.

Firing circuit
The following circuit is that of an excitation supply AVR which can vary the field current
from zero to a value depending on the positive peak value of supply voltage. The free
wheeling diode allows current through the thyristor to die away at the end of the positive half
cycle. Due to the large inductance of the field winding a positive current would flow through
the thyristor during part of the negative half cycle if the free wheeling diode were omitted.

1Φ, Amp

a.c

Power circuit of an excitation supply AVR.

A.C. generator maintenance and testing
Dirt, oil, corrosive liquids and atmospheres all contribute to the deterioration of generator
parts.
Dirt and oil combine to adhere to windings and diodes to impede the flow of cooling air. This
can result in local overheating and possible breakdown of insulation or failure of the diode
rectifier circuit.
Corrosive liquids and gases also attack insulation and varnish causing shrinkage of insulation
and impregnation and a possible short circuit.
A routine cleaning operation should be established at regular intervals. The interval will be
determined by the operating conditions of the machine.
Cleaning should be done by clean lint free rags soaked in a propriety brand electroclean fluid.
The fluid may be sprayed on and then dried off with the rags. Trichloroethylene should not be
used.
Arrangements should be made to keep the area well ventilated during cleaning operations.
81

After cleaning, windings etc. the insulation resistance should be measured. This is most
conveniently done by means of a megger tester.
Classification societies give minimum values for the insulation resistance of marine a.c.
generators.
A typical formula is:

3 x voltage of machine M ohms

machine kVA + 1000

When measured cold, a minimum insulation resistance of 2 mega ohms per KV at 40oC
should be obtained.
It is important that insulation tests should be made at the same temperature and the
temperature of windings at time of test should be logged. Allowance can be made for
differing winding temperature by halving the reading for each 10oC of rise or doubling the
reading for each 10oC of fall.
The following tests should be made with the generator star point disconnected, i.e. each phase
winding totally separated, and the rectifier diodes disconnected.
Between each phase and from each phase to earth and from rotor windings to earth.
It is extremely important that the rectifier and excitation equipment are not meggered. It is
best to disconnect them before megger testing.
Slip ring machines should have the brushes lifted from the slip rings and the insulation
resistance measured from each slip ring to earth. By disconnecting the cables from slip rings
to field winding the insulation resistance between slip rings may be checked. The cables to
the brush holders should also be disconnected and the brush holders tested between each
other and earth.
It cannot be emphasised enough that rectifier diodes and excitation equipment (AVR’s) must
not be tested for insulation resistance.
Minimum insulation resistance for motors 1M Ohm.
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8 A.C. switchboards and paralleling
A.C. switchboards
A.C. switchboards are of the dead front construction, and have cubicle doors or draw out type
switchgear, this is to reduce the posibility of electric shock. The equipment normally required
on an a.c. board consists of:
1. an ammeter, with a selector switch, for each line current.

2. a wattmeter for each generator.
3. a voltmeter and frequency meter connected to the busbars.
4. a voltmeter and frequency meter, with a selector switch, connected to the generators.
5. a synchroscope and synchronising lamps.
6. a reverse power relay for each generator.
7. a governor motor speed controler for each generator.
8. earth indicating lamps.
9. an automatic voltage regulator, A.V.R., for each generator.
10. a power factor or kVA meter.
11. a voltmeter and ammeter for each exciter.
Current transformers
To reduce the currents that are passed through the ammeter and wattmeter current coils and
the reverse power trip current transformers are often used. Current transformers must never
be open circuited, or left open circuited, when on load as this would cause large secondary
voltages to appear and overheating of the coils.
Potential transformers
Potential transformers are normally used with voltmeters and the voltage coils of wattmeters,
etc, normal rating 110V in the secondary winding.
Paralleling of alternators
A stationary alternator must not be connected to live busbars because when the generator is
not rotating it has a very low resistance and is effectively a short circuit across the busbars.
In order to parallel a generator with the busbars and ensure that there is minimal circulating
current between the incoming machine and the busbars the following 4 criteria must be
fulfilled:
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1. The frequency of the incoming machine must be almost identical to the busbar
frequency or slightly faster.
2. The voltage in the incoming machine must equal the live busbar voltage in size or be
slightly higher to take the load immediately.
3. The induced voltages in the incoming machine must be in phase with the live busbar
voltages.
4. The phase sequence of the busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltages must
be the same, i.e. they must both rotate R, Y, B.
To satisfy condition 1, the speed of the incoming machine must be adjusted to equate
frequencies, this is achieved by using the governor speed control.
To satisfy condition 2 the machine excitation must be adjusted to equate voltages using the
AVR control.
The phase difference between the incoming generator and the busbar voltages must be
adjusted until the voltages are in phase using the governor speed control of the incoming
machine.
The phase rotation only needs to be checked on a new installation, if a shore supply is being
connected or if work has been carried out on the generator or busbar connections.
Once the above requirements are met, the incoming machine may be connected to the
busbars, this operation is termed synchronising.
If an incoming generator’s circuit breaker was attempted to be closed when the generator
voltage and the busbar voltage are not in synchronism the result would be a blackout and
severe mechanical damage to one or both generators. At the instant of closing the breaker the
voltage phase difference would cause a large circulating current to flow between the
machines which would produce a large magnetic force to pull the generator’s voltages into
synchronism. The large magnetic force produced would cause the rapid acceleration of one
rotor and deceleration of the other, this may well damage one of the machines and the large
circulating current may trip each generator’s breaker.
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Synchronising
On many modern ships the whole synchronising process is carried out by the power
management system, these systems will compare voltage, frequency and phase of the
incoming machine and the busbars, make any adjustments necessary and operate the main
circuit breakers.
If the power management system fails there must be some method available to manually
synchronise and parallel the generators, there are 2 methods of manually synchronising these
are lamps and synchroscope.
Synchronising lamps
This method of synchronising uses 3 lamps cross connected between the incoming generator
and the busbars as shown below. It is possible to tell from the variation of lamp brilliance
whether the incoming machine is running too fast or too slow.

R
Busbars

Y

Lamp
1

Incoming Lamp
generator 3
Lamp 2
R Y B

VR
Busbar

ER voltages

Incoming

EB generator
voltages
V Y

Voltages
EY across the
VB lamps
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If the incoming machine is running fast, the phasors Er, Ey and Eb will rotate anticlockwise
relative to Phasors Vr, Vy and Vb at a speed corresponding to the differences between the
frequencies.
At the instant shown, the voltage across lamp 1 is approaching zero, that across lamp 3 is
approaching its maximum and that across lamp 2 has just passed its maximum, hence the
lamps attain maximum brightness in the order 1, 2, 3. If, on the other hand, the incoming
machine is running too slow, the relative rotation of phasors Er, Ey and Eb will be clockwise
and it will be seen that the lamps attain maximum brightness in the order 1, 3, 2.
The sequence of brightness of the lamps indicates whether the incoming machine is fast or
slow.
The correct moment for synchronising is when the straight connected lamp is dark and
the cross connected lamps are equally bright.
If the phase sequence is incorrect then the lamps are in effect straight connected and no such
instant will be obtained.
The Synchroscope
The synchroscope consists of 2 windings on a rotor, the two windings are placed at right
angles to each other and the entire rotor is free to spin around its centre point. One of the
windings is connected in series with a large resistor and the other is connected in series with a
large inductor. Both windings are in parallel with each other and are connected across 2 of
the phases of the incoming machine.
By placing the large resistor in series with one of the rotor windings this acts to ensure the
voltage and current in the winding are in phase with each other.
By placing a large inductor is series with one of the rotor windings this acts to ensure the
voltage leads the current through the winding by 90o, i.e. one quarter of a cycle.
The currents passing through the 2 rotor windings will create magnetic fields around the
windings but as magnetic field is dependant on current the two magnetic fields will be out of
step with each other by 90o , i.e. one quarter of a cycle. As the two fields are out of phase
with each other as the magnetic field in each one reverses, due to the a.c. current flowing
86

through it, the impression is given that the magnetic field is rotating and not just reversing.
The speed the magnetic field appears to be rotating at is the same as the frequency of the
incoming generator.
The synchroscope also has two fixed coils, these are connected in series with a large resistor
across the same two phases of the bus bars as the rotor is across the incoming machine. The
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resistor in the circuit ensures that the voltage and current in the circuit are in phase with each
other. The magnetic field produced around these two field coils will change direction at the
same frequency as the busbar frequency.
The synchroscope basically works due to the interaction of the rotating magnetic field on the
rotor and the oscillating magnetic field on the fixed coils, north magnetic poles are attracted
to south poles and repelled from other north poles.
If the frequency of the rotor’s magnetic field is the same as the frequency of the fixed coil’s
magnetic field the rotor will move to a position that will line up south poles to north poles
and stop there.
If the frequency of the rotor’s magnetic field is not the same as the frequency of the fixed
coil’s magnetic field the rotor will move to a position that will line up south poles to north
poles but as the two fields are not moving at the same speed the rotor will have to keep
turning in order to keep the north and south poles lined up.
If the rotor is stationary and if its pointer is pointing straight up the two magnetic fields are
changing at the same rate, i.e. the incoming machine and the busbars have the same
frequency. Also in this position the fixed coils and the rotating coil with the resistance are in
phase with each other, this is because their north and south pole ends are maximum at the
same time and lock together at the position that leaves the pointer pointing straight up.
If the pointer of the synchroscope is stationary but not pointing straight up this means that the
frequencies of the busbar and the incoming machine are the same but they are not in phase
with each other.
A.C. Load Sharing
After 2 synchronous generators have been paralleled, the load is usually divided between
them in proportion to their ratings, that is, the larger the machine the larger the share of the
load it carries.
KW Load sharing
The proper division of KW load between generators is made by adjusting the governors of
the prime movers, one prime mover’s governor is opened while the other is closed slightly. In
this way the system frequency is maintained at a constant value while the KW load is shifted
from one machine to the other. Governor control switches are mounted on the switchboard so
88

that the operator is able to watch the switchboard instruments while making adjustments in
load division.
KVAR Load Sharing
The power factor of any a.c. distribution system depends on the load. A generator operating
singly must operate at the power factor of the load it supplies. However when 2 or more
generators operate in parallel, the power factor at which each operates is determined by its
magnetic field.
In general, the proper amount of field excitation for generators operating in parallel is the
amount of excitation each generator would require if it were carrying its load alone at the
same voltage and frequency.
If the excitiation of a generator operating in parallel with other generators is increased above
this normal value of excitation, its power factor changes in the lagging direction and its
current output increases with no change in KW load. Likewise, if the generator is under
excited its power factor becomes more leading and its current output increases with no
change in KW output. The increased current in either case is not supplied to the load but
circulates between the generators connected to the system, thereby increasing their losses and
decreasing their useful capacity. It is desirable in most cases, therefore, to operate each
generator at the same power factor, keeping the circulating current to a minimum.
Thus a change in field excitation causes a change in ampere load but not in KW load. KW
load division between synchronous generators must be made by adjusting the governor
controls.
System Voltage and Frequency
The voltage of the system with which several generators are paralleled may be raised or
lowered by increasing or decreasing, simultaneously, the field excitation of all generators.
Likewise, system frequency can be raised or lowered by increasing or decreasing the speed of
all the prime movers.
Hunting
Synchronous generators operating in parallel sometimes have a tendency to hunt. If the
driving torque applied to a generator is pulsating, such as that produced by a diesel engine,
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the generator rotor may be pulled periodically ahead of or behind its normal position as it
rotates. This oscillating action is called hunting.
Hunting causes generators to shift load from one to another. In some cases this oscillation of
power is cumulative and violent enough to cause the generators to fall out of synchronism.
The tendency of diesel driven generators to hunt is reduced by using a heavy flywheel to
reduce torque variations. Damper windings, often called amortisseur windings, are placed on
the surface of some generator rotors to decrease the tendency to hunt. The rotor is equipped
with a damper winding consisting of short circuited conductors embedded in the pole faces.
When hunting occurs, there is a shifting of the armature flux across the pole faces, thereby
inducing currents in the damper winding. Since any induced current opposes the action that
produces it, the hunting action is opposed by the flow of the induced currents. Generators
driven by steam turbines generally do not have a tendency to hunt since the torque applied
does not pulsate.
11 Earth Faults and Earthing Systems
System faults
Open circuit
An open circuit fault occurs when a conductor is broken and there is no longer any path
through the load back to the source and when there is no connection to earth made at the
point where the cable is broken.
Short circuit fault
This occurs when two conductors in the same circuit become connected, usually through an
insulation fault. If a simple system is considered with one source and one load, as shown,
there is now a path from the source through the short circuit and back to the source. The size
of the current that will flow through the short circuit depends on the resistance of the cabling
that is still in the current’s circuit. Due to the low resistance of the short circuit path almost
no current will flow to the load.

G load
Short
i it
90

Earth fault
An earth fault occurs when a conductor touches a component which is itself earthed, this
usually happens due to damaged insulation.
G load

Earth
fault
If there is a path from the generator along the conductor, through the earth fault and back to
the generator through the earth / hull, then a current will flow along this path, the size of this
current will depend on the position of the earth fault and the resistance in the path.
Earthing systems
Three phase generators have four terminal connections, one each for the lines and one for the
star point. The star point may or may not be led out of the generator and used. If the star point
is led out of the machine it becomes the neutral line.
There are two methods of connecting the neutral line:

1. Neutral earthed.
2. Neutral insulated.

Neutral earthed systems
Neutral earthed systems are used ashore and on high voltage ship installations (over 1000V).
In neutral earthed systems the star point of the generator is physically connected to the earth.
Ashore the neutral may be directly earthed or earthed through an inductance to limit the
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current flow in the case of an earth fault. On board ship the neutral is earthed to the hull
through a large earthing resistor or a high impedance transformer to limit the size of any earth
fault current.

Earthing
switch

Earthing Circuit breaker
X
resistor
switchboard

High voltage earthed neutral system.
If an earth fault occurs on an earthed system a current will flow in a path from the generator
through the circuit conductors to the earth fault, through the fault and the hull and back to the
generator’s neutral point. The size of the fault current depends on the resistance in the circuit.
In an earthed system the fault current should cause protective devices such as fuses to operate
and isolate the faulty circuit before any damage is done to the rest of the system. This is an
advantage ashore as it will automatically disconnect faulty equipment but on a ship it could
cause essential services like steering motors to become isolated and leave the ship in a
dangerous position.
Better protection can be afforded if the circuit is fitted with a current operated earth leakage
circuit breaker (ELCB) which operates when a small current flows to earth, 15 – 150 mA.
The current flowing to earth is monitored by a current transformer around the neutral earth
line.
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High voltage earthed systems are not allowed on tankers unless the high voltage does not
extend forward of the engine room bulkhead, this is to prevent the possibility of high fault
currents circulating through the hull in regions where there is a danger of explosion due to a
spark. In order to use high voltage earthed systems on board transformers are used forward of
the engine room bulkhead, as soon as a transformer is used in a system it gives isolation from
the generator earthing system.
Disadvantages of earthed systems
1. The loss of essential services immediately on developing an earth fault.
2. Large earth faults can flow through the hull for a few milliseconds before protective
devices operate, this can be enough to cause a fire on a tanker.

Advantages of earthed systems
1. Single phase circuits can use one line and the neutral to produce 230 V from 400 V 3
phase.
2. If one phase and the neutral are used to supply power then shore side switches can be
used as these only disconnect the live line and not the neutral line as this is earthed
anyway.
3. Fuses need only be fitted in the live lines on single phase circuits and not in the
neutral line as well.
4. Time spent in finding circuits with earth faults is eliminated because a circuit fuse
would blow and isolate the circuit.
5. There are no intermittent earth faults.
6. No transient over voltages are caused by intermittent earth faults.
Neutral insulated system
Normal marine practice on 400-440 V ships is not to earth the neutral but instead to either not
use it or to insulate it fully from the hull.
An important feature of this system is that in the event of a single earth fault no fault current
can flow in the ship’s structure as there is no path back to the generator windings.
When an earth fault occurs it must be cleared immediately so that a similar fault on another
phase could not combine with it and cause a short circuit between the phases ( this could also
render AVRs inoperative)
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In order to discover and locate an earth fault in an insulated system earth lamps or earth
resistance monitors must be used.
Disadvantages of insulated neutral systems
1. Arcing earth faults can occur when one circuit has become earthed and the current
finds a path back to the generator by arcing at a weak point in the system insulation.
Arcing earth faults cause induced emfs of approximately 4.5 – 5 times the rated
circuit voltage, which could cause the breakdown of all insulation to earth, especially
in machines, unless it was designed with a much higher dielectric strength, i.e. more
expensive.
2. Unlike ashore fuses are required for each phase in 240V circuits and single pole
switches are not acceptable.
3. Difficulty may be experienced in identifying earth faults, especially if they are
intermittent.

Advantages of insulated neutral systems
1. There is no loss of essential services if one earth fault develops.
2. There is only a small current flow (mA) due to one earth fault (this is due to the
insulation resistance) therefore there is no fire risk.
Earth lamps
Single phase system earth lamps

Eart 120
h 240

Eart
h 120
When there is no earth on either line in the single phase circuit the voltage across each lamp
is half the supply voltage.
If an earth exists on one line, as shown below, then it is effectively connected in parallel with
the earth lamp which is connected to that line. The voltage across the parallel circuit, V1, falls
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to zero as both ends of it are connected to the same potential, i.e. earth, so that the lamp dulls
whilst the other lamp now has full circuit voltage, V2, across it and brightens.
V1
Earth
lamp
240 V
Earth
lamp V2
Three phase earth lamp system

Lamp 1
R
L1

Star point
440 V Lamp 2
R earthed
L2

440 V Lamp 3
R

L3

A resistance is shown in series with each of the lamps as in the case of a full earth on one
phase the full line voltage would then be applied across the remaining two lamps.
When the system is healthy all three lamps are of equal brilliance.
If there is an earth fault on line 1 lamp 1 will go out and lamps 2 and 3 will become brighter.
Partial earth faults are difficult to detect with this system as slight voltage differences on the
lamps can be visually difficult to see.
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Earth resistance meters
The following system connects a small d.c. voltage between earth and each of the lines of the
system in turn, if there is a path back to the voltage source through an earth fault a current
will flow from the d.c. source. A meter is included in the current path to measure the size of
current flow, this together with the voltage of the source will give a reading of the system
insulation resistance.
With this type of instrument the earth fault current can be limited to 1 mA whereas with earth
lamps it is about 60 mA, this makes it suitable for tankers.

Selector switch

440V

440V Ohm

meter

12 Induction motors
The induction motor is a 3 phase motor, 3 phase motors are used in preference to single phase
motors for the following reasons:
1. They have a higher power factor.

2. They have better starting properties.
3. They are cheaper.
In the induction motor there is no electrical connection between the stator and the rotor, the
energy being transferred entirely magnetically by means of the emf induced in the rotor
conductors due to the rotating field set up by the stator windings. This principle of operation
enables the motor to be manufactured as a simple, robust and efficient machine and it is the
most extensively used of all types of electric motors.
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Construction
An induction motor consists of two main parts:
1. the rotor.
2. the stator.
Rotor construction
There are two methods of rotor construction:
1. cage rotor.
2. wound rotor.
Cage rotor construction
The rotor is made from the following components:
1. laminated rotor body.

2. cage bars and end ring
3. shaft
4. bearings
Lamination pack
The main rotor body is made up from a stack of laminations, the laminations are pressed out
of steel sheet and are usually about 0.5mm thick. The laminations are circular in shape with a
central hole for the rotor to fit through and a row of holes around their outer edge for the bars
of the cage to pass through.
The reason the rotor body is laminated is to stop eddy currents, if eddy currents were allowed
to flow through the rotor body the body would heat up and the motor efficiency would
reduce. The laminations need to be electrically isolated from each other, this is achieved by
allowing a thin layer of oxide to form on the surface of each lamination plate. The rotor body
is assembled from a stack of steel laminations and the whole piece is either welded or clipped
together to form a tight body.
Cage bars and end rings.
The rotor cage bars and end rings are formed from high grade aluminium. The bars will pass
through the holes in the laminated body, the bars are joined together at each end into a ring
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by an end ring. In order for the bars to be a perfect fit inside the holes in the laminated body
they are die cast directly into the body. The bars of the cage are not straight, they are usually
skewed slightly to allow the motor to run smoothly and with very little noise.
Rotor
The rotor is made from steel and is machined so that the laminated body must be heated in
order to fit over the rotor. A bearing is fitted to each end of the rotor.
Wound rotor construction.
A wound rotor has the same rotor and laminated body construction as the cage rotor, the only
difference being that there is no cage. The laminated body does not have holes in it for the
cage bars to pass through, instead it has slots cut into its surface. Insulators are fitted into the
slots in the laminated body and then a three phase winding is fitted into the slots. The
windings are made out of copper wire which has a synthetic varnish, the windings are held
onto the rotor body with wedges.
One end of each of the three windings is joined together but the other end is connected to a
slip ring on the rotor shaft, there are three slip rings in all. The slip ring has associated brush
gear which allow the end of each winding to be connected to external control gear.
Stator.
The stator consists of:
1. frame
2. laminated stator body
3. windings.
Frame
The frame is either made from sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminium, it is a smooth cylinder
on the inside but is usually cast with cooling fins on its outside.
Laminated stator body
The stator body is built up in a similar way to the laminated rotor body. The stator is made up
from a stack of circular laminations pressed out of a sheet of steel, they are usually about
0.5mm thick. The laminations are circular in shape with a large central hole for the rotor to
pass through and slots cut out all around their inner edge for the windings to be fitted into.
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The laminations are coated on each side with a layer of oxide to create a layer of insulation
between each lamination.
Windings.
The windings are made from copper wire which have a synthetic coating. Before the
windings are placed in the slots in the stator body the slots are insulated with polyester
insulators. The stator slots are then wound with three windings. In order to ensure that the
stator windings are insulated from each other polyester phase barriers are often placed
between the windings. Finally the windings are coated with a polyester varnish and oven
cured, the varnish is allowed to soak into the windings so they are fully coated, varnishing is
carried out to make the stator impervious to contamination. Finally the stator is pressed into
the frame.
99

100

Principle of operation

Rotating magnetic field

Position 1 Position 2

A B C

+V
M

V

0o 90 180o 270o 360o 450o 540o

‐V M

360o

101

The stator of a three phase induction motor is supplied with a three phase electrical supply,
the voltage of each phase of the supply lags the preceding one by 120o i.e. one third of an
electrical cycle. When a current is passed through a wire a magnetic field is created around
the wire, the polarity of the field depends on the direction that the current is flowing in. As
the supply voltage is alternating the direction of the magnetic field produced in a winding is
alternating at the same frequency that the supply voltage is alternating.
The fields produced around each of the three stator windings are each alternating but they are
out of phase with each other by 120 electrical degrees, this gives the impression that the
magnetic field is in fact revolving around the stator interior at the same frequency as the
supply electricity.
Flemings right hand rule, generator rule.
Flemings right hand rule states that if there is a conductor rotating in a magnetic field there
will be a voltage induced in the conductor. The magnetic field created in the stator of the
induction motor by the three phase supply is not only providing the magnetic field for
Flemings law but also the motion as it is passing around the rotor, therefore a voltage will be
induced into the rotor. The voltage is actually induced into the whole rotor but it is only
allowed to cause a current to flow in the rotor bars as each part of the laminated rotor is
insulated from the next part.
Left hand rule, motor law.
If there is a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field the conductor will experience a
force. The rotor now has a current induced in it and the stator field is still present this will
cause the rotor to rotate.
Slip
If the rotor started to turn and sped up so that it was rotating at the same speed as the stator
magnetic field there would be no movement of the stator field over the conductors in the
rotor, this leads to no voltage being induced into the rotor so no turning effect being
experienced by the rotor.
As soon as a rotor tries to turn at the same speed as the magnetic field is turning it no longer
experiences any driving force and will slow down, but the act of slowing down means that
102

there is relative movement between the stator field and the rotor so current and driving force
will be induced into the rotor.
As can be seen from above the rotor can never turn at the same speed as the stator magnetic
field, which is known as synchronous speed, it will always run a little slower, the difference
between the magnetic field speed and the rotor speed is known as SLIP.
Effects of voltage and frequency variation on an induction motor.
Voltage increase or decrease
Speed
The synchronous speed of this type of motor varies little with variations in the voltage
supply. With a motor on load, an increase in voltage causes a reduction in slip and thereby
acceleration of the motor. This phenomenon is limited by the saturation of the machine. On
the other hand if the supply voltage decreases the motor turns slower.
Torque
Torque is proportional to the ratio of the square of the voltage and increases when the voltage
is higher. Conversely, it considerably decreases when the voltage is lower. If the motor
selected does not have an adequate rating, it cannot start, or will stall and suffer deterioration
from persistent voltage drops.
Starting current
Starting current varies proportionally with the supply voltage therefore, if it is higher, the
current consumed on starting is increased. On the other hand if the voltage diminishes, the
starting current diminishes equally. The on load current varies in a similar way.
Frequency increase or decrease
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Speed
On an induction motor speed is proportional to frequency and some high speed precision
grinders operate from a 400 Hz supply. Conveyer belt and hoisting gear speed is controlled
by varying the frequency from 6 to 50 Hz.
Torque.
For a constant voltage, the torque is inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. If it
increases, the motor torque considerably decreases. Conversely if the frequency decreases,
the torque increases.
Starting current.
For a constant voltage, the starting current varies inversely to the frequency. It increases if the
frequency decreases and vice versa. It is the same for the operating current. The variations in
torque and current are often undesirable. To avoid these undesirable effects, it is advisable to
vary the supply voltage in proportion to the frequency.
Induction motor maintenance
Bearings
Bearings are greased following a planned maintenance program, do not over grease them as
excess grease may enter the motor windings. The bearings will also be replaced either
following a planned preventative maintenance program or condition monitoring usually of
the motor vibrations.
Cooling.
Small semi enclosed motors are air cooled with the air being drawn through a filter into the
motor by a shaft mounted fan. The filter must be regularly replaced and the fan checked.
Fully enclosed motors have a fan mounted on the motor shaft but external to the motor
casing, air is blown across the body of the motor. The motor body has cooling fins and these
should not be over painted and should be regularly cleaned. Large motors will have an
internal cooling air circuit where the air is in turn cooled in a heat exchanger using either low
temp fresh water or sea water. The heat exchanger will require cleaning at set intervals and if
it uses sea water any sacrificial anodes must be checked and replaced.
104

Electrical testing
The motor is tested using a megger for insulation resistance between phases and from each
phase to earth.
The resistance and continuity of each phase is measured with an ohm meter.
Terminals, cables and glands
The motor terminals must be checked for tightness, the terminals will loosen off due to motor
vibration, and signs of arcing between the terminals. The insulation of the cables should also
be checked for signs of burning and damage. The motor power cable must be checked for
damage to the sheathing especially where it passes through cable glands as these can cause
chaffing of the insulation.
The inside of terminal boxes should be checked for water ingress as this will point to
damaged seals or glands.
Single Phase Induction Motors
Motors are required in all types of equipment which is designed to operate off a single phase
supply. There are several types of single phase motor although only the split phase type will
be explained here.
Split phase single phase induction motor
Single phase induction motors use a cage rotor of the same design as a three phase induction
motor, the stator though is different. The stator of a single phase induction motor has two
windings, a run winding and a starting winding.
The run winding is connected directly across the supply lines and due to the nature of the
alternating current passing through it an alternating magnetic field is produced around it. This
field does not rotate it merely flips backwards and forwards across the stator.
The start winding is arranged to be angularly displaced from the main winding on the stator
by 90 degrees. The start winding is connected to the supply voltage but is also in series with
either a capacitor or and inductor. A capacitor in an a.c. circuit has the effect of advancing the
current through the start winding with respect to the voltage. An inductor has the effect of
retarding the current in the start winding with respect to the voltage.
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It is the current that passes through a winding that creates the magnetic field, the magnetic
field is in phase with the current, this means that the magnetic field produced by the start
winding is not in phase with the field produced in the run winding. If a capacitor is used the
start field is ahead of the run field and if an inductor is fitted the start field is behind the run
field.
The two out of phase magnetic fields are alternating at different times at different positions
on the stator, this gives the effect of a magnetic field that rotates. This rotating magnetic field
then allows the induction rotor to start turning following the principle of a three phase
induction rotor.
When the rotor is up to speed it no longer needs a rotating magnetic field as the combination
of an alternating magnetic field and inertia will allow the rotor to keep turning. The start
winding is disconnected from the power supply by a centrifugal switch when the motor is up
to speed.

L Start capacitor

Run winding

Centrifugal
Start winding
switch

N
Capacitor start.
Start
L inductance

Run winding
Centrifugal
Start winding switch

N

Inductor start
106

Induction Motor Starting Methods
To comply with IEE regulations motor starters are needed on all but the smallest of motors,
they are primarily to prevent restart of the motor after a power failure. By law the starter must
include a no volt release, this means that if the motor power is interrupted for any reason the
starter will stop the motor.
Starters can also include the following:
1. Over current protection.

2. Speed control arrangements.
3. Remote controls
4. Methods for limiting the starting current to an acceptable level.
Induction motor starting characteristics
The current drawn from the supply and torque produced by an induction motor vary with the
speed of the motor in relation to synchronous speed as can be seen in the 2 graphs.
The initial current peak when the motor is energised is very high, 4 – 8 times the rated
current. Torque during starting is always higher than the rated torque especially for modern
motors with complex cages. Torque is a maximum when the motor reaches about 80% of its
speed, at this moment the current is considerably reduced.
107

For a given speed the current in the motor winding is proportion to the voltage and the torque
is proportion to the square of the voltage i.e.
I ∝V T ∝V 2
When a large motor is started the initial large current drawn can cause a voltage dip in the
supply voltage and this can then cause problems to other electrical consumers, especially
electronic control units. The large current drawn can also be high enough to cause damage to
the cabling and insulation of the motor and supply lines.
Induction motor starting methods
There are several methods of starting 3 phase induction motors.
1. Direct on line, D.O.L.
2. Resistance starting.
3. Auto transformer.
4. Star delta.
5. Soft start.
Direct on line starting
In a direct on line starting system the mains supply is directly connected to the stator of the
motor, this means the stator is subjected to line voltage and frequency directly. The motor
108

will start but will draw a very high initial current, this method is only used as long as the peak
current is acceptable for the motor and the rest of the electrical distribution system and if the
initial starting torque of the motor is adequate to start the machine.
Direct on line systems are only used on motors with a power up to 3.7 KW, motors over this
size must use a starting system that reduces the initial peak in current.
DOL starting does not give a smooth acceleration and is not a good method of starting high
inertia loads or loads requiring a smooth speed change, for example lift hoist motors.
M O/

R
Y M
B

O/
sta sto

MC
MC

Operation of a DOL starter
When the start button is pressed power is supplied to the main contactor, MC, all 4 contacts
close and the motor starts. Contact MC1 also closes and this ensures that when the start
button is released power is still supplied to the contactor.
To stop the motor the stop button is pressed, this cuts off the power to the contactor, MC,
which in turn cuts off the power to the motor.
The motor is protected by fuses and by an overload device fitted into each phase of the motor,
if the overload operates it opens a switch in the contactor supply circuit and cuts off the
power to the motor.
109

Resistance starting
There are two types of resistance starting, one employs resistance in the supply line to the
motor, this is called primary resistance starting, and the other incorporates resistances in the
rotor windings.
Rotor winding resistance
This form of starting can only be used with wound rotor induction motors. The three
windings on the rotor are connected together in star at one end but the other three ends are
brought off the rotor via slip rings and are connected together in star via variable resistors.
The machine is started with all resistances in circuit giving a high starting torque but limiting
the drawn current. The external resistance is reduced as the motor runs up to speed and is out
of the circuit at full speed.
The motor starting circuit for supplying power to the stator is the same as a DOL circuit.

slip rings

Rotor

brushe

External
resistanc

Primary resistance starting
Primary resistance starting is used for cage induction motors as they have no facility for
incorporating resistances in the rotor windings. With a cage induction motor the starting
torque is low if the stator resistance is low but the efficiency of the motor is reduced if the
resistance of the circuit is increased.
With a primary resistance starter one resistor is incorporated into each line to the motor
stator. When the motor starts the circuit resistance is higher than usual so the current drawn is
lower than usual, there is also a voltage drop across the resistors this means that only 70% of
the line voltage is applied to the motor itself.
110

A timer will operate at a predetermined point which will close a switch to short circuit the
additional resistances.
Primary resistance starting gives smooth starting, even smoother staring can be arranged by
making the resistances variable so that their effect is slowly removed from the circuit.
Auto transformer starting

R Y B

Closed to

start

Open to
start

Autotransformer starting is one of the most effective methods of reduced voltage starting, it is
preferred over primary resistance starting when starting current is required to be low but high
torque is required.
Instead of using resistors this type of starter uses taps on a transformer winding to control the
power input to the motor. The taps are typically set up to provide 80%, 65% and 50% of the
line voltage. Activating any one of the three taps on the windings allows the supply of
different amounts of current to the motor.
111

Auto transformers can supply more current to the motor than other reduced voltage starters
while keeping the voltage low, the transformer steps up the current to make it greater than the
line current input during start up.
Autotransformers give a very smooth start up and acceleration of a motor, a typical example
of their use is in conveyer belt starters.
Star delta starter
The motor stator windings are connected in star to start the motor and then are connected in
delta for normal running of the motor, this will reduce the voltage applied to the motor. In
order to see how much the motor voltage and power are affected reference needs to be made
to the values of voltage and current in a start and delta system.
Star connected winding. Delta connected winding.

IL
IL

Vph
V
L
Iph

Vph

DELTA
I L = 3 × I PH
V PH = V L
STAR
VL = 3 × VPH
I PH = I L

The value of phase current drawn depends on the impedance of each winding of the field and
this does not vary as it is inbuilt into the motor.

112

STAR
I PH ∝ V PH
I L 3 ∝ VL
I LDELTA
I LSTAR 3 ∝
3
I LSTAR 3 ∝ I LDELTA

As the line voltage is the same in both star and delta it can be seen that line current in star is
one third of the value in delta.
A star delta starter has three contactors to operate. When starting the main and the star
contactor are closed and the delta contactor is open, the motor will start up. After a set time
interval the star contactor is opened and the delta contactor is closed, this will then apply full
line voltage across each phase of the motor.
The start contactor and the delta contactor must never be made at the same time as this would
cause a complete short circuit across the three phase supply. The control circuitry for the
starter must include interlocks to prevent short circuiting of the mains.
Manual star delta starters are still in existence but new starters are all automatically
controlled.
R Y B

Sta

Ma Delt

113

Soft starting
Soft starting is a method of limiting the starting current of a motor using thyristors or triacs
(by-directional thyristors). The thyristors are made to conduct by applying a signal to the
gate, switching the thyristor on sometimes called triggering or firing. This means that any
part or all of a half cycle of supply voltage (and therefore current), may be applied to a load,
thus controlling the current drawn and therefore the starting torque of the motor.
The current drawn from the supply at starting is normally limited to its full load running
value. This has both positive and negative effects, the positive being that we need not connect
another generator to the switchboard in order to take the starting surge of a large motor and
because of the smoother more controlled start, motor bearing life is considerably extended.
Instances of insulation breakdown are also reduced. The only negative effect is that the full
load starting current is applied for a much longer time than with direct on line starting
therefore a great deal more heat is dissipated in the motor, raising insulation temperature. Soft
starting is more commonly used for larger power motors and usually limited to a number of
operations per hour, indicated on an information plate on the starter. Soft stop is also
increasingly being used, returning the stored power in the motor to the supply and reducing
the arc being drawn across the contactor contacts when opened.
114

When the motor is up to speed the thyristors are removed from the circuit by bypassing them.
15 Single phasing of induction motors

Single phasing is the term to denote the condition in a 3 phase load, usually a motor, when
one phase becomes open circuited. The commonest cause of single phasing is a blown fuse.
If a three phase induction motor single phases whilst it is running the stator no longer has a
rotating magnetic field but the inertia of the rotor and the alternating magnetic field will be
sufficient for the motor to continue to turn. The motor will continue to turn but it will vibrate
severely and pulse and it will run very noisily
If a motor is single phased and is stopped it cannot restart as a rotating magnetic field is
required for starting and this is no longer available.
Three phase induction motor stator windings are either connected together in star or delta
formation. The effect of the single phasing is different depending on how the windings are
connected.
Star connected stator windings
R Y B
115

In a star connected stator the phase current

and the line current are the same. If one of
the supply lines becomes disconnected the
two remaining windings must provide all the
power for the motor to turn, this means that
the current passing through each of the other
two windings will increase.
As the phase current and line current are the
same any protective device placed in the supply
line will be measuring the current really passing
through the winding and will provide adequate
protection.
Delta connected stator windings
In a delta arrangement the phase current and the line current of a motor are not the same, they
are related by the equation:
I L = 3I PH
When the motor becomes single phased one of the supply cables is disconnected but all
three stator windings are still in an electrical circuit, 2 are in series with each other and
the pair of windings is in parallel with the third winding.
When the motor single phases more current

needs to be drawn from the remaining supply R Y B
cables to keep the motor operating.
116

The current passing through each stator winding is not equal. If the winding resistances are
considered the current path with two windings in it has twice the resistance of the current
path with one winding in it. Because of the unequal resistances in the two paths twice the
current will flow through the single resistance than will flow through the two in series.
Any protective device that senses the current in the supply lines will not give protection to
the windings as it measured the combined current flowing in both parallel paths, this current
can be within normal operating parameters but the single winding in one current path will be
carrying too high a current load and will burn out.
Single phase protection
To protect a star connected motor from the overloading due to single phasing a simple
overcurrent trip is incorporated into each supply line to the motor, they can be of the bi-
metallic strip type, dash pot type or they can be electronic trips.
If each of the supply lines to the motor have an overcurrent device which operate a bi-
metallic strip fitted the movement of the three strips can be combined so that if the currents
carried by each line are different the trip will operate otherwise it will only operate if the
individual current in one line exceeds the maximum permissible.
If a thermistor is imbedded into each of the motor windings it will measure the temperature
of the winding, if the motor single phases the temperature of the windings will change due to
the change in current. Three individual thermistors can be used with each one able to set off
a single phase alarm and trip. The three thermistors can alternatively be connected together
so that they measure the temperature difference between the windings, this again can be used
to initial a trip and alarm.
16 Synchronous Motors
Construction
The construction of a synchronous motor is the same as that for a salient pole a.c. alternator.
Operation
Three phase a.c. is supplied to the motor stator, this will create a rotating magnetic field in the
same way as described for an induction motor. The magnetic field will rotate at a speed
dictated by the frequency of the a.c. applied to it.
117

The rotor of the motor is fitted with magnetic poles, these poles are electro magnets and are
supplied with d.c. power from an external source, this is known as excitation current. The
magnetic field of the poles on the rotor can be strengthened or weakened by altering the
current that they are supplied with.
A synchronous motor cannot self start it must use an alternative method to increase its speed
to synchronous speed before it will start driving itself.
Synchronous speed ( NS ) is given by the formula:
60 f
NS =
p
When the rotor is turning at synchronous speed its north and south poles will be turning, due
to the rotor movement, at the same speed as the magnetic field on the stator is revolving. A
north pole on the rotor will be attracted to a south pole on the stator and the south pole on the
rotor will be attracted to a north pole on the stator. If the initial starting motor is now
removed the rotor of the synchronous motor will keep rotating due to the force of attraction
between the magnetic fields.
If there is no load on the motor the north and south poles of rotor and stator will line up and
the rotor will turn at synchronous speed.
If there is load on the motor the rotor will initially slow down, by slowing down the north
pole on the rotor is retarded with respect to the south pole on the stator, this will produce a
large magnetic force to try and pull the two poles back together. This large magnetic force
will speed the rotor back up to synchronous speed but it will not catch back up with the stator
field so rotor and stator will be revolving at the same speed but with the rotor slightly behind
the stator.
The angular difference between the position of the stator and rotor is known as the load
angle, as the load on the motor increases the load angle increases.
Starting a synchronous motor
If the motor is stopped and a three phase supply is applied to the stator a rotating magnetic
field will be established but this field will be moving too fast for the rotor to magnetically
118

lock with it due to the inertia of the rotor. This means that as soon as the rotor actually starts
to move the polarity of the stator field at one particular point on the rotor has changed and the
rotor pole is repelled from it and slows down again.
There are three methods employed to get the rotor of the motor up to synchronous speed,
these are:
1. Pony motor start.
2. Starting by exciter.
3. Asynchronous / synchronous starting.

Pony motor starting
A small induction motor is mounted on an extension of the main shaft and this is used to
initially start up the rotor.
Starting by exciter
The exciter that provides the power to the rotor magnetic field is run as a d.c. notor from an
independent supply until synchronous speed is reached, when it is switched over to
generation the field excitation current.
Asynchronous / synchronous starting
The rotor has damper bars which are copper bars fitted into slots along the pole faces of the
salient poles, these damper bars are short circuited together and form a cage. This cage allows
the motor rotor to behave as an induction motor.
Power factor correction
An interesting aspect of synchronous motors is that for the same torque the excitation current
to the rotor can be varied. A stronger magnet will be generated when a higher value of d.c. is
supplied to the rotor windings, and consequently the load angle will be reduced. Also, the
phase lag between the supply voltage to the stator and the stator current can be influenced. A
high rotor excitation results in a low phase lag ( a low power factor angle )on the stator side.
It is even possible to run a synchronous motor with a phase lead of current relative to voltage.
This gives the opportunity to use a large synchronous motor to compensate for the phase lag
introduced by the inductive loads in the net.
119

17 Speed control of electric motors
and
Diesel Electric Propulsion
Diesel electric propulsion is considered for several different ship types:
Passenger ships
These have a very high electrical load due to passenger services compared to their propulsion
power requirements, this means that it is more economical to supply the propulsion power
from the ships electrical generation system.
Survey vessels
These vessels are required to run at reduced speeds for considerable periods of time. Diesel
engines perform best and are most efficient when running on high load and can suffer from
bearing problems if running at low speed or low load for long periods of time. Survey vessels
therefore either require medium speed drives with controllable pitch propellers or electric
drives, in fact the electric drive option is more efficient. Noise level is also a factor in survey
vessel propulsion, and electric drives are very quiet and the generator prime movers can be
isolated from the hull with vibration mounts.
Advantages of diesel electric systems
1. Flexible layout.
2. Part load running of diesel engines can be reduced.
3. Ease of control.
4. Low noise and vibrations.

Electric drive options
Previously all electric drives used d.c. electric motors, these fell out of favour due to the high
cost of d.c. motors and the high maintenance level required. A.C. drive systems have now
been made possible due to solid state electronics, both of these systems will be required.
D.C. electric propulsion systems and motor speed control
D.C. motor speed is proportional to applied voltage and inversely proportional to field
strength and torque is proportional to armature current and field strength:
120

V
N∝ T ∝ I Aφ
φ
Speed control for a d.c. motor requires variable armature voltage this is achieved using one of
the following methods.
1. d.c. generation, d.c. motor.
2. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using resistance banks.
3. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using a ward Leonard system.
4. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using thyristor controlled bridge
rectifiers.
1. d.c. generation, d.c. motor

This system is now very rare, a prime mover turned a d.c. generator the field of which was
controlled to give the required output voltage, this voltage was applied to the propulsion
motor.
2. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using resistance banks
This is also an old system but can still be found for controlling the speed of winches and bow
thrusters. The generated a.c. voltage is rectified to d.c. by using a bridge rectifier the current
applied to the field is then controlled by using a resistance bank, this in turn gives speed
control.
3. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using Ward Leonard
system

Reversing d.c. from
it h rectifier
Controlled
rectifier

3 ph
a.c.

d.c. d.c. motor

121

In a Ward Leonard system the ship’s a.c. system is used to power an induction motor at
constant speed.
The induction motor is directly coupled to a d.c. generator, the voltage output of this
generator depends on the strength of the magnetic field applied to its stator.
The current to the d.c. generator’s field is controlled by means of either a bridge rectifier and
a variable resistor or by a thyristor controlled bridge rectifier. Reversing of the generator
output is achieved by reversing the polarity of the field this is done by using a reversing
switch.
The d.c. voltage output from the d.c. generator is fed into a d.c. motor, this motor also
requires a field but this is constant and is provided by a bridge rectifier.
4. a.c. generation, d.c. motor with speed control using thyristor
controlled bridge rectifiers
The generated a.c. voltage is rectified to d.c. using a controlled thyristor bridge rectifier, by
controlling the firing of the thyristors the output voltage and current can be adjusted, this
voltage is then applied to the d.c. motor. The field for the motor is supplied with d.c. power
from a rectifier connected to the main supply
If torque as well as speed control is necessary the field can also be controlled using a second
controlled rectifier instead of an uncontrolled rectifier.
a.c. – d.c.
rectifier for
field current field

a.c.‐ d.c.
controlled
thyristor
bridge
3 ph a.c.
supply d.c.

motor

122

A.C. electric propulsion systems and speed control
Electric drive motors are either synchronous or induction motors.
Synchronous motors
These are used for high power installations.
To control the speed of a synchronous motor the frequency of the applied voltage needs to be
adjusted but to stop overheating problems the applied voltage must also be altered in
proportion to the frequency.
Induction motors
These are commonly used for low and medium power main propulsion drives or as variable
speed motors for pumps and compressors.
To change the speed of an induction motor the applied frequency must be changed, but to
stop overheating problems the applied voltage must also be altered in proportion to the
frequency.
There are 3 main types of a.c. propulsion system which do not require the use of a
controllable pitch propeller.
1. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. synchro converter powering a synchronous motor.

2. An a.c. – a.c. cyclo converter powering a synchronous motor.
3. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. pulse width modulation converter powering an induction motor.
1. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. synchro converter powering a synchronous motor

123

A synchro converter has controlled rectifier and inverter stages which both rely on thyristors
for the switching. Between the rectification and the inverter stages there is a d.c. link with
current smoothing inductance.
The combination of controlled rectifier and d.c. link is considered to be a current source for
the inverter whose task is then to sequentially direct blocks of the current into the motor
windings in the same pattern as would be achieved with a normal three phase supply.
The size of the d.c. current is set by the controlled switching of the rectifier thyristors and
motor supply frequency and hence speed is set by the rate of inverter switching.
As this system is for a synchronous motor a separate d.c. source is required for armature
excitation.
It is possible to reverse the operation of the rectifier and inverter so that the motor can be
braked by turning it into a generator and supplying power back to the ship’s mains.
Cycloconverter Method of Speed Control
This method of controlling speed relies on the ability of the converter to accept current from
the switchboard at constant frequency and voltage. The controller also passes this current to
the a.c. motor at a reduced frequency, with its voltage adjusted. The cycloconverter operates
without an intermediate d.c. stage in the conversion.
The fixed-frequency supply from the a.c. generators simultaneously goes to the three pairs of
thyristor bridges of the cycloconverter.
The upper and lower bridges of each pair are arranged to operate alternately so that a number
of triggering pulses develop in the top set of thyristors followed by an equal number from the
bottom set, to deliver an output with a lower frequency.
The two bridges for each phase are required to supply both the positive and negative half-
cycles.
124

The frequency pattern is illustrated below. There is great variation of frequency as the
triggering of the thyristors is constantly changed relative to the three-phase supply so that the
output can be customised to provide the exact frequency and amplitude of the voltage
required. Frequency is variable from 0 to 60 Hz.
125

3. An a.c. – d.c. – a.c. pulse width modulation converter powering an
induction or synchronous motor
This form of converter uses a simple 3 phase bridge rectifier to produce a d.c. voltage from
the ships a.c. system. This d.c. voltage is then inverted to produce a.c. at a variable frequency.
The inverter in this system uses transistors as these are devices that can be switched on as
well as off unlike thyristors.
The d.c. voltage is chopped into variable width, but constant level, voltage pulses in the
computer controlled inverter section using transistors, this process is called pulse width
modulation. By varying the pulse widths and polarity of the d.c. it is possible to produce an
output that when averaged is a sinusoidal signal. This output a.c. voltage can have its
frequency controlled over a very large range. The 3 phase output of the inverter is supplied to
the motor stator which will then rotate at a speed proportional to the frequency.
Azipods
Azipods are simply electric motors that are housed outside of the hull in a pod structure that
can be rotated through 360o.
126

18 Shaft Alternators
Shaft alternators are used on board vessels as a means of improving the overall ship
efficiency. If all of a ship’s electrical load can be supplied from a waste heat driven alternator
then this is the most efficient form of electrical generation possible but if this is not practical
the second most efficient method is to use a shaft alternator, although the power developed is
not free it is cheaper than using separate diesel engines to power the alternators.
Shaft alternators and controllable pitch propellers
As the engine shaft runs at a fixed speed a simple shaft alternator arrangement with the rotor
either driven directly by the main shaft or through gearing is used. These systems are simple
and easily operated.
Shaft alternators and fixed pitch propellers
The shafts of engines with fixed pitch propellers operate over a variable speed range, this
introduces problems for a shaft alternator because the frequency of the a.c. produced is
dependent on shaft speed.
There are two alternatives:

1. Use a variable speed gearbox to maintain the alternator speed at a constant value.
2. Use electronics to convert the generated a.c. voltage to d.c. and then back to a
stable a.c. voltage.
a.c. to d.c. to a.c shaft alternator systems
The shaft alternator is a standard synchronous generator mounted directly on the main engine
shaft, it is designed to produce a useable output over the whole of the main engine’s at sea
speed range. When the engine is manoeuvring the shaft alternator is usually turned off.
The shaft alternator will produce an a.c. output that varies over a frequency range, this output
is rectified by a 3 phase bridge rectifier into a d.c. output. The d.c. is then smoothed by
inductive or capacitive means, the method used will depend on the type of inverter system
used.
The d.c. signal from the smoothing is then inverted into an a.c. signal at a constant frequency,
this is achieved be using a 3 phase thyristor inverter bridge. The frequency of the output a.c.
signal is controlled by the rate of switching the thyristors on.
127

The output voltage of the shaft generator is controlled by the level of excitation fed to the
generator poles, therefore this form of generator still requires a type of AVR.
Due to the nature of thyristors in order to operate as three phase inverters they require the bus
bar current to be in phase with its voltage, but this is not the case with a ship’s bus bar. A
ship’s load is inductive due to the large number of induction motors fitted; the size of the
inductive load is also variable as motors turn on and off. In order to operate the inverter
requires the system to have a power factor of 1 at all times, this means that the system
requires power factor correction and whatever is supplying the power factor correction must
be constantly adjusting.
A synchronous motor can affect the power factor of the bus bars supplying it, as the
excitation to the rotor is altered the power factor of the motor is altered. If a synchronous
motor is operated so that it has a leading power factor that exactly matches the bus bars
lagging power factor it is known as a synchronous compensator. In order for the leading
power factor of the synchronous compensator to match the lagging power factor of the
system at all times its excitation must be controlled by a regulator.
Any system using an electronic inverter with a shaft alternator also requires a synchronous
converter.
128

19 Static Electricity
When two dissimilar surfaces are brought into close contact and then separated, static
electricity is generated, one body gaining a surplus of electrons and the other having a
deficiency of electrons. The body gaining electrons then has a negative charge whilst the
other body will have a positive charge, the transfer of electrons between the two surfaces is
especially marked when one surface is a good conductor and the other a good insulator.
The charge on a conductor spreads over its surface and can be completely removed by
connecting it to earth.
The charge on an insulator however, does not spread and can be removed only by earthing
the whole of the surface which has been in contact with the other material or by making the
ambient medium conducting by increasing the humidity of the air. This however, only applies
to a perfect insulator and in practice the insulator is sufficiently conducting to allow the
charge to leak away slowly.
Static fire and explosion risk
Although the presence of static electricity may lead to electric shock the more serious hazard
is that of fire or explosion caused by the ignition of inflammable vapours or gases present
when 2 bodies of different charge are brought into close proximity and energy stored is
dissipated in the form of a spark. Note that fire or explosion will not occur if the spark is
insufficiently incentive or if the air to vapour mixture is too weak or too strong.
The main source of static electricity is in the movement of fluids especially when emitted at
high velocity from a metal nozzle, a charge being generated on both nozzle and fluid. Since
the metal nozzle is connected (bonded) to the metalwork of the ship itself by the hose
armouring and bonding wire the charge on it is dissipated as generated. When the fluid is
water the charge on it is removed continuously as it comes into contact with the metalwork of
the ship. In the case of steam the charge is dissipated as the steam condenses on the adjacent
metalwork. In the case of low flash petroleum distillates which having few impurities have
high insulating properties the electrostatic charge leaks away very slowly and as the rate of
generation of charges during loading is greater than the leakage rate an accumulation of
charge can build up. As these distillates also give off inflammable gas at ambient temperature
proper precautions must be taken. The time required for a charge to leak away after
completion of operation may be as long as 30 minutes. High flash point distillate oils such as
gas oil, some diesel oils and some lubricating oils also have insulating properties appropriate
129

to electrostatic generation so that precautions have to be taken in their handling if gassy

atmosphere is suspected. Further, it may be noted that kerosene and jet fuels when subjected
to turbulence form froth which has a lower flash point than that of the parent liquid.
Generation of static at the receiving end of a pipe line is proportional to velocity and is very
much greater if the oil is contaminated with air, water, rust particles or the slops of other oils.
Some black oils because of the impurities they contain are quite conductive and hence do not
accumulate static charges during handling.
Anti static precautions taken when handling low flash petroleum distillates.
Bonding to ensure proper earthing of all metal parts of cargo hoses and of hoses to tank
washing machines so that any charge on them leaks harmlessly away. Bonding arrangements
should be checked before use and if in the least defective supplemented by an additional bare
copper wire run along it.
Loading through bottom lines causes less turbulence and hence generation of static than
loading overall. Similarly water should not be loaded overall into a tank which has contained
volatile petroleum distillates until tank has been stripped.
Low initial loading rate. The initial loading rate is limited to about 1m/s as any water in
suspension will most likely be present at beginning of operation. Initial rate should be
continued until inlet and bottom longitudinal of the tank are covered so that any water present
can settle relatively undisturbed after which loading is at normal rate.
Ensuring that no conductors earthed or unearthed are introduced into the tank during loading
or subsequently until static charge is dissipated. An example of an earthed conductor is a
metal tape with a metal weight attached, introduced into tank and held by a man not insulated
from deck. The weight may set as a probe and as it approaches the surface of the oil
incendive sparking can occur. An example of an unearthed conductor is the same metal tape
held by a man insulated from the deck by his footwear. With the tape in contact with the oil
incendive sparking can occur at the ullage or sounding port. A probe is a piece of conducting
material with a point at which a charge would tend to concentrate thus making sparking more
likely. An installed ullage device consisting of a float suspended from a permanently earthed
steel tape is considered safe because of the comparatively large dimensions of the float.
Ensuring that there is no air leakage from air operated valves and from associated air lines
installed in the bottom of compartments. These should be frequently examined and tested.
130

Not only would any escaping air in rising through the oil generate an electrostatic charge but
in rising would also tend to raise any water in the bottom of the tank so that powerful
electrostatic charging would occur as the water settled.
21 Personal Electrical Safety
Electric shock
20 – 30 mA flowing for more than 50ms is considered dangerous to human life, e.g.
1 – 3 mA is the threshold of shock sensation.
10 – 15 mA causes muscular spasms leading to difficulty in releasing live parts.
40 – 80 mA renders people unconscious, heart fibrillations.
60 V is accepted as the maximum safe voltage.
First aid treatment for electric shock
Isolate the person from the electrical supply without endangering yourself.
Check for breathing and heart beat, a severe electrical shock will stop the heart.
Perform CPR, i.e. mouth to mouth resuscitation and heart massage.
Portable appliances
All portable appliances should be regularly checked for faults, this is commonly called PAT
testing (PAT stands for portable appliance testing)
Portable appliance voltages
There is a higher risk of electrical shock when using portable electrical appliances when
compared to fixed appliances due to the facts that:
1. Portable appliances can be taken into dangerous areas.

2. Portable appliances can be used on deck where there is a high chance of rain or sea
water getting into the equipment.
3. Portable appliances are subject to rough treatment due to the way they are stored.
4. It is much easier to cut the electric supply cable to a portable appliance either with the
appliance itself or by a door, hatch etc than a fixed appliance.
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Portable appliances use different supply voltages to the normal ship’s system to try and limit
the risk of electric shock, these are.

1. 25 V single phase is used for hand lamps used in damp and confined situations.
2. 50 V single phase supplied from a centre tapped transformer for hand lamps used in
damp and confined situations.
3. 110 Single phase fed from a transformer with an earthed centre tapped secondary
winding, this ensures that the voltage to earth should never exceed 55 V
Centre tapped transformer
The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the ship’s 220V mains.
The secondary winding reduces the output voltage to 110V but the centre point of the
transformer is earthed.
If one of the live conductors touches the casing of the portable appliance a circuit is made to
earth but the voltage across this circuit is only 55V.

55V

240V
110V
55V
If an RCD, residual current device, is fitted to the transformer as soon as a current flows
through the earth connection of the transformer it is detected and the power supply is
disconnected.
Maintenance of electrical equipment
Installation and maintenance requirements for electrical equipment is covered by regulations
of:
SOLAS
132

IEE
LLOYDS
M Notices.
Permit to Work
Before any maintenance is carried out the provisions of the ship’s permit to work must be
followed.
The following example of a permit to work is based on P&O Cruises’ manual.
General

1. Should it be necessary to carry out work on the main 6.6 kV switchboard or on any
item of equipment rated at 6.6 kV or 3.0 kV, either for inspection, testing,
maintenance or fault finding, a permit to work certificate must be obtained.
2. The permit to work certificate is to be signed by the chief engineer, together with the
chief electro-technical officer or the first electrical officer and the senior watch
keeping officer in the control room.
3. The permit to work certificate is in a duplicate form comprising two sheets. The
duplicate is to be held by the person undertaking the work and kept on his person,
whereas the original is to be kept either in the control room or chief engineer’s office.
4. CAUTION and DANGER LIVE notices are to be displayed at all points where work
is being carried out near parts that are live or can be made live.
5. Prior to any work being carried out the circuit or item of equipment is to be isolated
from all sources of possible supply, earthed and tested to ensure that the circuit is
dead.
6. Cancellation of the permit to work certificate must be signed by the person carrying
out the work and the C.E.T.O. or first electrical officer.

Earthing

1. Earthing can be achieved either by the earthing arrangements on the circuit breaker or
by the use of portable earthing leads.
133

2. If portable earthing leads are used the leads are to be connected to the earthing
terminal prior to connection to the phase conductors.
3. When removing the earthing leads the phase conductors are to be disconnected before
removal of the earthing connection.
4. All parts of the circuit which have been earthed are to be identified on the permit to
work certificate.
5. All points of isolation and all fuses removed are also to be listed on the permit to
work certificate.
6. The C.E.T.O. or first electrical officer is responsible for disconnecting the earthing
leads and returning the equipment to normal service.
Permit to Work
Issue
To………………………………………………………………..C.E.T.O./1.E.L.O.
I hereby declare that it is safe to work on the following H.V. apparatus which is dead, isolated
from all live conductors and is connected to earth.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
ALL OTHER APPARTAUS IS DANGEROUS.
Points at which system is isolated

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Caution notices posted at.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
The apparatus is efficiently connected to earth at the following points.
134

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Other precautions.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
The following work is to be carried out.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Signed……………………………………………………………Chief engineer.
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Signed……………………………………………………………C.E.T.O./1 E.L.O.
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Signed……………………………………………………………Senior watch keeper
Time …………………. Date……………………..
Receipt
I hereby declare that I accept responsibility for carrying out the work on the apparatus
detailed on this permit to work and that no attempt will be made by me, or by the men under
my control, to carry out work on any other apparatus.
Signed…………………………………Time………………Date…………….
Note: After signature for the work to proceed this receipt must be signed by and permit to
work be retained by the person in charge of the work until the work is completed and the
clearance section has been signed.
135

Clearance
I hereby declare that the work for which this permit to work was issued is now
suspended/completed, and that all men under my charge have been withdrawn and warned
that it is no longer safe to work on the apparatus specified on this permit to work and that
gear, tools and additional earthing connections are all clear.
Signed………………………………..Time………………….Date…………….
Cancellation This permit to work is hereby cancelled
Signed……………………………Time…………………Date……………….
There are many different versions of a permit to work but they should all cover the following
areas
Isolation of circuits Circuit breakers with pad locks
Fuses removed and kept with the engineer carrying out the work
Warning signs are displayed
Confirmation that circuits are dead.
Confirming circuits are dead
Due to many accidents an M notice (MGN 177) was written to offer guidance on how circuits
should be confirmed to be dead. The main points of this M notice are:
1. Only use ship’s test equipment and ensure it has been calibrated.
2. Only use test equipment rated for the voltage of the system being tested.
3. Correct testing probes should be used which are colour coded, can only be connected
in one way, have a small probe area, have small amount of exposed metal probe and
have a finger guard at the probe end.
136

4. Protective gloves should be worn.

5. Continuity testing by resistance checking should be used as well as voltage checking.

22 Electrical Testing

Before any electrical testing can be carried out a circuit must be safe to work on. Ships
operate a permit to work system and a permit may be required before any testing can be
carried out.
When isolating an electrical circuit the following steps should be considered.
1. Isolate the power from the circuit.

2. Ensure the power cannot be re-established, i.e. padlock the cabinet or remove the
fuses.
3. Display a notice on the electrical supply cabinet stating that the plant is off line for
maintenance.
4. At the machine to be tested check the voltage is zero between the supply lines and
also between the supply lines and earth. Make sure the meter is working properly first.
There are several basic electric tests carried out on equipment:

1. Insulation resistance.
2. Continuity.
3. Resistance.
Insulation resistance
The purpose of insulation resistance testing is to measure the value of the insulation
resistance between two conductors or between a conductor and earth, the resistance should be
very high in the MΩ.
The resistance of insulation will change with time, insulation ages and its resistance reduces,
water and dirt ingress will also alter its resistance.
137

Insulation resistance is tested with an instrument called a Megger, two versions of this
instrument are commonly available, the 500 V and the 1000V version, a multimeter must
never be used to measure insulation resistance.
The purpose of the high voltage of the Megger is to simulate the operational resistance of the
insulation as its value will reduce the higher the voltage applied to it. 500 V Meggers are used
for 440 V equipment but 1000V Meggers must be used for equipment with higher values of
voltage.
The high voltage is created inside the test instrument by either a battery or a hand operated
generator.
Procedure for insulation testing between a winding and earth
1. Ensure the circuit to be tested is electrically dead.
2. Connect both test leads together, set the meter on the ohms scale the meter should
show 0 resistance, this proves the leads are not broken.
3. Find two good earth points and connect one lead to each, again test the resistance
with the meter on the ohms scale, this proves that a good earth point has been found.
4. Remove one lead, do not move the other, and connect it to one end of the winding to
be insulation tested, set the meter to the mega ohm scale and test, the reading should
give a value of at least one mega ohm.
To fully test the insulation resistance of a motor the resistance between each phase must be
tested, this requires that the star or delta winding connections are disconnected, and between
each phase and earth.
The values of insulation resistance must be tested and recorded at set intervals to comply with
classification society requirements.
Ideally insulation resistance should be tested when a machine is at its running temperature as
the value will change with temperature.
Before performing a Megger test on any piece of electrical equipment all circuit components
that may be damaged by the high voltage must be isolated from the test, this is very important
when testing generators as A.V.Rs are easily damaged due to Megger testing.
138

Continuity testing
Continuity is tested with either a multimeter or a continuity tester. Before testing the two
meter leads should be shorted together and the meter tested, the circuit proved to be
electrically dead then the probes should be connected to each end of a circuit to be checked.
Resistance testing
Resistance testing is carried out with a multimeter. When testing motors a resistance check is
carried out on each winding of a three phase motor, if the motor is in good condition then the
value of resistance of each phase winding will be the same as the others.

139

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1. Lead Acid cells.

The cell shown above is being discharged.

Item Discharged Charged

Positive plate Tends to lead sulphate Lead dioxide.

Negative plate Tends to lead sulphate Spongy lead

E.M.F. Voltage falls as the battery approx 2.2 V per cell.

Voltage should be measured

Voltage should not be

lead acid cell specific gravity lead acid 12 V battery voltage

The capacity of lead acid batteries reduces as temperature reduces.

1. Filled up to correct S.G,

1. Positive electrodes of nickel hydroxide,

The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide. No chemical change occurs in the

Gains oxygen, oxidises Restored to Cadmium

Remains constant at 1.17 Remains constant at 1.17

4. Alkaline cells are more robust.

There are three types of fuse:

A circuit breaker has many advantages over a fuse, these include:

5. The circuit can be closed quickly.

A main circuit breaker contains several components.

1. Quick break i.e. spring action.

14. One air compressor.

Silicon 0.6 – 0.8 V forward volt drop.

Germanium 0.2 – 0.3 V forward volt drop.

after this point it will conduct freely in the forward direction.

The symbol commonly used for a diode is:

Zeners are used as:

This circuit can be used to amplify a signal or to simply act as a switch.

Laser trimmed Ceramic Gold contact

The average d.c. voltage is found from the following equation;

The ripple of this type of system is 2 x the a.c. frequency.

The average d.c. voltage is found from the following equation;

The average d.c. voltage is found from the following equation;

Load voltage waveform

φ I cos φ Voltage

Where E - induced voltage.

The 3 phase output from the stator is shown below.

Laminated rotor, also called cylindrical rotor.

All the following information refers to revolving field type generators.

Rotary excitation gives a relatively sluggish response to load changes.

In the drawing PRI stands for the transformer primaries.

SEC stands for the transformer secondarys.

On no load PRI. 1 provides the generator excitation.

On load PRI. 2 adds additional excitation current.

Voltage regulation of an uncompouded

Voltage regulation of a compounded

Voltage recovery profile for an

voltage recovery profile for a generator with an

A typical circuit diagram for direct self excitation is as follows.

A typical formula is:

Minimum insulation resistance for motors 1M Ohm.

1. an ammeter, with a selector switch, for each line current.

There are two methods of connecting the neutral line:

1. They have a higher power factor.

1. laminated rotor body.

Cage bars and end rings.

Laminated stator body

Flemings right hand rule, generator rule.

Left hand rule, motor law.

Frequency increase or decrease

Starters can also include the following:

1. Over current protection.