F force, flexibility, allowable stress (AISC notation)

frequency, computed stress (AISC notation)

modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
ABBREVIATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS
h height, depth of beam
I moment of inertia of cross-sectional area
AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics J polar moment of inertia of circular cross-sectional area
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction K stress concentration factor, effective length factor for columns
API American Petroleum Institute k spring constant, constant
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers L length
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers M moment, bending moment, mass
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials plastic
moment
AWS American Welding Society m mass,
moment caused by virtual unit force
SEM Society for Experimental Mechanics N number of revolutions per minute
P force, concentrated load
P pressure intensity, axial force due to unit force
ABBREVIATIONS O!: UNITS O!: MEASURE AND OTHER TERMS Q first or statical moment of area Afhj around neutral axis
q distributed load intensity, shear flow
allow allowable R reaction, radius
av average S elastic section-modulus (S = l/c)
cr critical S S-shape (standard) steel beam
F.S. factor of safety s second(s)
ft foot, feet

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
radius, radius of gyration
hp horsepower T torque, temperature
Hz hertz (cycles per second) t thicknesss, width, tangential deviation
in inch, inches

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u strain energy
k kip(s) u internal force caused by virtual unit load, axial or radial displacement
kg kilogram(s) v shear force (often vertical), volume
kip kilopound (1000 lb) deflection of beam, velocity
ksi kips per square inch w total weight, work
lb pound(s) (from Latin libra, meaning weight) w W-shape (wide flange) steel beam
m meter, metre, 1000 mm (mil imeters) w weight or load per unit of length
N newton z plastic section modulus
NA neutral axis
Pa pascal
psi pounds per square inch
rad radian GREEK LETTER SYMBOLS
rpm revolutions per minute e (alpha) coefficient of thermal expansion, general angle
ult ultimate
-/ (gamma) shear strain, weight per unit volume
yp yield point, yield stress A (delta) total deformation or deflection, change of any designated function
e (epsilon) normal strain
0 (theta) slope angle for elastic curve, angle of inclination of line on body
ROMAN LETTER SYMBOLS K (kappa) curvature
k (lambda) eigenvalue in column buckling problems
 area bounded by center line of the perimeter of a thin tube Poisson's ratio
A area, area of cross section r (nu)
p (rho) radius, radius of curvature
Afghj partial area of beam cross-sectional area
b breadth, width cr (sigma) tensile or compressive stress (i.e., normal stress)
'r (tau) shear stress
c distance from neutral axis or from center of twist to extreme fiber
d diameter, distance, depth qb (phi) total angle of twist, general angle
E modulus of elasticity in tension or compression to (omega) angular velocity
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
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PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL SERIES
IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Wil iam J, Hall, Editor

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
www.avs4you.com
 Popov, E. P. (Egor Paul)
Engineering mechanics of solids / Egor P. Popov.
p. cm. -- (Prentice-Hall international series in civil
engineering and engineering mechanics)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-13-279258-3
I. Strength of materials. I. Title. I. Series.
TA405.P677 1990
620. I' 12--dc20 89-8860
CIP

Editorial/production supervision: Sophie Papanikolaou Abbreviations and Symbols: See Inside Front Cover
Interior design: Jules Perlmutter; Off-Broadway Graphics
Cover design: Bruce Kenselaar Preface XV
Manufacturing buyer: Mary Noonan
Cover Il ustration: Artist's Conception of stress transformation. See figure 8-16

1-1 Introduction

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Part A

� 1990
A Division
Englewood
by Prentice-Hall,
of Simon
Clifs, New
& Shuster
Jersey
Inc.
www.avs4you.com
07632
1-2
1-3
Method
Defif ition
Stress Tensor
of
of
Sections
Stress
3
4
7
*'1-5 Derential Equations of Equilibrium 11

Part B $T$$ ANALY$1$ P ALLY

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be '12
reproduced, in any form or by any means,
without permission in writing from the publisher. 1-6 Stresses on Inclined Sections in ial y
Loaded Bars 12
1-7 Mimum Nomal Stress in iy Loaded Bars 16
1-8 Shear Stresses 19
Printed in the United States of America
10987654321 1-9 Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses 22

Part DTNISTIC AND POBABIHSTC

ISBN 0-13-279258-3 DSiN BASS

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney 34
Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto
*'1-12 38
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi *'1-13 47
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., To3'o *'1-14 clc ons 5O
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore :oblcs 52
vi Contents
Contents vii

Part B
AND HOOKE'$ LAW
2-1 Introduction **3-4 Mathematical Definition of Strain 143
**3-5 Strain Tensor 145

Part A 3-6 Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotropic Materials 146

3-7 E, G and v R61ationshipss 150
6O **3-8 Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
2-2 Normal Strain
60
2-3 Stress-strain Relationships
2-4
62 Part O THiN-WALLED PRESSURE VSSELS
Hooke's Law
64
2-5 Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessels
2-6
Further Remarks on Stress-strain Relationships 67 3-9
157
Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations 68 '3-10 Remarks on Thin-walled Pressure Vessels
2-7 Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 71
2-8 Poisson's Ratio 82 Part D
2-9 Thermal Strain and Deformation 84
2-10 159
Saint-Venant's Principle and Stress Concentrations 86 *'3-11 Introduction
'2-11 Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress *'3-12 Solution of the General Problem 160
91
'2-12 Deflections by the Energy Method *'3-13 Special Cases 165
94
*'2-13 Dynamic and Impact Loads *'3-14 Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-walled Cylinders 167
96
171

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Problems
Part B
99

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2-14 General Considerations 99
2-15 Force Method of Analysis 100 4-1 Introduction 175
2-16 Introduction to the Displacement Method 106 175
*'2-17 4-2 Application of the Method of Sections
Displacement Method with Several Degrees of
Freedom
108
2-18
Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Part A
Problems
112
'2-19 4-3 Basic Assumptions for Circular Members 177
Alternative Dif erential Equation Approach 4-4 The Torsion Formula 178
for Deflections
125 4-5 Remarks on the Torsion Formula 18
Problems
127 4-6 Design of Circular Members in Torsion 185
4-7 Stress Concentrations 187
4-8 Angle-of-twist of Circular Members 189
*4-9 Statically Indeterminate Problems 194
*'4-10 Alternative Dif erential Equation Approach
Oyfincer for Torsion Problems 197
*'4-11 Energy and Impact Loads 199
3-1 Introduction
*'4-12 Shaft Couplings 201

Part A 0ONSTTUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR Part B TORSIION OF INELASTIC 011ROULAR BARS 202
3-2 Stress-strain Relationships for Shear 139 4-13 Shear Stresses and Deformations in Circular Shafts
3-3 Elastic Strain Energy for Shear Stresses 141 202
in the Inelastic Range
vii Contents
Contents JX

Part C TORSION OF $OHD NONCIRCULAR

207 Pure Iending and Iending
with ial Ii=orce$ 280
'4-14 Solid Bars of any Cross Section
*'4-15 Warping of Thin-Walled Open Sections 21! 6-1 Introduction 280

Part D TORSION O: THIN-WALLED TUBULAR Part A BENDING O; BEAMS WITH SY'dMETffiC
CROSS SECTIONS
'4-16 Thin-walled Hollow Members 213 6-2 The Basic Kinematic Assumption 281
Problems 6-3 The Elastic Flexure Formula 283
217
*6-4 Computation of the Moment of Inertia 289
6-5 Applications of the Flexure Formula 293
Stress Concentrations 297
5 *6-6
*6-7 Elastic Strain Energy in Pure Bending 299
**6-8 Beams Composite Cross Section 301
**6-9 Curved Bars 306
5-1 Introduction
224 6-10 Inelastic Bending of Beams 311

Part A CALCULATION OF REACTIONS Part B

'5-2
Diagrammatic Conventions for Supports 225 WITH AXIAL LOADS

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
*5-3
Diagrammatic Conventions for Loading 226 6-11 Bending about both Principal Axes 319
*5-4 Classification of Beams 228 6-12 Elastic Bending with Axial Loads 324
*5-5 Calculation of Beam Reactions 230 '6-13 Inelastic Bending with Axial Loads 333

Part
SH=AR, AND B:NDING MOdENT
www.avs4you.com 234
*'6-14 Bending
Cross
of Beams
Section
with Unsymmetric (Arbitrary)
336

5-6 Application of the Method of Sections Part o AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA 340
5-7 Axial Force in Beams
'6-15 Area Moments and Products of Inertia 340
5-8 Shear in Beams
'6-16 Principal Axes of Inertia 34l
5-9 Bending Moment in Beams
Problems 343
5-10
Axial-Force, Shear, and Bending-Moment
Diagrams 240
Shear Stresses in
Part o SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENTS and Ielated
BY INTEGRATION 248 7-1 Introduction 357
5-11
Dif erential Equations of Equilibrium for a Beam
Element Part A SHEAR STRESSES IN 57
248
5-12
Shear Diagrams by Integration of the Load 250 7-2 elimina Remks 357
5-13
Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear 252 7-3 She Flow 361
5-14 Effect of Concentrated Moment on Moment 7-4 The Shear-stress Fomula for Betas 367
Diagrams 258 373
5-15 Moment Diagram and the Elastic Curve
'7-5 Waage of Plane Sections Due to She
261 *7-6 Some Limitations of the She-stress Formula 378
*'5-16 Singularity Functions 263 7-7 She Stresses in Beam Flanges 380
Problems
269 7-8 Shear Center 382
x Contents Contents xi

386
7-9 Combined Direct and Torsional Shear Stresses
Introduction 459
-9-1
*'7-10 Stresses in Closely Coiled Helical Springs
*'7-11 Deflection of Closely Coiled Helical Springs 391
Problems Part A ELASTII ST:SS ANALYSS
9-2 State of Stress for Some Basic Cases 46!
466
9-3 Comparative Accuracy of Beam Solutions
*'9-4 Experimental Methods of Stress Analysis

Part 
8-1 Introduction 403 470
470
Part A 4O3 9-5 Design of Axial y Loaded Members
471
9-6 Design of Torsion Members
8-2 The Basic Problem 403 472
9-7 Design Criteria for Prismatic Beams
8-3 Transformation of Stresses in Two-dimensional 9-8 Design of Prismatic Beams 475
Problems 40? 9-9 Design of Nonprismatic Beams 480
8-4 Principal Stresses in Two-dimensional Problems 409 9-10 Design of Complex Members 482
8-5 Maximum Shear Stresses in Two-dimensional Problems 485
Problems 410
Mohr's Circle of St3ess for Two-dimensional

*8-7
Problems
Construction
Transformation
of Mohr's NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Circles for Stress
414

417 498

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10-1 Introduction
**8-8 Principal Stresses for a General State of Stress 424
8-9 Mohr's Circle for a General State of Stress 426 Part A 499

10-2 Moment-Curvature Relation 499

Part B 43O
10-3 Governing Dif erential Equation 501
8-10 Strains in Two Dimensions 430 *'10-4 Alternative Drivation of the Governing Equation 504
8-11 Transformation of Strain in Two Dimensions 430 10-5 Alternative Forms of the Governing Equation 505
*'8-12 Alternative Derivation for Strain Transformation 505
10-6 Boundary Conditions
in Two Dimensions 433 10-7 Direct-Integration Solutions 507
'8-13 Mohr's Circle for Two-dimensional Strain 43.5 /'10-8 523
Singularity Functions for Beams
'8-14 525
10-9 Deflection by Superposition
'10-10 Deflection in Unsymmetrical Bending 529
Part  44' '10-11 Energy Method for Deflections and Impact 531
'10-12 Inelastic Deflection of Beams 535
8-15 Introductory Remarks 44!
8-16 Maximum Shear-Stress Theory
'8-17 **Part B
Maximum Distortion-Energy Theory 444
537
;THOD
8-18 Comparison of Maximum-Shear and Distortion-
Energy Theories for Plane Stress 448 *'10-13 Introduction to the Moment-Area Method
8-19 Maximum Normal Stress Theory 449 *'10-14 Moment-Area Theorems
8-20 Comparison of Yield and Fracture Criteria 450 *'10-15 Statically Indeterminate Beams
Problems 453 Problems
xii Contents Xll
Contents

574 Part C
661
11-1 Introduction '12-10 General Remarks
574
'1-11 Strain Energy and Complementary Strain-Energy
'11-2 Examples of Instability 661
Theorems
11-3 Criteria for Stability of Equilibrium 665
'12-12 Castigliano's Theorems
670
'12-13 Statically Indeterminate Systems
674
Part A BUCKLING THEORY FO COLU/INS 583 *'12-14 Elastic Energy'for Buckling Loads
Problems 676
11-4 Euler Load for Columns with Pinned Ends 83
11-5 Euler Loads for Columns with Dif erent End
Restraints 585 $TA'I OALL� INDE'ERIINA'E
11-6 Limitations of the Euler Formulas 588
11-7 Generalized Euler Buckling-Load Formulas 590 686
'11-8 '13-1 Introduction
Eccentric Loads and the Secant Formula 592
'11-9 Beam-Columns 596
Part A ELASTIC /IETHODS OF ANALYSIS 687
*'11-10 Alternative Dif erential Equations for Beam-
Columns 600 '13-2 Two Basic Methods for Elastic Analysis 687
'13-3 Force Method 687
'13-4 Flexibility Coefficients Reciprocity 690
Part B
'13-5 Introduction to the Displacement Method 697
'11-11 General Considerations Further Remarks on the Displacement Method 700

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
605 '13-6
'11-12 Concentrically Loaded Columns '13-7 Stif ness Coefficients Reciprocity 703
608
'11-13 Eccentrically Loaded Columns 616
'11-14 B PLASTIC L/HT ANALYS$ 708

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Lateral Stability of Beams 623 Part
Problems 623
'13-8 Plastic Limit Analysis of Beams 70
'13-9 Continuous Beams and Frames
Problems 73

12-1 Introduction APPENDICES: TABLES

634
ANSWERS TO ODD-NU/IBERED PROBLEMS
Part A INDEX
635 Conversion Factors between U.S. Customary and
12-2 Elastic Strain Energy 535 SI Units: See Inside Back Cover
12-3
Displacements by Conservation of Energy 537

Part B VIIRTUAL WORK ETHODS

'12-4 Virtual Work Principle 638
12-5 Virtual Forces for Deflections 642
12-6 Virtual Force Equations for Elastic Systems 644
12-7 Virtual Forces for Indeterminate Problems 650
*'12-8 Virtual Displacements for Equilibrium 651
*'12-9 Virtual Work for Discrete Systems 657
 This book is an update of two of the author's earlier texts, Mechanics of
Materials (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2nd Ed., 1976) and Introduction to Me-
chanics of Solids (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968). It was felt important to sup-
plement the traditional topics with some exposure to newly emerging
disciplines. Among these, some treatment of the probabilistic basis for
structural analysis, modest exposure to the matrix methods, and il ustra-
tions using the method of finite elements are discussed. Further, to con-
form with the more mathematical trend in teaching this subject, more
NON-ACTIVATED
have also VERSION
rigorous treatment
ecessors.
is selectively
been introduced.
This has an advantage
provided.
As a result,
A few more advanced
the book is larger than its pred-
in that the user of this text has a larger
topics

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choice for study, according
the serious student retains
life.
to needs. Moreover, experience
the text for use as a reference
shows that
in professional
This book is larger than what can easily be covered in a one quarter
or one-semester course. Therefore, it should prove useful for a fol ow-
up course on the subject ht an intermediate level. As an aid in selecting
text material for a basic course that is consecutive, with no gaps in the
logical development of the subject, numerous sections, examples, and
problems marked with a ** can be omit ed, To a lesser extent, this also
applies to material marked with a *. These guides to possibilities for dele-
tion are provided throughout the text. In a few instances, suggestions for
an alternative sequence in studying the subject are also given. The text
is careful y integrated by means of cross-referencing.
It is the belief of the author that the serious student, because of the
wealth of available material in the text, even in an abbreviated course,
should become more knowledgeable. Several il ustrations can be men-
tioned in this regard. For example, while the student is studying the al-
lowable stress design of axial y loaded members in Chapter 1, a mere
glance at Fig. 1-26, showing histograms for two materials, should reveal
the limitations of such a design. The same is true for the student studying
thin-walled pressure vessels; even a superficial examination of Fig. 3-24
suggests why limitations are place by the ASME on the use of elementary
xvi Preface Preface xvii

formulas for thin-walled pressure vessels. Modest exposure to some ma- der Kiureghian (UCB) provided valuable assistance for the section on
trix solutions and il ustrations obtained using finite-element methods probabilistic methods in Chapter 1; M. D. Engelhardt (UTA), L. R.
should arouse interest. Some exposure to the plastic-limit-state methods Herrmann (UCD), and J. M. Ricles (UCSD) gave useful suggestions for
given in the last section of the last chapter warrants attention. In the hands Chapter 2; E. L. Wilson (UCB) offered useful comments on Chapter 4;
of an instructor, these side issues can be discussed in a minimum of time S. B. Dong (UCLA) encouraged more rigorous development for treatment
and brought in wherever desired. Next, some remarks on the philosophy of composite beams resulting in significant improvements; Y. F. Dafalias
of the subject and issues of possible controversy are raised. (UCD) suggested useful refinements for Chapter 8; J. L. Meek (UQ) en-
Chapter 2 forms the cornerstone of the subject and has to be studied couraged presentation of the matrix method in Chapter 12; and C. W.
careful y. The introduced concepts are repeatedly used in the remainder Roeder (UW) careful y reviewed Chapter 13 and provided useful sugges-
of the text. Further, the sequence of study for this chapter can be varied, tions.
depending on preference. For example, by studying Section 2-19 imme- In addition to these, the fol owing also greatly contributed to the de-
diately fol owing Section 2-7, the distinction between statically deter- velopment of the text: M. S. Agbabian (USC), H. Astaneh (UCB), D.O.
minate and indeterminate systems becomes less important. This approach Brush (UCD), A. K. Chopra (UCB), F. Hauser (UCB), J. M. Kelly
can be useful in introducing the displacement method of analysis. The (UCB), P. Monteiro (UCB), F. Moffit (UCB), J. L. Sackman (UCB), R.
text as writ en, however, fol ows the traditional approach. The suggested Stephen (UCB), R. L. Taylor (UCB), and G. Voyiadjis (LSU). Dr. K. C.
variation in the sequence would probably require assistance from an in- Tsai (NTU) provided valuable assistance in supervising the assembly of
structor.
problem solutions for the first nine chapters, the remainder was compiled
The more controversial issue encountered in developing this text deals by J-H. Shen (UCB). Among the proceeding, M. D. Engelhardt, R. L.
with the adopted shear sign convention for beams. The one used is thor- Taylor, J. M. Ricles also assisted with the preparation of finite element
oughly entrenched in U.S. practice; however, it is in conflict with the results for figures 2-31, 7-13, 7-14, 9-7 and 9-8.
right-hand sign convention for aXes. If needed, it can easily be modified The author sincerely thanks all and feels a debt of gratitude to each for
for use with a. computer.
in addition
in consecutive
to its virtually
integrations.
The engineering
universal NON-ACTIVATED
sign convention
Experience
for shear used,
use in design, requires
has shown
no sign changes
that fewer mistakes
on one VERSION
of the earlier books, Drs. S. Nagarajan
many
rectly
suggested
contributed
improvements.
to this text
The author
also.
also thanks
and Z. A. Lu,
his collaborators
who indi-

circles of stress www.avs4you.com

are made in using it in hand calculations. In producing this book, Douglas Humphrey and Sophie Papanikolaou
The introduction of Mohr's and strain presented a prob- of Prentice-Hall spared no effort in preparing an excellent publication.
lem. Whereas the basic algebra and comprehensive meaning of the con- Lastly, as in all previous books, the author again is deeply indebted to
struction of the circles is the same, two alternative methods are in general his wife, Irene, for unstinting support and continual help'with the man-
use, and there are strong advocates for each method. Therefore, both uscript.
approaches are developed; the choice of procedure is left to the reader, EaoR P. PoPov
with the alternative one remaining as a reference. Berkeley, California
In the preparation of this book, over 30 people at more than a dozen
universities contributed to its development. Among these, W. Bickford
(ASU)?, M. E. Criswell (CSU), J. Dempsey (CU), H. D. Eberhart (UCB
and UCSB), J. J. Tuma (ASU), and G. A. Wempner (GIT), reviewed the
entire manuscript and offered numerous valuable suggestions; F. Filippou
(UCB), J. L. Lubliner (UCB), and A. C. Scordelis (UCB) provided much
encouragement and made useful suggestions for Clarifying the text; A.

t Letters in parentheses identify the fol owing universities: ASU, Arizona State
Uni versity; InstituteCSU, of ColTechnol
Georgia
orado ogy; State LSU,UniversitLoui
y; siana CU, StatCle emsonUniversity; University; NTU, GINa-T,
tional Taiwan University; UCB, University of California, Berkeley; UCD, Uni-
versity of California at Davis; UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles;
UCSB, University of California at Santa Barbara; USC, University of Southern
California;
and UW, University
UTA, Universi ty of Texas, Austin; UQ, University
of Washington.
of Queensland;
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
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 ter

1-1. Introduction

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION In all engineering

machine must
construction,
be assigned definite
the component
physical sizes.
parts of a structure
Such parts must
or a
be
properly proportioned to resist the actual or probable forces that may be
www.avs4you.com
imposed upon them. Thus, the walls of a pressure
equate strength to withstand the internal pressure;
vessel must be of ad-
the floors of a building
must be sufficiently strong for their intended purpose; the shaft of a ma-
chine must be of adequate size to carry the required torque; a wing of an
airplane must safely withs.tand the aerodynamic loads that may come upon
it in takeoff, flight, and landing. Likewise, the parts of a composite struc-
ture must be rigid enough so as not to deflect or "sag" excessively when
in operation under the imposed loads. A floor of a building may be strong
enough but yet may deflect excessively, which in some instances may
cause misalignment of manufacturing equipment, or in other cases result
in the cracking of a plaster ceiling attached underneath. Also a member
may be so thin or slender that, upon being subjected to compressive load-
ing, it wil collapse through buckling, i.e., the initial configuration of a
member may become unstable. The ability to determine the maximum
load that a slender column can carry before buckling occurs or the safe
level of vacuum that can be maintained by a vessel is of great practical
importance.
In engineering practice, such requirements must be met with the min-
imum expenditure of a given material. Aside from cost, at times--as in
the design of satel ites--the feasibility and success of the whole mission
may depend on the weight of a package. The subject of mechanics of
 Sec.'l-2. Method of Sections
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

naterials, or the strength ofnaterials, as it has been traditionally called part of the subject, but this branch is left to other books. I Here the end
in the past, involves analytical methods for determining the strength, results of such investigations are of interest, and this book is concerned
stif ness (deformation characteristics), and stability of the various load- with the analytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction
carrying members. Alternately, the subject may be called the nechanics to experimentation. For these reasons, it is seen that mechanics of solids
of solid defornable bodies, or simply nechanics of solids. is a blended science of experiment and Newtonian postulates of analytical
Mechanics of solids is a fairly old subject, generally dated from the mechanics. It is presumed that the reader has some familiarity in both of
work of Galileo in the early part of the seventeenth century. Prior to his these areas. In the development of this subject, statics plays a particularly
investigations into the behavior of solid bodies under loads, constructors dominant role.
fol owed precedents and empirical rules. Galileo was the first to attempt This text wil be limited to the simpler topics of the subject. In spite
to explain the behavior of some of the members under load on a rational of the relative simplicity of the methods employed here, the resulting
basis. He studied members in tension and compression, and notably techniques are unusually useful as they apply to a vast number of tech-
beams used in the construction of hulls of ships for the Italian navy. Of nically important problems.
course, much progress has been made since that time, but it must be
The subject matter can be mastered best by solving numerous problems.
noted in passing that much is owed in the development of this subject to
The number of basic formulas necessary for the analysis and design of
the French investigators, among whom a group of outstanding men such structural and machine members by the methods of engineering mechanics
as Coulomb, Poisson, Navier, St. Venant, and Cauchy, who worked at of solids is relatively small; however, throughout this study, the reader
the break of the nineteenth century, has left an indelible impression on
must develop an ability to visualize a problem and the nature of the quan-
this subject. tities being computed. Complete, carefidly drawn diagrammatic sketches
The subject
of mechanics of solids cuts broadly across all branches of of problems to be solved wil pay large dividends in a quicker and more
the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its meth- complete masterly of this subject.
There are three major parts in this chapter. The general concepts of
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
ods are needed by designers of offshore structures; by civil engineers in
the design of bridges and buildings; by mining engineers and architectural
stress are treated first. This is fol owed with a particular case of stress
engineers, each of whom is interested in structures; by nuclear engineers
distribution in axial y loaded members. Strength design criteria based on
stress are discussed in the last part of the chapter.
in the
neers,
chinery
design
who
and
of reactor
rely upon
pressure
components;
the methods
vessels; by metal urgists,
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by mechanical
of this subject
who
and chemical
for the design
need the
engi-
of ma-
fundamental
concepts of this subject in order to understand how to improve existing
materials further; finally, by electrical engineers, who need the methods
of this subject because of the importance of the mechanical engineering
phases .of many portions of electrical equipment. Engineering mechanics
of solids, contrasted with the mathematical theory of continuum me- 1=2. Method of Sections
chanics, has characteristic methods all its own, although the two ap-
proaches overlap. It is a definite discipline and one of the most funda- One of the main problems of engineering mechanics of solids is the in-
mental subjects of an engineering curriculum? standing alongside such vestigation of the internal resistance of a body, that is, the nature of forces
other basic subjects as fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, as well as elec- set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied forces.
trical theory. For this purpose, a uniform method of approach is employed. A complete
The behavior of a member subjected to forces depends not only on the diagrammatic sketch of the member to be investigated is prepared, on
fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics that govern the equilibrium which all of the external forces acting 6n a body are shown at their re-
of the forces, but also on the mechanical characteristics of the materials spective points of application. Such a sketch is called afi'ee-body diagram.
of which the member is fabricated. The necessary information regarding All forces acting on a body, including the reactive forces caused by the
the lat er comes from the laboratory, where materials are subjected to  W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering (New York: Wiley, 1985).
the action of accurately known forces and the behavior of test specimens J. F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Eng#eers (New York:
is observed with particular regard to such phenomena as the occurrence Macmil an, 1985). L. H. Van Vlack, Materials Science for Engineers, 5th ed.,
of breaks, deformations, etc. Determination of such phenomena is a vital Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1985).
 4 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-3. Definition of Stress 5
supports and the weight 2 of the body itself, are considered external forces.
Moreover, since a stable body at rest is in equilibrium, the forces acting P1
on it satisfy the equations of static equilibrium. Thus, if the forces acting
B C on a body such as shown in Fig. 1-1(a) satisfy the equations of static
equilibrium and are all shown acting on it, the sketch represents a free-
body diagram. Next, since a determination of the internal forces caused
by the external ones is one of the principal concerns of this subject, an
arbitrary section is passed through the body, completely separating it into
two parts. The result of such a process can be seen in Figs. 1-1(b) and
P p,, (c), where an arbitrary plane ABCD separates the original solid body of Fig. t-2 Sectioned body: (a)
(a)
Fig. 1-1(a) into two distinct parts. This process wil be referred to as the free body with some internal
method of sections. Then, if the body as a whole is in equilibrium, any forces, (b) enlarged view
(a) (b) with components of Ap.
part of it must also be in equilibrium. For such parts of a body, however,
some of the forces necessary to maintain equilibriummust act at the cut in nature and they maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium.
section. These considerations lead to the fol owing fundamental conclu- In mechanics of solids it is particularly significant to determine the in-
sion: the externally applied forces to one side of an arbitrmy cut must tensity of these forces on the various portions of a section as resistance
be balanced by the #zternal forces developed at the cut, or, briefly, the to deformation and to forces depends on these intensities. In general, they
external forces are balanced by the internal forces. Later it wil be seen
vary from point to point and are inclined with respect to the plane of the
that the cutting planes wil be oriented in particular directions to fit special section. It is advantageous to resolve these intensities perpendicular and
requirements. However, the method of sections wil be relied upon as a parallel to the section investigated. As an example, the components of a
first step in solving all problems where internal forces are being inves-
$1

(b)
tigated.
In discussing the method of sections, NON-ACTIVATED VERSION it is significant to note that some
force
particular
x axis,
vector

and
diagram,
Ap

the directions
acting
the
on
section
.of AP. and of the normal
an area
through
AA

to AA'coincide.
are
the
shown
body
in Fig.
is perpendicular
1-2(b). In this
to the
The

www.avs4you.com
moving bodies, although not in static equilibrium, are in dynamic equi- component parallel to the section is further resolved into components
librium. These problems can be reduced to problems of static equilibrium. along the y and z axes.
First, the acceleration a of the part in question is computed; then it is Since the components of the intensity of force per unit area--i.e., of
multiplied by the mass m of the body, giving a force F = ma. If the force stress--hold true only at a point, the mathematical definition 3 of stress
so computed is applied to the body at its mass center in a direction op- is
posite to the acceleration, the dynamic problem is reduced to one of
statics. This is the so-called d'Alembertprinciple. With this point of view,
all bodies can be thought of as being instantaneously in a state of static �r=' = aa-,limo AP.AA, 'r.y = aa--,li0m APy
AA and 'r= = a,4-olim AP
AA
P3 equilibrium. Hence, for any body, whether in static or dynamic equilib-
rium, a free-body diagram can be prepared on vhich the necessary forces where, in all three cases, the first subscript of r (tau) indicates that the
(c)
to maintain the body as a whole in equilibrium can be shown. From then
on, the problem is the same as discussed before. plane perpendicular to the x axis is considered, and the second designates
Fig. t-t Sectioning of a the direction of the stress component. In the next section, all possible
body.
combinations of subscripts for stress wil be considered.
1-3. Definition of Stress The intensity of the force perpendicular to or normal to the section is
In general, the internal forces acting on infinitesimal areas of a cut are of called the nortnal stress at a point. It is customary to refer to normal
stresses that cause traction or tension on the surface of a section as tensile
varying magnitudes and directions, as was shown earlier in Figs. 1-1(b)
stresses. On the other hand, those that are pushing against it are cotn-
and (c), and as is again shown in Fig. 1-2(a). These forces are vectorial
pressire stresses. In this book, normal stresses wil usually be designated
2 Strictly speaking, the weight of the body or, more generally, the inertial forces by the let er cr (sigma) instead of by a double subscript on -r. A single
due to acceleration, etc., are "body forces," and act throughout the body in a 3 As AA - 0, some question from the atomic point of view exists in defining
manner associated with the units of volume of the body. However, in most in-
stress in this manner. However, a homogeneous (uniform) model for nonhomo-
stances, these body forces can be considered as external loads acting through the
body's center of mass. geneous matter appears to have worked well.
 Sec. t-4. Stress Tensor 7
6 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

subscript then suffices to designate the direction of the axis. The other Some conversion factors from U.S. customary to SI units are given on
components of the intensity of force act parallel to the plane of the ele- the inside of the back cover. It may be useful to note that approximately
mentary area. These components are called shear' or shear#zg stresses. 1 in = 25 mm, 1 pound-force - 4.4 newtons, and 1 psi -- 7000 Pa.
Shear stresses wil be always designated by
It should be emphasized that stresses multiplied by the respective areas
The reader should form a clear mental picture of the stresses called on which they act give forces. At an imaginao, section, a vector sum of
normal and those called shearing. To repeat, normal stresses result from these forces, called stress resultants, keeps a body in equilibrium. In
force components perpendicular to the plane of the cut, and shear stresses engineering mechanics of.solid, the stress resultants at a selected section
result from components tangential to the plane of the cut. are generally determined first, and then, using established formulas,
stresses are determined.
It is seen from the definitions that since they represent the intensity of
force on an area, stresses are measured in units of force divided by units
of area. In the U.S. customary system, units for stress are pounds per 1-4. Stress Tensor
square inch, abbreviated psi. In many cases, it wil be found convenient
to use as a unit of force the coined word kip, meaning kilopound, or 1000 If, in addition to the section implied in the free body of Fig. I-2, another
lb. The stress in kips per square inch is abbreviated kM. It should be noted plane an infinitesimal distance away and parallel to the first were passed
that the unit pound referred to here implies a pound-force, not a pound- through the body, an elementary slice would be isolated. Then, if an
mass. Such ambiguities are avoided in the modernized version of the additional two pairs of planes were passed normal to the first pair, a cube
of infinitesimal dimensions would be isolated from the body. Such a cube
metric system referred to as the International System of Units or SI units. 4
is shown in Fig. 1-3(a). All stresses acting on this cube are identified on
SI units are being increasingly adopted and wil be used in this text along
with the U.S. customary system of units in order to facilitate a smooth the diagram. As noted earlier, the first subscripts on the -r's associate the
transition. The base units in SI.are meter 5 (m) for length, kilogram (kg) stress with a plane perpendicular to a given axis; the second subscripts
for mass, and second (s) for time. The derived unit for area is a square designate the direction of the stress. On the near faces of the cube, i.e.,
neter (m2), and for acceleration,
unit of force
a tneter pet' second
is defined
squared (m/s2).
as a unit
The
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
mass subjected to a unit acceleration,
on the faces
they
cube
away
coincide
toward
from
with
the
the origin,
the
origin,
the directions
positive
from
of stress
directions
the
are positive

action-reaction
of the
if
axes. On the faces
equilibrium concept,
of the
i.e., kilogram-meter pet' second squared (kg-m/s2), and is designated a
newton
also designated
(N). The unit of stress
a pascal (Pa).
is the newton
Multiple and submultiple
www.avs4you.com
pet' square meter
prefixes
(N/m2),
repre-
positive
of the
stress
axes.
from
stresses
(Note
act
that for normal
-r to , a single subscript
in the direction
stresses,
opposite

on cr suffices
by changing
to the

to define
the symbol
positive

this quantity
for
directions

senting steps of 1000 are recommended. For example, force can be shown
in mil inewtons (1 mN = 0.001 N), newtons, or kilonewtons (1 kN = 1000 without ambiguity.) The designations for stresses shown in Fig. 1-3(a) are
N), length in mil #neters (1 mm = 0.001 m), meters, or kiloneters (1 km widely used in the mathematical theories of elasticity and plasticity.
= 1000 m), and stress in kilopascals (1 kPa = 103 Pa), megspascals If at a point in question a dif erent set of axes are chosen, the corre-
(1 MPa = 106 Pa), or gigspascals (1 GPa = 109 Pa), etc. 6
The stress expressed numerically in units of N/m 2 may appear to be
unusually small to those familiar with the U.S. customary system of units.
This is because the force of 1 newton is small in relation to a pound-force,
and 1 square meter is associated with a much larger area than 1 square
inch. Therefore, it is often more convenient in most applications to think
in terms of a force of 1 newton acting on 1 square mil imeter. The units
for such a quantity are N/mm 2, or, in preferred notation, megapascals Fig. t-3 (a) General state
(MPa). of stress acting on an
infinitesimal element in the
initial coordinate system. (b)
4 From the French, Syst6me International d'Unit6s. General state of stress acting
s Also spelled metre. on an infinitesimal element
a A detailed discussion of SI units, including conversion factors, rules for SI (7/
defined in a rotated system
style, and usage can be found in a comprehensive guide published by the American of coordinate axes. All
SocieForty conveni
86.
for ence,Testing anda shortMaterialtsable asof ASTM
conversion
Standardfactors for is Metinclurdedic Practonice the E-380-
inside (b)
stresses have positive

back cover.
(a) sense.
8 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-4. Stress Tensor 9

sponding stresses are as shown in Fig. 1-3(b). These stresses are related,
but are not generally equal, to those shown in Fig. 1-3(a). The process
of changing stresses from one set of coordinate axes to another is termed
'iry x
stress transformation. The state of stress at a point which can be defined B
by three components on each of the three mutually perpendicular (or-
thogonal) axes in mathematical terminology is called a tensor. Precise
mathematical processes apply for transforming tensors, including
stresses, from one set of axes to another. A simple case of stress trans-
formation wil be encountered in the next section, and a more complete C
discussion is given in Chapter 8.
An examination of the stress symbols in Fig. 1-3(a) shows that there
are three normai stresses: -r.. = ., -ryy -= %, 'rzz =- z; and six shearing
stresses: ,.y, -ry., -ryz, -ry, , . , -r.z. By contrast, a force vector P has only
three components: P., Py, and P. These can be writ en in an orderly
manner as a column vector:
Fig. t-4 Elements in pure shear.

(1-1a) Mc = 0 � + + (.ry.)(dx dz)(dy) - (Txy)(dy dz)(dx) = 0

where the expressions in parentheses correspond respectively to stress,

Analogously, the stress components can be assembled as fol ows: area, and moment arm. Simplifying,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION (l-lb) (1-2)

This is a matrix representation of the

www.avs4you.com stress tensor. It is a second-rank Similarly, it can be shown that -r. = -r and -ry = 'l'zy. Hence, the sub-
tensor requiring two indices to identify its elements or components. A scripts for the shear stresses are commutative, i.e., their order may be
vector is a first-rank tensor, and a scalar is a zero-rank tensor. Sometimes, interchanged, and the stre. ss tensor is symmetric.
for brevity, a stress tensor is writ en in indicial notation as 'ri, where it The implication of Eq. 1-2 is very important. The fact that subscripts
is understood that i andj can assume designations x, y, and z as noted in are commutative signifies that shear stresses on mutually perpendicular
Eq. (l-lb). planes of an infinitesimal element are numerically equal, and  M = 0
Next, it wil be shown that the stress tensor is symmetric, i.e., *i = is not satisfied by a single pair of shear stresses. On diagrams, as in Fig.
'ri. This fol ows directly from the equilibrium requirements for an element. 1-4(b), the arrowheads of the shear stresses must meet at diametrically
For this purpose, let the dimensions of the infinitesimal element be dx, opposite corners of an element to satisfy equilibrium conditions.
dy, and dz, and sum the moments of forces about an axis such as the z In most subsequent situations considered in this text, more than two
axis in Fig. 1-4. Only the stresses entering the problem are shown in the pairs of shear stresses wil seldom act on an element simultaneously.
figure. By neglecting the infinitesimals of higher order, 7 this process is Hence, the subscripts used before to identify the planes and the directions
equivalent to taking the moment about the z axis in Fig. 1-4(a) or, about of the shear stresses become superfluous. In such cases, shear stresses
point C in its two-dimensional representation in Fig. 1-4(b). Thus, wil be designated by -r without any subscripts. However, one must re-
member that shear stresses always occur in two pairs.
7 The possibility of an infinitesimal change in stress from one face of the cube This notation simplification can be used to advantage for the state of
to another and the possibility of the presence of body (inertial) forces exist. By stress shown in Fig. 1-5. The two-dimensional stress shown in the figure
first considering an element Ax A3' z and proceeding to the limit, it can be shown is referred to as plane stress. In matrix representation such a stress can
rigorously that these quantities are of .higher order and therefore negligible. be writ en as
t0 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t.5. Dif erential Equations of Equilibrium

*'91-5. Dif erential Equations of Equilibrium

An in.nitesimal element of a body must be in equilibrium. For the two-
dimensional case, the system of stresses acting on an infinitesimal element
(dx)(dy)(1) is shown in Fig. 1-6. In this derivation, the element is of unit
thickness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Note
that the possibility of an increment in stresses from one face of the element
to another is accounted for. For example, since the rate of change of x
in the x direction is Ox/Ox and a step of dx is made, the increment is (0/
Ox) dx. The partial derivative notation has to be used to dif erentiate
between the directions.
The inertial or body forces, such as those caused by the weight or the
magnetic effect, are designated X and Y and are associated with the unit
volume of the material. With these notations,
{a) (b)

Fig. t-5 Elements in plane stress.

F = 0---> +, (  + O�'
Ox dx)(dy x 1)-(dyx 1)
(1-3)
+ 'ry + Oy dy (dx x 1) - xy(dx x 1) +X(dxdy x 1) = 0
Simplifying and recalling that , = -ry holds true, one obtains the basic

yield
It. should
the most
NON-ACTIVATED
b noted
selected system
significant
that
of axes may not VERSION
the initial y
information about the stress at a point. There-
equilibrium
analogous
equation
one
for
for the
the x direction.
y direction,
This
reads
equation, together with an

on other planes. Using such procedures,www.avs4you.com

fore, by using the procedures of stress transformation, the stresses are
0o 0'ryx
examined it wil be shovn later --+
Ox Oy
+x=o
(1-5)
that a particular set of coordinates exists which diagonalize the stress
tensor to read O +__ + Y=0
Ox Oy
9 Sections identified with'** cal be omit ed without loss of continuity in the
(1-4) text.

Note
stresses
the absence of shear
are said to be triaxial,
stresses.
since
For the three-dimensional
three stresses are necessary
case, the
to de-
l 7y-F-ydy
I ary

scribe the state of stress completely.

For plane stress 3 = 0 and the state of stress is biaxial. Such stresses
occur, for example, in thin sheets stressed in two mutually perpendicular dy x +  dx
directions. For axial y loaded members, discussed in the next section,
only one element of the stress tensor survives; such a state of stress is
referred to as uniaxial. In Chapter 8, an inverse problem 8 wil be dis-
cussed: how this one term can be resolved to yield four or more elements
of a stress tensor.
Fig. t-6 Infinitesimal element
8 Some readers may prefer at this time to study the first several sections in with stresses and body
Chapter 8. x forces.
t2 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-6. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axial y Loaded Bars t3

The moment equilibrium of the element requiring  Mz = 0 is assured P a

by having -r. = -ry..
It can be shown that for the three-dimensional case, a typical equation
from a set of three is

Oo + OTyx + OTz. r + X = 0

Ox Oy z
Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical properties of
(a)
the material have not been used. This means that these equations are
applicable whether a material is elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. Also it is
very important to note that there are not enough equations of equilibrium y
to solve for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional case, given by
Eq. 1-5, there are three unknown stresses, ., %, and %,., and only two
equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six stresses, but only
three equations. Thus, all problems in stress analysis are internally stat-
ically intractable or indetermbate. A simple example as to how a static
equilibrium equation is supplemented by kinematic requirements and me-
chanical properties of a material for the solution of a problem is given
in Section 3-14. In engineering mechanics of solids, such as that presented
in this text, this indeterminacy is eliminated by introducing appropriate
assumptions,

number
A numerical
of small
which
procedure
finite
is equivalent

elements,
that involves NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
to having

instead
additional
discretizing
of the infinitesimal
equations.
a body
ones
into a large
as above,
Fig. 1-7 Sectioning of a prismatic bar on arbitrary planes.
(c)

is now 6ften
on high-speed
used in complex
electronic computers
problems.
www.avs4you.com Such finite
for solving large
element
systems
analyses
of simul-
rely
bar,
end.
for
To
equilibrium,
distinguish.
an equal
between the
but opposite
applied force
force
and
P must act
the reaction,
on the left
a slash
taneous equations. In the finite element method, just as in the mathe- is drawn across the reaction force vector P. This form of identification
matical approach, the equations of statics are supplemented by the kin-
of reactions wil be used frequently in this text. Finding the reactions is
ematic relations and mechanical properties of a material. A few examples
given later in this book show comparisons among the "exact" solutions usually the Errst essential 'step in S9!ving. a problem.
of the mathematical theory of elasticity, and those found using the finite
In the problem at hand, after the roactive force P is determined, free-
body diagrams for the bar segments, isolated by sections such as a-a or
element technique and/or conventional solutions based on the methods
of engineering mechanics of solids.
b-b, are prepared. In both cases, the force P required for equilibrium is
shown at the sections. However, in order to obtain the conventional
stresses, which are the most convenient ones in stress analysis, the force
P is replaced by its components along the selected axes. A wavy line
through the vectors P indicates their replacement by components. For
il ustrative purposes, lit le is gained by considering the case shown in Fig.
1-7Co) requiring three force components. The analysis simply becomes
more cumbersome. Instead, the case shown in Fig. 1-7(c), having only
two components of P in the plane of symmetry of the bar cross section,
1-. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axial y Loaded Bars is considered in detail. One of these components is normal to the section;
The traditional approach of engineering mechanics of solids wil be used the other is in the plane of the section.
for determining the internal stresses on arbitrarily inclined sections in As an example of a detailed analysis of stresses in a bar on inclined
axial y loaded bars. The first steps in this procedure are il ustrated in Fig. planes, consider two sections 90 degrees apart perpendicular to the bar
1-7. Here, since. an axial force P is applied on the right end of a prismatic sides, as shown in Fig. l~8(a). The section a-a is at an angie 0 with the
 t5
Sec. t-6. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axial y Loaded Bars
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

 bJ The negative sign in Eq. 1-7 is used to conform to the sign convention
 Centraid
for shear stresses introduced earlier. See, for example, Fig. 1-5. The need
ofareaA
P
for a negative sign is evident by noting that the shear force P sin 0 acts
in the dii:ection opposite to that of the y axis.
Cross section It is important to note that the basic procedure of engineering mechanics
of solids used here gives the average or mean stress at a section. These
(a) stresses are determined from the axial forces necessary for equilibrium
at a section. Therefore they hlways satisfy statics. However based on the
additional requirements of kinematics (geometric deformations) and me-
chan'ical properties of a material, large local stresses are known to arise
Y', p cosy x' in the proximity of concentrated forces. This also occurs at abrupt changes
P in cross-sectional areas. The average stresses at a section are accurate
P
at a distance about equal to the depth of the member from the concentrated
x
forces or abrupt changes in cross-sectional area. The use of this simplified
procedure wil be rationalized in Section 2-10 as Saint Venant's principle.
Equations 1-6 and 1-7 show that the normal and shear stresses vary
with the angle 0. The sense of these stresses is shown in Figs. 1-8(c) and
(e)
(d). The normal stress (To reaches its maximum value for 0 = 0�, i.e.,
when the section is perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The shear stress
P cos 2 e
then correspondingly would be zero. This leads to the conclusion that the
A maximu m normal stress (Truax in an axial y loaded bar can be simply de-
NON-ACTIVATED
termined
VERSION
from the fol owing equation:

0 -90
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1'0_90'

� --P sin 2 e
P sin e cos 0
A
(Truax = O'r
'
=
P
--
A
(1-8)

where P is the applied force, and A is the A

cross-sectional area of the bar.
(d) (f) (g) Equations 1-6 and 1-7 also show that for 0 = +-90 �, both the normal
(c)
and the shear stresses vanish. This is as it should be, since no stresses
Fig. t-8 Sectioning of a prismatic bar on mutually perpendicular planes. act along the top and bott6m free boundaries (surfaces) of the bar.
To find the maximum shear stress acting in a bar, one must dif erentiate
vertical. An isolated part of the bar to the left of this section is shown in Eq. 1-7 with respect to 0, and set the derivative equal to zero. On carrying
Fig. 1-8(b). Note that the normal to the section coinciding with the x axis out this operation and simplifying the results, one obtains
also forms an angle 0 with the x axis. The applied force, the reaction, as
well as the equilibrating force P at the section all act through the centroid tan 0 = + 1 (1-9)
of the bar section. As shown in Fig. 1-8(b), the equilibrating force P is
resolved into .two components: the normal force component, P cos 0, and leading to the conclusion that 'truax OCCurS on planes of either + 45 � or
the shear component, P sin 0. The area of the inclined cross section is -45 � with the axis of the bar. Since the sense in which a shear stress
A/cos 0. Therefore, the normal stress (T0 and the shear stress 'to are given acts is usually immaterial, on substituting either one of the above values
by the fol owing two equations: of 0 into Eq. 1-7, one finds
force P cos 0 P
(T o --
= -- cos 2 0 (1-6)
area A/cos 0 A P (T- (1-10)
'tmax -- 2A 2
and
P sin 0 P .
= - sn 0 cos 0 (1-7)
�tO --
A/cos 0 A Therefore, the maximum shear stress in an axial y loaded bar is only half
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-7. Maximum Normal Stress In Axial y Loaded Bars 17
as large as the maximum normal stress. The variation of-to with 0 can be
studied using Eq. 1-7.
Following the same procedure, the normal and shear stresses can be P P

found on the section b-b. On noting that

the angle locating this plane
from the vertical is best measured clockwise, instead of counterclockwise
as in the former case, this angle should be treated as a negative quantity Bar Axis Centtold
in Eq. 1-7. Hence, the subscript -(90 � - 0)= 0 - 90 � wil be used in (b)

designating the stresses. From Fig. 1-8(e), one obtains (a)

P sin 0 P
-
cr0-9oo A/sin 0 A sin - 0 (1-11)

P f.qodA=P dy
P cos 0 P dz

and 'ro-9oo A/sin 0 A sin 0 cos 0 (1-12) a -dx- = PA dx (f)

(c) (e)
(d)
Note that in this case, since the direction of the shear force and the y Fig. t-9 Successive steps in determining the largest normal stress in an axial y loaded bar.
axis have the same sense, the expression in Eq. 1-12 is positive. Equation
1-12 can be obtained from Eq. 1-7 by substituting the angle 0 - 90 �. The 1-9(e). However, a simplified diagram such as shown in Fig. 1-9(f) is
sense of o_9o o and ,0_9o o is shown in Fig. 1-8(f). commonly used.
The combined results of the analysis for sections a-a and b-b are shown For future reference, the relevant Eq. 1-8 for determining directly the
on an infinitesimal
on the adjoining element
element
faces
in Fig. 1-8(g).
are not equal,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Note that
whereas
the normal
the shear
stresses
stresses
maximum
form
added
without
to indicate
normal
any
stress
subscript
the
in an axial y

direction
on . Subscripts,
of the
loaded

bar
bar

axis.
is restated
however,
This equation
are
in customary
frequently
gives the

www.avs4you.com
are. The lat er finding is in complete agreement with the earlier general
coficlusion reached in Section 1-4, showing that shear stresses on mutually largest normal stress at a section taken perpendicular to the axis of a
perpendicular planes must be equal. member. Thus,

1-7. Maximum Normal Stress in Axial y Loaded Bars

-- or (1-13)
In most practical situations with axial y loaded bars, it is expedient to - area i-
directly determine the maximum normal stress. As has been demonstrated
in the previous section, these stresses develop on sections pe7endicular
to the bar axis. For such sections, the cross-sectional area of a bar is a where, as before, P is the applied axial force, and A is the cross-sectional
minimum and the force component is a maximum, resulting in a maximum area of the member. In calculations, it is often convenient to use N/mm 2
normal stress. The procedure for determining this stress directly is shown = MPa in the SI system of units and ksi in the U.S. customary system.
in Fig. 1-9. Similar to the steps discussed earlier for the general case, a It is instructive to note that the normal stress  given by Eq. 1-13, and
free-body diagram is prepared either for the left or the fight part of the schematically represented in Fig. 1-9(e), is a complete description of the
bar, as il ustrated in Fig. 1-9(b). All force vectors P pass through the bar's state of stress in an axial y loaded bar. Therefore, only one diagonal term
centroid. As shown in Fig. 1-9(c), the reaction on the left end is equili- remains in the matrix representation of the stress tensor given by Eq. l-
brated at section a-a by a uniformly distributed normal stress . The sum lb. This remaining term is associated with the direction of the bar axis.
of these stresses multiplied by their respective areas generate a stress If dif erent axes are chosen for isolating an element, as in Fig. 1-8(g), the
resultant that is statically equivalent to the force P. A thin slice of the stress tensor would resemble Eq. 1-3. A detailed study of this topic wil
bar with equal uniformly distributed normal stresses of opposite sense on be pursued in Chapter 8.
the two parallel sections is shown in Fig. 1-9(d). This uniaxial state of Equation 1-13 strictly applies only to prismatic bars, i.e., to bars having
stress may be represented on an infinitesimal cube, as shown in Fig. a constant cross-sectional area. However, the equation is reasonably ac-
t8 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-8. Shear Stresses t9

curate for slightly tapered members. o For a discussion of situations where

an abrupt change in the cross-sectional area occurs, causing severe per-
turbation in stress, see Section 2-10. . Tension
As noted before, the stress resultant for a uniformly distributed stress
a
acts through the centroid of a cross-sectional area and assures the equi-
librium of an axial y loaded member. If the loading is more complex, such
as that, for example, for the machine part shown in Fig. 1-10, the stress
distribution is nonuniform. Here, at section a-a, in addition to the axial Compression
force P, a bending couple, or moment, M must also be developed. Such
(a) problems wil be treated in Chapter 6. (a) (c)
Section
Similar reasoning applies to axial y loaded compression members and
Eq. 1-13 can be used. However, one must exercise additional care when
compression members are investigated. These may be so slender that they
(b)
may not behave in the fashion considered. For example, an ordinary fish-
ing rod under a rather small axial compression force has a tendency to Fig. t-t2 (a) Schematic il ustration of stress irregularity in material due to lack of homogeneity, (b) variation of
buckle sideways and could collapse. The consideration of such instability tensile stress across a plate during a rolling operation, and (c) residual stress in a rolled plate.
M = Pe P
of compression members is deferred until Chapter 11. Equation 1-13 is
applicable only for axial y loaded conpression tnenbers that are rather erage, statistically speaking, computations based on Eq. 1-13 are correct,
chunky, i.e., to short blocks. As wil be shown in Chapter 11, a block and, hence, the computed average stress represents a highly significant
whose least dimension is approximately one-tenth of its length may usu- quantity.
(b)
ally be considered a short block. For example, a 2 by 4 in wooden piece It is also important to note that the basic equations for determining
Fig. 1-10
a nonuniform
distribution
A member

at
stress
Section
with

a-a.
may

another.
be 20 in long
Sometimes compressive
If the resultant
and stil be considered
stresses
of the applied
arise where
forces
a short block.
one body
coincides with
is supported
the centroid
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION by
stresses,
However,
rolled,
such as given by Eq. 1-13, assume
in reality,
extruded, forged,
as materials
welded, peened,
initial y
are being manufactured,
stress-fi'ee

and hammered.
material.
they are often
In castings,
of the contact
stress, between
area between
the two bodies
the two bodies, the intensity of force,
can www.avs4you.com
again be determined from Eq. 1-13.
or materials
called
cool unevenly.
residual stresses.
These processes
For example,
can set up high internal
hot steel plates during
stresses
a rolling
It is customary to refer to this normal stress as a bearing stress. Figure operation .are pulled between rollers, as shown schematically in Fig. 1-
1-11, where a short block bears on a concrete pier and the lat er bears 12(b). This process causes the development of larger normal stresses near
on the soil, il ustrates such a stress. Numerous similar situations arise in the outer surfaces than in the middle of a plate. These stresses are equiv-
mechanical problems under washers used for distributing concentrated alent to an average normal stress flay that may be considered to generate
forces These bearing stresses can be approximated by dividing the ap- a force that propels a plate through the rolls. On leaving the rolls, the
plied force P by the corresponding contact area giving a useful nominal plate shown in Fig. 1-12(c) is relieved of this force, and as per Eq. 1-13,
bearing stress. the flay is subtracted from the stresses that existed during rolling. The
In accepting Eq. 1-13, it must be kept in mind that the material's be- stress pattern of the residual normal stresses is shown in Fig. 1-12(c).
havior is ideal&ed. Each and every particle of a body is assumed to con- These residual stresses are self-equilibrating, .i.e., they are in equilibrium
tribute equally to the resistance of the force. A perfect homogeneity of without any externally applied forces. In real problems, such residual
the material is implied by such an assumption. Real materials, such as stresses may be large and should be careful y investigated and then added
metals, consist of a great many grains, whereas wood is fibrous. In real to the calculated stresses for the initial y stress-free material.
materials, some particles wil contribute more to the resistance of a force
than others. Ideal stress distributions such as shown in Figs. 1-9(d) and
1-8. Shear Stresses
(e) actually do not exist if the scale chosen is sufficiently small. The true
stress distribution varies in each particular cas.e and is a highly irregular, Some engineering materials, for example, low-carbon steel, are weaker
Fig. 141 Bearing stresses jagged affair somewhat, as shown in Fig. 1-12(a). However, on the av- in shear than in tension, and, at large loads, slip develops along the planes
occur between the block and of maximum shear stress. According to Eqs. 1-9 and 1-10, these glide or
pier as well as between the For accurate solutions for tapered bars, see S. P. Timoshenko, and J. N. slip planes in a tensile specimen form 45 � angles with the axis of a bar,
pier and soil. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1970) 109. where the maximum shear stress Xm = P/2A occurs. On the polished
 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-8. Shear Stresses

P/2 __ ,v, shown in Fig. 1-13(c), can be found using Eq. 1-14 by dividing P by
the area A of the section a-a. A similar procedure is used for determining
P/2 , for the problem shown in Fig. 1-13(d). However in this case, two glued
surfaces are available for transferring the applied force P. The same ap-
(a) (d) proach, employing imaginary sections, is applicable to solid members.
Examples of two bolted connections are shown in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e).
These connections can be analyzed in two dif erent ways. In one ap-
e
proach, it is assumed that a tightened bolt develops a sufficiently large
clamping force, so that the friction developed between the laying (con-
tacting) surfaces prevents a joint from slipping. For such designs, high-
strength bolts are commonly employed. This approach is discussed in
(b) (e) Section 1-13. An alternative widely used approach assumes enough slip-
page occurs, such that the applied force is transferred first to a bolt and
then from the bolt to the connecting plate, as il ustrated in Figs. 1-14(b)
a,b
a
and (f). To determine 'r in these bolts, a similar procedure as discussed
before is applicable. One simply uses the cross-sectional area A of a bolt
instead of the area of the joint contact surface to compute the average
a  Tav
a, b Tar
P shear stress. The bolt shown in Fig. 1-14(a) is said to be in single shear,
(c) (f) whereas the one in Fig. 1-14(e) is in double shear.
In bolted connections, another aspect of the problem requires consid-
Fig. 1-t3 Loading conditions causing shear stresses between interfaces of glued blocks. eration. In cases such as those in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e), as the force P is

surface of a specimen, these lines can NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

be readily observed and are called
applied,
The average
a highly
nominal intensity
irregular
of this pressure
pressure
is obtained
develops
by dividing the
between a bolt and the plates.
Laders lines.   This kind of matehal behavior exhibits a ductile failure. force transmit ed by the projected area of the bolt onto the plate. This is

velop
In many
at critical
routine engineering
locations.
applications,
To determine
www.avs4you.com such
large
stresses
shear stresses
precisely
may de-
is often
referred to as the bearing
= P/td, where t is the thickness
stress. The beating
of the plate,
stress in Fig. 1-14(a)
and d is the diameter
is 0.b
of the
dif icult. However, by assuming that in the plane of a section, a uniformly bolt. For the case in Fig. 1-14(e), the beating stresses for the middle plate
distributed shear stress develops, a solution can readily be found. By and the outer plates are 0. = P/hd and 0'2 = P/2t2d, respectively.
using this approach, the average shear stress *av is determined by dividing The same procedure is. also applicable for fiveted assemblies.
the shear force V in the plane of the section by the corresponding area Another manner of joining members together is welding. An exampie
A. of a connection with fil et welds is shown in Fig. 1-15. The maximum
shear stress occurs in the planes a-a and b-b, as shown in Fig. 1-15(b).

(1-14)
area = or i-

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Some examples as to where Eq. 1-14 can be used to advantage are

shown in Figs. 1-13 to 1-15. In Fig. 1-13(a), a small block is shown glued
to a larger one. By separating the upper block from the lower one by an
imaginary section, the equilibrium diagram shown in Fig. 1-13(b) is ob-   P/2
tained. The small applied couple Pe, causing snall normal stresses acting -----T! '   PI2
perpendicular to the section a-a, is commonly neglected. On this basis  t2 P/2
(e) (f) (h)
 Also known as Piobert lines. Named in honor, respectively, of German and
French nineteenth-century investigators. Fig. l-t4 Loading conditions causing shear and bearing stress in bolts.
22 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses 23

Weld
These equations of statics are directly applicable to deformable solid
bodies. The deformations tolerated in engineering structures are usually
negligible in comparison with the overall dimensions of structures. There-

-----I] a/b 45�

fore, for the purposes of obtaining the forces in members, the initial un-
deformned dbnensions of nenbers are used in computations.
If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions
Fig. t45 Loading condition Section c-c as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall),
causing critical shear in two
planes of fil et welds. (a) (b)
deterninate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the
same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as
in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics
The capacity of such welds is usually given in units of force per unit length is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the
of weld. Additional discussion on welded connections is given in Section vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system remains stable
1-14. and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed with for the
beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically indeterminate.
The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system statically de-
]-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses termi.nate are superfluous or redundant. Such redundancies can also arise
Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are within the internal system of forces. Depending on the number of the
determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear redundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeter-
stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the minate to the first degree, as in Fig. 1-16(b), to the second degree, as in
maximum magnitudes of normal and shear stress are particularly impor- Fig. 1-16(c), etc. Multiple degrees of statical indeterminacy frequently
arise in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject is to
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
tant as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material.
These greatest tresses occur at a section of n#dnt,n provide an introduction to the methods
cross-sectional area of solution for such problems.
and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. Procedures for solving such problems wil be introduced gradually be-
ginning with the next chapter. Problems with multiple degrees of inde-
www.avs4you.com
The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can
usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V termin. acy are considered in Chapters 10, 12, and 13.
that acts through a member is usually a more dif icult task. In the majority Equations 1-15 should already be familiar to the reader. However, sew
of problems treated in this text, the lat er information is obtained from eral examples where they are applied wil now be given, emphasizing
statics. solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids.
For the equilibrium of a body in space, the equations of statics require These statically determinate examples wil serve as an informal review
the fulfil ment of the fol owing conditions: of some of the principles of statics and wil show applications of Eqs. 1-
13 and 1-14.
Additional examples for determining shear stresses in bolts and welds
Ee. = 0 are given in Sections 1-13 and 1-14.

EF,, = 0 (1-15)
/
E/=o = o,j
The first column of Eq. 1-15 states that the sum of all forces acting on a
body in any (x, y, z) direction must be zero. The second column notes
that the summation of moments of all forces around any axis parallel to
any (x, y, z) direction must also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar (a) (b) (c)
problem, i.e., all members and forces lie in a single plane, such as the x- Fig. M6 [dentic be with identical loadin[ bavi[ dif erent suppo conditions: (a) statically
y plane, relations  F = 0,  M. = 0, and  M., = 0, while stil valid, determinate, (b) statically indeterminate to the first de[tee, (c) statically ideteinate to the second
are trivial. deee.
 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. 1-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses

Weld
These equations of statics are directly applicable to deformable solid
bodies. The deformations tolerated in engineering structures are usually
negligible in comparison with the overall dimensions of structures. There-
fore, for the purposes of obtaining the forces in members, the initial
deformed dimensions of members are used in computations.
-'-'1 a b If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions
Fig. 1-15 Loading condition  c Section c-c as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall),
causing critical shear in two
planes of fil et welds. (a) (b)
determinate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the
same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as
in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics
The capacity of such welds is usually given in units of force per unit length is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the
of weld. Additional discussion on welded connections is given in Section vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system remains stable
1-14. and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed with for the
beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically indeterminate.
The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system statically de-
1-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses termi.nate are superfluous or redundant. Such redundancies can also arise
Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are within the internal system of forces. Depending on the number of the
determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear redundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeter-
stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the minate to the first degree, as in Fig. 1-16(b), to the second degree, as in
maximum magnitudes of normal. and shear stress are particularly impor- Fig. 1-16(c), etc. Multiple degrees of statical indeterminacy frequently
arise in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject is to
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
tant as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material.
These greatest'stresses occur at a section of ninint,n cross-sectional area provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such problems.
and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. Procedures for solving such problems wil be introduced gradually be-
ginning with the next chapter. Problems with multiple degrees of inde-
www.avs4you.com
The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can
usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V termin. acy are considered in Chapters 10, 12, and 13.
that acts through a member is usually Equ. ations
a more 1-15 should already
dif icult be familiar
task. In the majority to the reader. However, sev-
of problems treated in this text, the lat er information is obtained from eral examples where they are applied wil now be given, emphasizing
statics. solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids.
For the equilibrium of a body in space, the equations of statics require These statically determinate examples wil serve as an informal review
the fulfil ment of the fol owing conditions: of some of the principles of statics and wil show applications of Eqs. 1-
13 and 1-14.
Additional examples for determining shear stresses in bolts and welds

IEe.,=0Eu.=01
are given in Sections 1-13 and 1-14.
(1-15)
Ee:=0 Euz=0 7F F

The first column of Eq. 1-15 states that

the sum of all forces acting on a
body in any (x, y, z) direction must zero. be The second column notes
that the summation of moments of all forces around any axis parallel to
any (x, y, z) direction must also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar (a) (b) (c)
problem, i.e., all members and forces lie in a single plane, such as the x- Fig. t-t6 Identical beam with identical loading having dif erent support conditions: (a) statically
y plane, relations  F = 0,  M = 0, and  My = 0, while stil valid, determinate, (b) statically indeterminate to the first degree, (c) statically indeterminate to the second
are trivial. degree.
 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses

EXAMPLE F, =0
 MB = 0 � + 10(2.5 + 1) - Rcy X 1 = 0 Rcy = 35 kN ?
The beam BE in Fig. 1-17(a) is used for hoisting machinery. It is anchored by
two bolts at B, and at C, it rests on a parapet wall. The essential details are given  Md = 0 � + 10 x 2.5 - RBy X 1 = 0 RBy = 25 kN $
in the figure. Note that the bolts are threaded, as shown in Fig. 1-17(d), with d Check: Fy = 0'+ -25 + 35- 10 = 0
= 16 mm at the root of the threads. If this hoist can be subjected to a force of
10 kN, determine the stress in bolts BD and the bearing stress at C. Assume that These steps complete and check the work of determining the forces. The various
the weight of the beam is negligible in comparison with the loads handled. areas of the material that resist these forces are determined next, and Eq. 1-13
is applied. 
Solution Cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt: A = 'n'102 = 314 mm 2. This is not the
minimum area of a bolt; threads reduce it.
To solve this proble m, the actual situation is idealized and a free-body diagram The cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt at the root of the threads is
is made on which all known and unknown forces are indicated. This is shown in
Fig. 1-17(b). The vertical reactions of B and C are unknown. They are indicated, Anet = 11' 82 = 201 mm 2
respectively, as R m. and Rcy, where the first subscript identifies the location, and
the second the line of action of the unknown force. As the long bolts BD are not
effective in resisting the horizontal force, only an unknown horizontal reaction Maximum normal tensile stress? in each of the two bolts BD:
at C is assumed and marked as Rc.. The applied known force P is shown in its
proper location. After a free-body diagram is prepared, the equations of statics RBy 25 x 103 = 62 N/mm 2 = 62 MPa
are applied and solved for the unknown forces. O'm = '2.4 2 x 201

Tensile stress in the shank of the bolts BD:

2.5 m 
rl I
E
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 25 x 103

 www.avs4you.com
200X300mm
= 39.8 N/mm 2 = 39.8 MPa
finished timber 2 x 314
� 200 mm

Contact area at C:

/ Building
D
2: Two 20-mm bolts A = 200 x 200 = 40 x 10 gmm 2

P=10kN
Bearing stress at C:
View a-a
Rcy 35 X 103 = 0.875 N/mm 2 = 0.875 MPa
(c) O- b  _.
(a) A 40 x 103

The calculated stress for the bolt shank can be represented in the manner of
Eq. l-lb as

+39.8 MPa
x
0

where the y axis is taken in the direction of the applied load. In ordinary problems,
(b) (d)
the complete result is implied but is seldom writ en down in such detail.

Fig. t-t7 See also discussion on stress concentrations, Section 2-10.

 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses
EXAMPLE t-2
either part is sufficient to solve the problem. For comparison, the problem is
The concrete pier shown in Fig. 1-18(a) is loaded at the top with a uniformly solved both ways.
distributed load of 20 kN/m 2. Investigate the state of stress at a level 1 m above Using the upper part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 1-18(b), the weight of the
the base. Concrete weighs approximately 25 kN/m 3. pier above the section:
Solution W = (0.5 + 1) x 0.5 x 1 x 25/2 = 9.4kN

In this problem, the weight of the structure itself is appreciable and must be From  F). = 0, the force at the section:
included in the calculations.
Weight of the whole pier: Fa = P + W = 14.4kN

W =' [(0.5 + 1.5)/2] x 0.5 x 2 x 25 = 25 kN Hence, using Eq. 1-13, the normal stress at the level a-a is
Total applied force: Fa 14.4
cr = --A - 0.5x 1
= 28.8 kN/m 2
P = 20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 5kN
This stress is compresslye as F, acts on the section.
From  F. = 0, reaction at the base: Using the lower part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 1-18(c), the weight of the
pier below the section:
R = W + P = 30kN
W2 = (1 + 1.5) x 0.5 x 1 x 25/2 = 15.6 kN

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
These forces are shown schematically in the diagrams as concentrated forces
acting through their respective centroids. Then, to determine the stress at the From  Fy = 0, the force at the section:
desired level, the body is cut into two separate parts. A free-body diagram for

www.avs4you.com P=SkN

The remainder of the problem

F = R -

is the same
W2 = 14.4

as before.
kN

The pier considered here

has a vertical axis of symmetry, making the application of Eq. 1-13 possible. 2

, ,  . .__w.= 20kN/m2 0.,. EXAMPLE t-3

L A bracket
P of 3 kips.
of negligible weight
For interconnection
shown in Fig.
purposes,
1-19(a) is loaded
the bar ends are clevised
with a vertical force
(forked).
Pertinent dimensions are shown in the figure. Find the axial stresses in members
AB and BC and the bearing and shear stresses for pin C. All pins are 0.375 in in
ISection a-a( .5 m diameter.

Solution

First, an idealized free-body diagram consisting of the two bars pinned at the ends
is prepared, see Fig. 1-19(b). As there are no intermediate forces acting on the

1.5 Sidvieew bars and the applied

directed
force acts through the joint at B, the forces in the bars are
along the lines AB and BC, and the bars AB and BC are loaded axial y.
2 Strictly speaking, the solution obtained is not exact, as the sides of the pier
are sloping. If the included angle between these sides is large, this solution is
altogether inadequate. For further details, see S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier,
Fig. 1-t8 (c)
Themy of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1970) 139.
28 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses 29

The magnitudes of the forces are unknown and are labeled FA and F� in the
A P=3k

I m/:A__ 2 3k diagram.3 These forces can be determined graphically by completing

of forces FA, Fc, and P. These forces may also be found analytically
simultaneous equations  F:. = 0 and  F.,. = 0, writ en in terms of the
a triangle
from two
unknowns

'  025plate* 
An
FA 1z78
FA and Fc, a known force P, and two known angles ct and fl. Both these pro-
cedures are possible. However, in this book, it wil usually be found advantageous
to proceed in a dif erent way. Instead of treating forces FA and Fc directly, their
components are used; and instead of  F = 0,  M = 0 becomes the main tool.
Any force can 15e resolved into components. For example, FA can be resolved
into F,t and FAy, as in Fig. 1-19(c). Conversely, if any one of the components
of a directed force is known, the force itself can be determined. This fol ows from
similarity of dimensions and force triangles. In Fig. 1~19(c), the triangles Akin and
BAD are similar triangles (both are shaded in the diagram). Hence, if F, is known,

FA = (AB/DB)FA.
Fc
Similarly, Fay = (AD/DB)FAx. Note further that AB/DB or AD/DB are ratios;
(a) {b} (c) hence, relative dimensions of members can be used. Such relative dimensions are
shown by a lit le triangle on member AB and again on BC. In the problem at hand,

0.25"
FA = (X//2)FA. and FAy = FA.d2

0.20"
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Adopting
1-19(d),
the procedure
is prepared. Two
of resolving
components
forces, a revised free-body
of force are necessary
diagram,
at the pin joints.
Fig.

0.20" Fc
/ After the forces are determined by statics, Eq. 1-13 is applied several times,
B

0.20" 0.25" www.avs4you.com thinking in terms of a free body of an individual member:

o.8,5, Mc=00+ + FA.(3 + 6) -- 3(6)

Fay
= 0
= Fa.d2
FA.
= 2/2
=
=
+2
+1
k
k
FA = 2(X//2) = +2.23 k

MA =00 + + 3(6) + Fc(9) = 0, Fc. = -2 k

Fc>, = Fc. = -2 k
Fc = X/(-2) = -2.83 k
(d) (e) (f)
Check:  F;, = 0 FA. + Fc = 2 - 2 = 0
Fig. 1-t9 EFy=O FAy -- Fcy - P = 1 - (-2) - 3 = 0

Tensile stress in main bar AB:

FA 2.23 17.8 ksi

A 0.25 x 0.50

3 In frameworks it is convenient to assume all unknown forces are tensile. A

negative answer in the solution then indicates that the bar is in compression.
3O Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. MO. Member Strength as a Design Criterion 3t

Tensile stress in clevis of bar AB, Fig. 1-19(e):

FA 2.23 C DETERMINISTIC AND PROBABILISTIC

(ffAB)clev|s = = = 1 1.2 ksi DESIGN BASES
Anet 2 x 0.20 x (0.875 - 0.375)
Compressive stress in main bar BC:

Fc 2.83 1-10. Member Strength as a Design Criterion

(YBC -- - 12.9 ksi
A 0.875 x 0.25 The purpose for calculating stresses in members of a structural system
is [o compare them with the experimental y determined material strengths
In the compression member, the net section at the clevis need not be investigated; in order to assure desired performance. Physical testing of materials in a
see Fig. 1-19(f) for- the transfer of forces. The bearing stress at the pin is more laboratory provides information regarding a material's resistance to
critical. Bearing between pin C and the clevis: stress. In a laboratory, specimens of known material, manufacturing pro-
Fc 2.83
cess, and heat treatment are careful y prepared to desired dimensions.
orb -- -- -- = 18.8 ksi Then these specimens are subjected to successively increasing known
Abearing 0.375 x 0.20 x 2 forces. In the most widely used test, a round rod is subjected to tension
and the specimen is loaded until it finally ruptures. The force necessary
Bearing between the pin C and the main plate: to cause rupture is called the ultbnate load. By dividing this ultimate load
Fc 2.83
by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, the uhitnate strength
orb -- A 0.375 X 0.25 - 30.2 ksi (stress) of a material is obtained. Figure 1-21 shows a testing machine
used for this purpose. Figure 1-22 shows a tension-test specimen. The
Double shear in pin C:

Fc
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
2.83

www.avs4you.com
-r - - - 12.9 ksi
A 2'rr(0.375/2) 2

For a complete analysis of this bracket, other pins should be investigated. How-
ever, it can be seen by inspection that the other pins in this case are stressed
either the same amount as computed or less.

F
The advantages of the method used in the last example for finding forces
in members should now be apparent. It can also be applied with success
in a problem such as the one shown in Fig. 1-20. The force F, transmit ed
by the curved member AB acts through points A and B, since the forces
applied at A and B must be collinear..By resolving this force at A', the
same procedure can be fol owed. Wavy lines through F, and Fc indicate
that these forces are replaced by the two components shown. Alterna-
tively, the force F, can be resolved at A, and since F4y = (y/X)FA, the
applicatio n of  Mc = 0 yields FAx.
In frames, where the applied forces do not act through a joint, proceed
as before as far as possible. Then isolate an individual member, and using
its free-body diagram, complete the determination of forces. If inclined Fig. t-2t Universal testing Fig. t-22 A typical tension
[ t Fcy forces are acting on the structure, resolve them into convenient com- machine (Courtesy of MTS test specimen of mild steel
Fc [--------a ponents. Systems Corporation). before and after fracture.
Fig. 1-20
 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t.t0. Member Strength as a Design Criterion
deform plastica!ly under a sustained load, a phenomenon called creep.
300

250 Experience with turbines, tightened bolts in mechanical equipment,

wooden or reinforced concrete beams indicates some of the examples
200 where creep may be a problem. In some instances, the rate of load ap-
plication has a major effect, as some materials become considerably
150 stronger at very rapidly applied loads. Likewise, the effect of temperature
100 usually has a very important effect on the endurance limit. Some of these
issues are discussed further in Sections 2-3 and 2-5. At the design level,
50 most of these problems can be controlled by reducing design stresses.
Fig. t-23 Fa[igue strength of The aforementioned facts, coupled with the impossibility of determining
18-8 stainless steel at various 0

temperatures (reciprocating 103 104- 10 s 10 s 107 stresses accurately in complicated structures and machines, necessitate
beam test). Cycles a substantial reduction of stress compared to the ultimate strength of a
material in a static test. For example, ordinary steel wil withstand an
tensile test is used most widely. However, compression, bending, torsion, ultimate stress in tension of 60 ksi and more. However, it deforms rather
and shearing tests are also employed. 4 Tables 1A and B of the Appendix suddenly and severely at the stress level of about 36 ksi, and it is cus-
gives ultimate strengths and other physical properties for a few materials. tomary in the United States to use an allowable stress of around 22 ksi
For applications where a force comes on and off the structure a number for structural work. This allowable stress is even further reduced to about
of times, the materials cannot withstand the ultimate stress of a static 12 ksi for parts that are subjected to alternating loads because of the fatigue
test. In such cases, the "ultimate strength" depends on the number of characteristics of the material. Fatigue properties of materials are of t t-
times the force is applied as the material works at a particular stress level. tnost inportance in nechanical equipnent. Many failures in machine
Figure 1-23 shows the results of tests 5 on a number of the same kind of parts can be traced to disregard of this important consideration. (See also
specimens
of cycles
at dif erent
required to break
stresses.
the NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Experimental
specimen
points
at a particular
indicate
stress
the
under
number
the
Section
cluded
As pointed
2-10.)
from
Low-cycle
design considerations
out in Section
fatigue

1-7, in some
(104 cycles
in seismically
situations,
or less) also
resistant
it is also
cannot
structures.
appropriate
be ex-

application of a fluctuating load. Such tests are called "fatigue tests,"

and the corresponding
As can
curves
be seen from Fig. 1-23,
are termed
www.avs4you.com
at smaller
S-N (stress-number)
stresses, the material
diagrams.
can with-
to consider
The decision
residual
process
stresses.
in choosing an appropriate allowable stress is
stand an ever-increasing number of cycles of load application. For some further complicated since there is great uncertainty in the nagnitudes of
materials, notably steels, the S-N curve for low stresses becomes essen- the applied loads. During the life of a machine or a structure, occasional
tial y horizontal. This means that at a low stress, an infinitely large number overloads are almost a ce.rtainty, but their magnitudes can only be esti-
of reversals of stress can take place before the material fractures. The mated at best.
limiting stress at which this occurs is called the endurance linit of the These dif icult problems are now resolved using two alternative ap-
material. This limit, being dependent on stress, is measured in ksi or MPa. proaches. In the traditional approach, in the spirit of classical mechanics,
Some care must be exercised in interpreting S-N diagrams, particularly unique magnitudes are assigned to the applied forces as well as to the
with regard to the range of the applied stress. In some tests, complete allowable stresses. In this manner, these two' principal parameters are
reversal (tension to compression) of stress is made; in others, the applied precisely known, i.e., determinate, in the design process. This deternin-
load is varied in a dif erent manner, such as tension to no load and back istic approach is commonly used in current practice and wil be largely
to tension. The major part of fatigue testing done on specimens is bending. adhered to in this text. However, as the complexity of engineering hard-
Stress-dependent deformations may also play a key role in selecting ware systems increases, less reliance can be placed on past experience
the permissible or allowable stress for a given material, since some ma- and a limited number of experiments. Instead, after identification of the
terials deform an unpermissible amount prior to fracture. Some materials main parameters in a given stress-analysis problem, their statistical vari-
ability is assessed, leading to the probabilistic method of estimating struc-
4 ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) issues an Amzual Book tural safety. This approach has found favor in the design of advanced
of ASTM Standards now consisting of 66 volumes, divided into 16 sections, giving aircraft, offshore structures, and is emerging in structural design of build-
classification of materials, ASTM standard specifications, and detailed test meth-
ods. ASTM material designation such as A36 steel is frequently Used in this book. ings and bridges. A brief discussion of the probabilistic approach to struc-
t- J. L. Zambrow, and M. G. Fontana, "Mechanical Properties, Including Fa- tural design is given in Section 1-12. The traditional deterministic ap-
tigue, of Aircraft Alloys at Very Low Temperatures," Trans. ASM 41 (1949): 498. proach is discussed next.
 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. 14t. Deterministic Design of Members
1-11. Deterministic Design of Members: Axial y Loaded and is known as the margin ofsafeO'. In the past, this ratio was usually
Bars
recast to read
In the deterministic design of members, a stress resultant is determined
ultimate stress
at the highest stressed section using conventional mechanics. For axial y -1
loaded bars, it means determining the largest internal axial force P at a maximum stress caused by the design load
minimum cross section. Then, for the selected material, an allowable
stress O'a,o,v must be chosen.
The newer analytical methods, some of which wil be pointed out in
Professional engineering groups, large companies, as well as city, state,
and federal authorities, prescribe or recommend 16 allowable stresses for
the' text as they occur, can provide reasonable estimates of the ultimate
dif erent materials, depending on the application. Often such stresses are
loads for complex systems and should be used in the basic definition of
called the allowhble fiber 7 stresses.
F.S. as well as of margin of safety. For example, for static loadings,
instead of designing members at working loads using allowable stress, an
Since according to Eq. 1-13, stress times area is equal to a force, the alternative approach consisting of selecting member sizes for their ulti-
allowable and ultimate stresses may be converted into the allowable and
ultimate forces or "loads," respectively, that a member can resist. Also
mate or limit load is becoming widely adopted. In such cases, the ultimate
load is usually obtained by multiplying the working loads by a suitably
a significant ratio may be formed:
chosen load factors. For bars in simple tension or compression, this leads
to the same results. Significantly dif erent results may be obtained in many
ultimate load for a member
other cases where inelastic behavior is more complex. In this text, how-
allowable load for a member ever, the customary allowable stress design (ASD) approach wil be
largely fol owed.
This is the basic definition of the factor of safety, F.S. This ratio must The application of the ASD approach for axial y loaded members is
always
of stresses
be greater
as
than unity.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Traditionally this factor is recast in terms both
area
simple
A of
and
a member
direct.
is
From Eq. 1-13, it fol ows that the required net

maximum useful www.avs4you.com

allowable
material
stress
strength (stress)
A = -- (1-16)
O'al ow

and is widely used not only for axial y loaded members, but also for any
type of member and loading conditions. As wil become apparent from
subsequent reading, whereas this definition of F.S. in terms of elastic
stresses is satisfactory for some cases, it can be misleading in others. where P is the applied axial force, and trno,, is the allowable stress. Equa-
In the aircraft industry, the term factor of safety is replaced by another, tion 1-16 is generally applicable to tension members and short compres-
defined as sion blocks. For slender compression members, the question of their sta-
bility arises and the methods discussed in Chapter 11 must be used.
ultimate load The simplicity of Eq. 1-16 is unrelated to its importance. A large number
1
design load of problems requiring its use occurs in practice. The fol owing problems
il ustrate some application of Eq. 1-16 as well as provide additional review
in statics.
6 For example, see the American Institute of Steel Construction Manual,
Building Construction Code of any large city, ANC-5 Strength of Ah'craft Ele-
ments issued by the Army-Navy Civil Commit ee on Aircraft Design Criteria,
etc. EXAMPLE t-4
7 The adjective fiber in this sense is used for two masons. Many original ex-
periments were made on wood, which is fibrous in character. Also, in several Reduce the size of bar AB in Example 1-3 by using a better material such as
derivations that fol ow, the concept of a continuous filament or fiber in a member chrome-vanadium steel. The ultimate strength of this steel is approximately 120
is a convenient device for visualizing its action. ksi. Use a factor of safety of 2.5.
$6 Sec. 1-1t. Deterministic Design of Members $7
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts
650 kN
Solution

orano, = 120/2.5 = 48 ksi. From Example 1-3, the force in the bar AB: FA =
+2.23 kips. Required area: Anet = 2.23/48 = 0.0464 in 2. Adopt: 0.20-in by 0.25-
in bar. This provides an area of (0.20)(0.25) = 0.050 in 2, which is slightly in excess
of the required area. Many other proportions of the bar are possible.
With the cross-sectional area selected, the actual or working stress is somewhat
below the allowable stress: O'actual i 2.23/(0.050) = 44.6 ksi. The actual factor of  \ 0.75 m
safety is 120/(44.6) = 2.69, and the actual margin of safety is 1.69.
In a complete redesign, clevis and pins should also be reviewed and, if possible,
decreased in dimensions.

(c)

EXAMPLE 'i-5

Select members FC and CB in the truss of Fig. 1-24(a) to carry an inclined force 390 kN 650 kN
P of 650 kN. Set the allowable tensile stress at 140 MPa.

Solution
r/520 kN F C Fc

If all members of the truss were to be designed, forces in all members would have
to be found. In practice, this is now done by employing computer programs de-
veloped
truss by the method
or checked,
on the basis
the method
of joints.
of sections
However,
of matrix
il ustrated
if only a few members
here is quicker.
structural
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
are to be designed
analysis 8 or by directly analyzing the

www.avs4you.com
Rox

stable
It is generally
in the direction
understood
perpendicular
that a planar truss,
to the plane
such as shown
of the paper.
in the figure,
Practically, this
is
520kN f325 kN Fc
is accomplished
In this example,
by introducing
the design
braces
of compression
at right angles
members
to the plane
is avoided,
of the truss.
as this wil be
,r 2.5 m
treated in the chapter on columns. (b) (d)
To determine the forces in the members to be designed, the reactions for the Fig. t-24
whole' structure are computed first. This is done by completely disregarding the
interior framing. Only reaction and force components definitely located at their
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1-24(c):
points of application are indicated on a free-body diagram of the whole structure;
see Fig. 1-24(b). After the reactions are determined, free-body diagrams of a part
of the structure are used to determine the forces in the members considered; see MA = OG + Frc X 0.75 + 325 x 1 - 520 X 0.75 = 0
Figs. 1-24(c) and (d). F-c = + 86.7 kN
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1-24(b): Ac = Fc/crnow = 86.7 x 103/140 = 620 mm 2
(use 12.5 x 50-mm bar)
F. = 0 Rm - 520 = 0 Rzx = 520 kN
ME = 0� + RDy X 3 - 390 x 0.5 - 520 x 1.5 = 0
RDy = 325 kN Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1-24(d):
Mz=0� + RE X 3 + 520 x 1.5 -- 390 X 2.5 = 0
RE = 65kN  Fy = 0 --(FcB)y q- 325 = 0 (FcB)y = + 325 kN
Check:  Fy = 0 325 - 390 + 65 = 0
Fc = �(FcB)y/3 = q- 391 kN
Ac = Fc/crnow = 391 x 103/140 = 2790 mm 2
8 See, for example, O. C. Zienkiewicz, The Fitrite Element Method, 3rd ed.
(London: McGraw-Hil , 1977). (use two bars 30 x 50 mm)
38 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. 142. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design 39

EXAMPLE -6
Mean 238 MPa

AC . JM25.eanMPa4
Consider the idealized system shown in Fig. 1-25, where a 5-kg mass is to be spun
'on a frictionless plane at 10 Hz. 9 If a light rod CD is attached at C, and the
allowable stress is 200 MPa, what is the required size of the rod? Neglect the 51 Tests
weight of the rod and assume that the rod is enlarged at the ends to compensate r 538 Tests
S = 26.2
for the threads.
I11 s = 4'62 20
V= 0.11 'vI O'R
-0.5 m v=o.8
Solution

I/I I I I't fR{r) t f(r)

The rod angular velocity to is 20r rad/s. The acceleration a of the mass toward
Fig. t-25 the center of rotation is to2R, where R is the distance CD. By multiplying the
10
mass m by the acceleration, the force F acting on the rod is obtained. As shown

l, o[ , , , ,_o,rm,
in the figure, according to the d'Alembert's principle, this force acts in the op-
posite direction to that of the acceleration. Therefore,

F = ma = mto2R = 5 x (20r) 2 x 0.500 = 9870 kg.m/s 2 = 9870 N

9870
Anet - -- - 49.3 mm 2 I
200 0 10 20  30 40 X [MPa] 0 100 200 300 X [MPa]
Maximum Compression Strength Compression Yield Strength
An 8-mm round rod having an area A = 50.3 mm 2 would be satisfactory. I I I I I [ . I I I I I I I
The additional pull at C caused by the mass of the rod, which was not consid- 0 fir -- 40 R fIR fIR + 40 R r 0 fIR -- 40 R fIR S1R + 40 a r

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
ered, is (a) (b)

Fig. t-26 (a) Histogram of maximum compression strength for

Western Hemlock (wood)*; (b) frequency
F = J-/ (/n dr)to2r diagram of compression yield strength of ASTM grades A7 and A36 steels.**

where m is the mass of the rod per unit length, and (m
www.avs4you.com dr) is its infinitesimal
structural
systems
assemblies.
are based
Important
on the same
risk
premises.
analyses of complete engineering
mass at a variable distance r from the vertical rod AB. The total pull at C caused
by the rod and the mass of 5-kg at the end is F + F. Experimental Evidence
As an example of the probabilistic approach based on statistics, consider
the behavior of specimens for two sets of similar experiments. For one
set, experimental results of several compression tests for identical short
*'2�1-12. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design wooden blocks are plot ed in Fig. 1-26(a)? Similar results are shown for
In the conventional (deterministic) design of members, the possibility steel stub columns in Fig. 1-26(b). 22 The bar widths in these histograms
failure is reduced to acceptably small levels by factors of safety based on correspond to a narrow range of compression stress for which a given
judgment derived from past successful and unsuccessful performances. number of specimens were either crushed (wood) or have yielded 23 (steel).
By contrast, in the probabilistic approach, variability in material prop- In these diagrams, the inner scales apply to direct experimental results.
erties, fabrication-size tolerances, as well as uncertainties in loading and The meaning of the outer scales wil be discussed later.
even design approximations, can be appraised on a statistical basis. As 2 j. M. Il ston, J. M. Dinwoodie, and A. A. Smith, Concrete, Timber, and
far as possible, the proposed criteria are calibrated against well-estab- Metals (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979), Fig. 14.3, p. 439, � Crown
lished cases, as disregard of past successful applications is out of the Copyright, Building Research Establishment, U.K.
question. The probabilistic approach has the/tdvantage of consistency in 2 T. V. Galambos, and M. K. Ravindra, Tentative Load and Resistance Design
Criteria for Steel Buildings, Research Report No. 18, Structural Division, Wash-
the factors of safety, not only for individual members, but also for complex ington University, September 1973.
23 Since yielding is accompanied by a large amount of deformation, this con-
9 Hz (abbreviation for hertz), or cycles per second, is the SI unit for frequency. dition can in many applications be considered failure. For further discussion, see
2o The remainder of this chapter can be omit ed. Section 2-3.
4O Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. 1-t2. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design 4t

In statistical terminology, the test results are termed "population" sam- fz(z)
ples. In the analysis of such data, several quantities of major importance
are generally computed. One of these is sa/nple/nean (average), X; an-
other is sa/nple variance, S 2. For n samples (tests), these quantities are
defined as

= I1 i=X;l x, (1-17) Area

Fz (zO

and S2 = I 1 i=1 (Xi )2 (1-18)

z
Fig. t-27 Normal probability
density function (PDF)
where Xi is an ith sample. TM of Z.
A square root of the variance, i.e., S, is called the standard deviation.
Dividing S by X, one obtains the coefficient of vartaaon,-� � ,5 V, i.e., The constant 1/X/ in Eq. 1-20 is selected so that the normalized fre-
V = S/X (1-19) quency diagram encloses a unit area, i.e.,

X, S (or S2), and V play dominant roles in the theory of probability. +fz(z) dz = 1 (1-23)
The expected sanple value is X, the mean; S is a measure of dispersion
(scatter) of the data, and V is its 'dimensionless measure. which means that the occurrence ofz within its entire range is a certainty.

Theoretical Basis NON-ACTIVATED VERSION In the previous

deviation. A typical
Fig. 1-27. Il ustrations
equations
PDF
of normal
[ z is the mean
of Z with
PDFs
normal
and Crz
distribution
of resistances
is the standard

R relating
is shown
them
in

www.avs4you.com
In Fig. 1-26, in addition to the histograms, theoretical curves for the two to experimental results are shown in Fig. 1-26. In a__pplications, the
cases are also shown. These bell-shaped curves of probability density theoretical model is usually selected by setting [z = X, and rz = S.
fimctions (PDFs) are based on normal or Gaussian 26 distribution. These For the theoretical model, the coefficient of variation wil be designated by
continuous PDFs for approximating the dispersion of observed data are gz and is equal to the previously defined experimental V.
the most widely used model in applied probability theory. In analytical Some interesting properties of �z(Z) are il ustrated in Fig. 1-28. Thus,
form, the PDF of Z, i.e., �z(Z), is given as
fz(z) fz(z)

fz(z): V'2r1 exp[ - 1 (z-z'crz / 2]] (1-20) 1 1

where pz = f_+ Z�z(Z) dz (1-21)

Area

and tr} J_+ (z " dz (1-22)

0.00135
= - p.z)-fz(z)

24 In order to remove bias in X, instead of dividing by n, one uses n - 1. For

large values of n, the dif erence in results is small.
25 In this section, the notation dif ers from that 'used in the remainder of the
text. (a) (b)
26. So named in honor of the great German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss
(1777-1855), who first introduced this function based on theoretical considera- Fig. 1-28 Examples of probabilities of outcomes at dif erent amounts of standard deviation from the
tions. mean.
42 Sec. %t2. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design 43
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

Load
from Fig. 1-28(a), it can be seen that the probability of the occurrence of
an outcome between one standard deviation on either side of the mean
is 68.27%. Whereas, as shown in Fig. 1-28(b), between two standard de-
Q>R
viations on either side of the mean, this value becomes 95.45%. The areas
fR (r) Qs Unsafe
fo(q)
x/
enclosed under the curve tails that are three standard deviations from the
Load Resistance
mean are only 0.135% of the total outcomes. As wil become apparent

city)
later, the small number of outcomes likely to take place under �z(Z) sev- R>Q
Safe
eral standard deviations away from the mean is of the utmost importance
in appraising structural safety. .- fR(r)

Practical F ortnulations 0 n q orr

Resistance
Load or resistance 0 R R2 R3
For a probabilistic appraisal of the structural safety of a member or a
structure, one.must have a statistically determined resistance PDF fRO'), Fig. 1-29 Probability density Fig. -30 Probabilistic
functions for the two main definition of se and unsafe
such as discussed before, and a corresponding load effect PDF. Again
random variables (load and structural regions.
statistical studies show that since the loads are susceptible to variations,
resistance).
their effect on a member or a structure can be expressed in probabilistic
form. Such load effects, resembling fRO'), wil be designated as fo(q). can be compressed into a single normal PDF such as that shown in Fig.
For a given member or a structure, these functions define the behavior
1-3 l(a). In this diagram the probability of failure, p f, is given by the area
of the same critical parameter such as a force, stress, or deflection. Two under the tail of the curve to the left of the origin. A possible magnitude
such functions probabilistically .defining the load effect fQ(q) and the of apf may be surmised from Fig. 1-28(b). A member would survive in
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
resistance f(r) for a force acting on a member are shown in Fig. 1-29. all instances to the right of the origin.
For purposes Of il ustration, it is assumed that the load effect fQ(q) has As can be seen from Fig. 1-31 (a), [3 cry_ o = Ix- o, where [3 is a constant
a larger standard deviation, i.e., larger dispersion of the load, than that
and crR-o is standard deviation. For applications, this relation can be put
www.avs4you.com
for the member resistance.
into a more convenient form by noting that the variance of a linear function
In conventional (deterministic) design, the load magnitudes are usually
of two independent normal variables, cry_ o, is the sum of the variances
set above the observed mean. This condition is represented by Q,, in Fig.
1-29. On the other hand, in order to avoid possible rejections, a supplier

fR-o(X)
[ flnJRJo)(X)
wil typically provide a material with an average strength slightly greater
than specified. For this reason, calculated nominal member resistance Rn
would be below the mean. On this basis, the conventional factor of safety Failure Survival Failure Survival
is simply defined as Rn/Qn.
In reality, both Q and R are uncertain quantities and there is no unique
answer to the safety problem. To il ustrate the interaction between the
two main variables in Fig. 1-31, �,(r) is shown along the horizontal axis
and �(q) is plot ed along the vertical axis. For the ensemble of an infinite
number of possible outcomes, a line at 45 � corresponding to R = Q divides
the graph into two regions. For R > Q, no failure can occur. For example,
for the range of small and large outcomes Q, Q2, Q3, the resistance
outcomes, respectively, R, R2, R3 suffice to preserve the integrity of a Htn (RIO)
0 $ZR-O
member. However, for outcomes Q3 and R with a common point at D
and fal ing in the region where R < Q, a failure would take place.
While enlightening, the above process is dif icult to apply in practice. (RIO) ''
Fortunately, however, it can be mathematically demonstrated that for
(a) {b)
normal distribution of R and Q their dif erence, i.e., R - Q, is also a
normal distribution. In this manner, the information implied in Fig. 1-30 Fig. 1-3t (a) Normal and (b) lognormal probability density functions.
Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-t2. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design

of its parts. 27 Moreover, since variance is a square of standard deviation. in design variables can be explicitly included by using the coefficients of
one has the fol owing expression for the safety index [3. variation in the design parameters, resulting in more consistent reliability
of structures and machines.
In ddition to the failure limit states emphasized before, the probabi-
[3 _ [.I,R-- Q _ [.L R -- listic approach is suitable for other situations. Important among these are
the serviceability limit states. Among these, control of maximum deflec-
where o'R and r o are, respectively, the standard deviations for the resis- tions or limitations on undesirable vibrations can also be treated in prob-
tance R and the load effect O. A larger [3 results in fewer failures, and abilistic terms.
thus, a more conservative design.
An alternative appoach for establishing the formulation for the safety EXAMPLE t-7
index [3 can be based on the more widely used concept of the factor of
safety defined as the ratio R/Q. This approach is particularly useful when Consider two kinds of loading to be suspended by steel tension rods. In both
the distributions of R and Q are skewed and the lognormal distribution 2s cases, a nominal permanent, or dead load, D,, is 5 kips. In one case, however,
rather than the normal is appropriate. In this formulation, for reasons of:; a nominal intermit ent, or live load, L,, is 1 kip, whereas in the other, L;, is 15
kips. Assume that for the design of these rods, American Institute of Steel Con-
mathematical convenience, it is preferable to work with the logarithm struction (AISC) provisions for the design of buildings using ASTM Grade A36
the ratio R/Q, Fig. 1-31 (b). By carrying out this approach and making use
steel apply.
of first order, mean-value approximations, the expression for the safety'
index, [3, reads (a) Determine the cross-sectional areas for the rods using the conventional
allowable stress design (ASD) approach, for which cr,o, = 22 ksi. 29
(b) Find the cross-sectional areas for the same rods using an approach deduced
from the basics of probabilistic concepts. According to AISC/LRFD, -� this

. [3V'/,a----3--.
7e V,a--e----
 (1-26) NON-ACTIVATED VERSION requires the use of the fol owing relation:
k

qbR,, >  iQi (1-27)

where,
tions,
and O.
and
as before,
g and
x and
go_) are, respectively, www.avs4you.com
xc2 are the mean values for the respective func-
the coefficients of variation for R
where R is the nominal strength of the
i=1

structure, and qb < 1 is the resistance

It c'n be noted that Eqs. 1-24 and 1-26 resemble each other. A graphical: factor such that qbR,, is the design resistance of the member; the load factors
interpretation for a solution based on the use of In(R/Q) is shown in  > 1 account for possible overloads over the nominal load effect Q. Since
l-3!(b). Analogous to the first approach, theprobability of failure Ps in this case only two fypes of loading are considered, Eq. 1-27 reduces to
given by the area under the tail of the curve to the left of the origin.
qbR, > 1.2D, + 1.6L, (1-28)
routine applications, a [3 on the order of 3 is considered appropriate.
it must be recognized that the safety index, [3, is only a relative measure
where, according to the code for this case, qb is 0.90, 's are 1.2 and 1.6,
of reliability and cannot be considered exact. Nevertheless, uncertainties
and the yield strength of the steel, cry, is 36 ksi.
(c) For the four solutions found before, calculate the corresponding safety
27 A. H-S. Ang, and W. H. Tang, Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning
and Design, Vol. 1 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975). indices, [3, using Eq. 1-26. This equation is based on lognormal distribution
28 Lognormal distribution for a random variable R is defined as for the variables associated with the load and resistance per AISC/LRFD.

Solution
(1-)
fe(r) = X/9-- er exp -  , e (a) Since the total axial force P is caused by the dead and live loads, P = D,,
where XR = In R//I + g, and  = In(1 + g,) are, respectively, the mean + L,, and, on applying Eq. 1-16, the required areas are
standard deviation of In R. Similar expressions apply for �o(q). However.
lognormal R and Q, it can be shown that Z = In(Q/R) has the normal 29 AISC, Manual of Steel Construction, 9th ed. (Chicago, 1989).
See A. H-S. Ang and W. H. Tang, Probabilio, Concepts #7 Eng#eering 3o AISC, Matt eal of Steel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor Design
and Design. Vol. 2--Decision, Risk, and Reliabilio, (New York: Wiley, 1983). (LRFD), 1st ed. (Chicago: 1986).
46 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. 1-13. Bolted and Riveted Connections

A - D, ra,,ow+ Ln 5 22+ 1 = 0.273 in 2 for L, = 1 kip = 0.093. Alternatively, R2 = 1.05 x 0.909 x 36 = 34.4 kips; Be = 0.11-
a2 = 20 kips; and Be_, = 0.189. On substituting into Eq. 1-26, the safety
5+15 indices, respectively, are
A2 - -- = 0.909 in 2 for Ln = 15 kips
22
ln(10.3/6) - 3.75
(b) Since R,, = A%., again from Eq. 1-16: [31 = X,/0.112 + 0.0932
1.2D,, + 1.6L,
ln(34.4/20) - 2.48
and
[32 = %/0.112 + 0.1892
and
Similarly, for part (b), p = 1.05 x 0.235 x 36 = 8.88 kips; Be = 0.11;
[ 6 kips; Bo = 0.093; and, alternatively, * = 1.05 x 0.926 x 36 = 35.0
A = 1.2 x0.90 5 + x 1.366 x 1 = 0.235in 2 forLn = 1 kip kips; 2 = 20 kips; and BQ2 = 0.189. Hence,

Similarly,
The coefficients
A = 0.926
1.2 for D,,
in 2 for L, = 15 kips.
1.6 for L, and 0.90 for qb have been statis-
[3� = %/0.112ln(8.88/6+) 0.0932 = 2.72
tically determined to approximate probabilistic solutions to various prob-
lems.
and,
Such
for that
studies
reason,
show that dead
has a smaller
lead is more
multiplier,
predictable
1.2, for obtaining
than live lead,
the most
and
%/0.112ln(35/20)+ 0.1892 - 2.56
probable maximum lead. The coefficient qb varies from 0.60 to 1.00, de-
pending on the statistically determined strength of the type of member. If By comparing the safety indices for the two solutions, it can be seen that they
in addition
caused
'Qi terms
by wind,
to dead

appear
snow,
and live loads,

in Eq. 1-27.
or earthquakes
other
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
loading
should
conditions
be considered,
such as those
additional
are far apart using
very near one another.
duce ,/s and qb factors
the conventional
Considering
for code
approach.
that many
On the other
approximations
use, it is encouraging
hand,

that a solution
the [3"s are
are made to de-
based on
(c) In order
The
values
nominal
R and
to solve
values
this part of the problem,
of R, and Q,, should
c) for the
www.avs4you.com
probabilistic
additional
be transformed
formulation. For
information
into
this reason,
is needed.
the mean
based
the probabilistic approach lead to such a good result?

on statistical information, 3 R, is multiplied by a factor of 1.05 to obtain

R, and c is set arbitrarily equal to Q,,. The coefficient of variation, B, *'1-13. Bolted and Riveted Connections
for  due to the variation in %., and the cross-sectional area is taken as
�0.1 I, whereas the coefficient of variation BL for ,, is taken as 0.25, and Be In Section 1-8, some basic aspects in analyzing the behavior of bolted
for D,, is 0.10. To combine BL and Be into a coefficient of variation B o for connections were given. Further details of such analyses are discussed
both loads requires the use of the fol owing relation employing the notation
here. The same procedures are applicable in the design of riveted con-
of this problem32: nections. The usually assumed behavior of a bolted or riveted joint is
2 -- '> --'> 1/'> -- summarized in Fig. 1-32. TM A connection design approach based on pre-
aQ = (aDD7 + gEL7,) -fiD, + (1-29)
venting slippage between the faying surfaces is discussed later in this
section.
On substitution, for the light 1-kip live lead, Bo = 0.093, and, for the 15-
The total force acting concentrically
on a joint is assumed to be equally
kip live lead, Be2 = 0.189.
distributed between connectors or rivets) (bolts
of equal size. In many
Based on the information for the part (a) and recalling that %., is 36 ksi, cases, this cannot be justified by elastic analysis, however, ductile de-
m = 1.05 x 0.273 x 36 = 10.3 kips; B = 0.11; pa = 6 kips; and Ba! formations and/or slip between the faying surfaces permits an equal re-
distribution of the applied force before the ultimate capacity of a con-
3 B. R. Ellingwood et al., Development.ofa Probability Based Load Criterion
for American National Standard A58, National Bureau of Standards, Special Pub-  H. Madsen, S. Krenk, and N. Lind, Methods of Stractural Safety (New York:
lication No. 577, June 1980.
McGraw-Hil , 1986).
32 j. R. Benjamin, and C. A. Cornell, Probabilistic Statistics and Decisions for 34 From G. Dreyer, Festigkeitslehre und Elastiziti tslehre (Leipzig: J/necke,
Civil Engineers (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1970). 1938) 34.
48 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Sec. t-t3. Bolted and Riveted Connections 49

Shearing plane Ii

(a)

Fig. t-32 Assumed action

for a bolted or a riveted
connection.- Bearin planes
(b)

nection is reached. This assumption has been justified on the basis of

tests? d
In contrast to the il ustration shown in Fig. 1-32, in simple lap joints, Fig. t-35 (a),(b) Il ustration
the connectors are in single shear, and the plates near' the connector tend of a bearing failure, and
to bend to maintain the axial force concentric. However, bending in the (c) assumed stress
connected plates is commonly neglected (see Fig. 1-33). Numerous bolted (c) distribution.
connections of this type are used in steel construction, and riveted ones
are used for joining aluminum alloy sheets in aircraft.
on area td. It is dif icult to justify this procedure theoretically. However,
When connectors are arranged as shown in Fig. 1-34(a), determining
the allowable bearing stress is determined from experiments and is in-
the net section in tension poses no dif iculty. However, if the rows for
bolt holes are closely spaced and staggered, as shown in Fig. 1-34(b), a terpreted on the basis of this average stress acting on the projected area
Fig. 1-33
commonly
joints.
Bending
neglected
of plates
in lap
zig-zag
section
necessary
tear
b-b.
may
Methods
to have
be more likely
for treating
a sufficient edge
to occur
such
distance
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
than
cases
a tear across
are available?
e to prevent a shear
the
It
normal
is also
failure
of a rivet.
In the
faying surfaces
Therefore,
previous
at the connectors
design
the inverse
approach,
has been neglected.
process

However,
the
if the
used
frictional
in design
resistance
is satisfactory.
between the

across
An
the c-c planes
il ustration of a failure
shown in Fig.
in bearing
1-34(c).
www.avs4you.com
is given in Fig. 1-35. Although the
clamping
reliable,
friction force
force developed
the capacity
between
by a connector
of a joint
the faying
is both
can be determined
sufficiently
on the basis
large

surfaces.
and
of the
This
condition is il ustrated in
actual stress distribution is very complex, as noted in Section 1-8, in
practice, it is approximated on the basis of an average bear#zg stress Fig. 1-36. With the use of high-strength bolts
with yield strength on the
order of 100 ksi (700 MPa), this is an acceptable method_ in structural steel
acting over the projected area of the connector's shank onto a plate, i.e.,
design. The required tightening of such bolts is usually specified to be
35 A conclusive experimental verification of this assumption may be found in about 70 percent of their tensile strength. For the purposes of simplified
the paper by R. E. Davis, G. B. Woodruff, and H. E. Davis, "Tension Tests of analysis, an allowable shear stress based on the nominal area of a bolt is
Large Riveted Joints," Trans. ASCE 105 (1940): 1193. specified. These stresses are based on experiments. This enables the de-
3a For details, for example, see AISC, Manual of Steel Construction, 9th ed. sign of connections using high-strength bolts to be carried out in the same
(Chicago, 1989).
manner as that for ordinary bolts or rivets.
The procedure for analyzing bearing-type bolted and riveted joints by
the AISC/LRFD probabilistically based approach remains essential y the

p
Washer Bolt grip ' . T-- --
I xxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxx,',F---- pressure on  resistance
(e) (b) (c)
Washer
_/Bol/t length
the plate Initial
bolt
tension
forceto the P
Fig. 1-34 Possible modes of failure in bolted joints (connections): (a) net section,
(b) zig-zag tear, and (c) tear out due to insufficient edge (end) distance along lines (a) (b)
Fig. t-36
 Sec. t-14. Welded Joints 5t
5O Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

same. However, the applied forces are increased using load factors (see EXAMPLE

Back-u (a)
Section
resistance
loads,
1-12 and Eq. 1-27), and stresses

neither
factors. For slip-critical
the net section
investigation
nor bearing
are multiplied
of bolted
are checked.
by appropriate
joints
These
at working
details are
Determine the required
 in steel angle to a steel plate, as shown in Fig. 1-39. The connection
the ful strength in the angle uniformly
lergths
stressed
of welds for the connection of a 3 in by 2 in by
to 20 ksi. Use i-in fil et welds,
is to develop
beyond the scope of this text? whose allowable strength per AWS specification is 5.56 kips per linear inch.
Solution
*'1-14. Welded Joints Many arrangements of welds are possible. If two welds of length L and L2 are
(b) to be used, their strength must be such as to maintain the applied force P in
Steel and aluminum alloy connections by means of welding are very
equilibrium without any tendency to twist the connection. This requires the re-
Fig. t-37 Complete widely used. Butt welds, such as shown in Fig. 1-37, and fil et welds, sultant of the forces R and R2 developed by the welds to be equal and opposite
penetration butt welds. (a) il ustrated in Fig. 1-38, are particularly common. The strength of butt to P. For the optimum performance of the angle, force P must act through the
Single V-groove weld, (b)
double V-groove weld.
welds is simply found by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the thinner centroid of the cross-sectional area (see Table 7 of the Appendix). For the pur-
plate being connected by the allowable stress for welds. The allowable poses of computation, the welds are assumed to have only linear dimensions.
stresses are usually expressed as a certain percentage of the strength of
the original solid plate of the parent material. This percentage factor varies Aangle = 2.00 in 2 O'al o w = 20 ksi
greatly, depending on the workmanship. For ordinary work, a 20-percent P = Acra.ow = 2 x 20 = 40k
reduction in the allowable stress for the weld compared to the solid plate Ma=07 + Rl x 3-40 x 1.06=0 R = 14.1k
may be used. For this factor, the efficiency of the joint is said to be 80  M = 0 � + R2 x 3 - 40 x (3 - 1.06) = 0 R2 = 25.9 k
percent. On high-grade work, some of the specifications allow 100-percent Check: R + R2 = 14.1 + 25.9 = 40k = P
efficiency for the welded joint. Most pressure vessels are manufactured
using
such work,
such welds.
the AISC
Similar joints
specifications,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
are used in some
based on the
structural
recommendations
frames. In
of
Hence,
L = 14.1/5.56
by using the specified
= 2.54 in and L2 = 25.9/5.56
value for the strength
= 4.66 in. The actual
of the i-in weld,
length
note
of welds
that

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the American Welding Society (AWS), allow the same tensile stress in is usually increased a small amount over the lengths computed to account for
the weld as in the base metal in the case of butt welds subjected to static craters at the beginning and end of the welds. The eccentricity of the force P with
loads. respect to the plane of the welds is neglected.
Fil et welds are designed on a semiempirical basis. These welds are To reduce the length of the connection, end fil et welds are sometimes used.
designated by the size of the legs, Fig. 1-38(b), which are usually made Thus, in this example, a weld along the line ad could be added. The centroid of
the resistance for this weld is midway between a and d. For this arrangement,
of equal width co. The smallest dimension across a weld is called its throat.
For example, a standard i-in weld has both legs � in wide and a throat lengths L and L2 are so reluced that the resultant force for all three welds co-
incides with the resultant of R and R2 of the former case. To accomplish the
equal to 0.5 sin 0 = 0.5 sin 45 � = 0.707 x 0.5 in. The strength of a fil et same purpose, slots and notches in the attached member are also occasionally
weld, regardless of the direction of the applied force, 38 is based on the used.
cross-sectional area at the throat multiplied by the allowable shear stress
(a) for the weld metal. The AWS allowable stress shear
is 0.3 times the elec-
trode tensile strength. For example, E70 electrodes (i.e., tensile strength
of 70 ksi) used as weld metal has an allowable shear stress of 0.3 x 70
= 21 ksi'. The allowable force q per inch of the weld is then given as

q = 21 x 0.707co = 14.85co [k/in] (1-30)

d 1.06' r-
where co is the width of the legs. For a i-in fil et weld, this reduces to
3.71 kips per in; for a i-in fil et weld, 5.56 kips per in, etc.
(b) (b) Fig. t-39
Fig. ;I-38 An example of a 37 AISC/LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, 1st ed. (Chicago, 1986).
fil et weld. 38 This is a considerable simplification of the real problem.
 52 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Problems 53

Problems using Eqs. 1-6 and 1-7. (c) Show the results as in Fig. t42. A bar of variable cross section, held on the left, (b) what is the allowable load P if load P2 = 15 kips?
1-8(g). See Table 8 in the Appendix for cross-sectional areas
Section t-5 is subjected to two concentrated forces, P and P2, as
t-7. Repeat Problem 1-6 for a �-in square bar if P = shown. in the figure. (a) Find the maximum axial stress of U.S. standard pipes.
1-1. Verify equilibrium Eq. l:5a for the x direction with 5 kips and 0 = 20 �. ifp = 10 kips, P2 = 8 kips, A = 2 in 2, and A_ = 1
the aid of a sketch, similar to Fig. l-3(a), where the t-8. A glued lap splice is to be made in a 10 x 20 mm in 2. (b) On two separate diagrams, plot the axial force P2 Pl
stress increments for three-dimensional stresses are rectangular member at a = 20 �, as shown in the figure. and the axial stress along the length of the bar.
Assuming that the shear strength of the glued joint con-
shown.
trols the design, what axial force P can be applied to
I
1-2. Show that the dif erential equations of equilib- Pl P2 5" pipe 3" pipe
rium for a two-dimensional plane stress problem in the member? Assume the shear strength of the glued
Fig. P1-t6
polar coordihates are joint to be 10 MPa.
A A2 t-t7. Determine the bearing stresses caused by the ap-
Fig. P1-12 plied force at A, B, and C for the wooden structure
0[o,J.'._._r2r' ;WI 0Tr0 +-- O'r -- I' -o shown in the figure. All member sizes shown are nom-
t-13. A bar of variable cross section, held on the left, inal. See Table 10 in the Appendix for U.S. standard
I Ocro 2 *re sizes of lumber.
r O0 r
is subjected to three forces, P = 4 kN, P2 = --2 kN,
c  20 �
and P3 = 3 kN, as shown in the figure. On two separate
6k
Fig. PI-8 diagrams, plot the axial force and the axial stress along
The symbols are defined in the figure. Body forces are the length of the bar. Let A = 200 mm 2, A2 = 100
neglected in this formulation.
mm 2, andA3 = 150mm 2.
Section t-7 6" X 1
go 0
% + -- ao 6" X 12"
t-9. If an axial tensile force of 110 kips is applied to P3
/ TOr a member' made of a W 8 x 31 section, what wil the c

\dr(/7�r+- dO_ tensile

is a C 12 x 20.7
sectional
stress
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
areas
be? What

of these
section?
wil the
For
members,
stress
designation
see
be if the

Tables
and
member

4 and
cross-
5
A 1 A2 A3

www.avs4you.com --14'"
in the Appendix.
/ /   x art� dr
t-10 and 1-11. Short steel members have the cross- Fig. PI-t3
0 o % sectional dimensions shown in the figures. If they are 6'-------. -"--- 4'
subjected to axial compresslye forces of 100 kN each, 144. Rework Problem 1~13 by reversing the direction
find the points of application for these forces to cause of the force P2. Fig. PM7
Fig. -2
no bending, and determine the normal stresses. All di- 1-15. A 2-mm thick hollow circular tube of 40 mm out-
mensions are in mm. side diameter is subjected on the outside surface to a
Section Section t-8
constant shear of 10 Pa in the axial direction, as shown
in the figure. If the tube is 400 mm long, what is the 1-18. A 40 x 80 mm wooden plank is glued to two 20
t-3. On the same graph, plot the normal stress froand
the shear stress , as functions of the angle 0 defined maximum axial stress? Plot the variation of the axial x 80 mm planks, as shown in Fig. 1-13(d). If each of
in Fig. 1-8. Angle 0 should range from 0 � to 360 � on stress along the tube. the two glued surfaces is 40 x 80 mm and the applied
the abscissa. Identify the maxima and minima for these force P = 20 kN, what is the average shear stress in
functions. the joints?
1-4. In Fig. l-8(a), determine the angles 0 where the Fig. DI-10 t-19. Two 10-mm thick steel plates are fastened to-
magnitudes of {r, and ,o are equal. 140 gether, as shown in the figure, by means of two 20-
mm bolts that fit tightly into the holes. If the joint
t-5. Using polar coordinate axes, on the same graph, transmits a tensile force of 45 kN, determine (a) the
400
plot {r0 and 'o as functions of angle 0 defined in Fig.
1-8. Identify the maxima and minima for these func-
tions. Fig. PI-t5
t-6. A 10-mm square bar is subjected to a tensile force 1-t6. A short compression member is made up of two
P = -20 kN, as shown in Fig. 1-8(a). (a) Using statics, standard steel pipes, as shown in the figure. If the al-
determine the normal and shear stress acting on sec- lowable stress in compression is 15 ksi, (a) what is the
l �0 mm

tions a-a and b-b for 0 = 30 �. (b) Verify the results Fig. Pt-t allowable axial load P if the axial load P2 = 50 kips; Fig. Pt-19
54 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Problems

average normal stress in the plates at a section where t-26. For the planar frame loaded as shown in the fig- plane and are joined by pins. The mast is made from
no holes occur; (b) the average normal stress at the ure, determine the axial stress in member BC. The an 8-in standard steel pipe weighing 28.55 lb/ft. (See
critical section; (c) the average shearing stress in the cross s.ection of member BC is 400 mm 2. The dimen- Table 8 in the Appendix.) Neglect the weight of the
bolts; and (d) the average. beai'ing stress between sions are given in mm. members.
the bolts and the plates. t-29. A signboard 15 by 20 ft in area is supported by
1-20.
2-in
A gear
shaft
transmit ing
is keyed
a torque
to it, as shown
of 4000 in-lb
in the figure.
to a
The ! / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /,
20 kN
HingLC.15 kN two
wooden
wooden
members
frames,
are
as
3 by
shown
8 in. (See
in the
Table
figure.
10 in the
All
4k
�-in square key is 2 in long. Determine the shear stress Appendix for actual lumber sizes.) Calculate the stress
in the key. Fig. Pt-23 in each member due to a horizontal wind load of 20
Ib/ft 2 on the sign. Assume all truss joints are pinned
1-24. A control pedal for actuating a spring mecha- and that two-sixths of the total wind force acts at B

Key
nism is shown in the figure. Calculate the shear stress and one-sixth at C. Neglect the possibility of buckling
in pins A and B due to force P when it causes a stress of the compression members. Neglect the weight of
of 10,000 psi in rod AB. Both pins are in double shear. .-3000- --3000  < 4000 the structure.
Fig. Pt-20 Fig. Pt-26

t-27. Two steel wires with well-designed attachments

1-2t. A � x 6 in steel plate is to be attached to the
main
applied'force
body of a machine,
P = 72 kips
as shown
and the welds
in Fig. 1-15.
to
If the
be used
' p -"diam. rod
and a joint
N, as shown
are subjected
in the figure.
2.68 mm and that of wire BC is 2.52 mm. (a) Determine
to an external
The diameter
force of 700
of wire AB is
are good for 5.56 kips/in, see Eq. 1-30, how long should
the stresses in the wires caused by the applied vertical
the welds be? Due to symmetry, each weld line resists
the same force. force. (b) Are the wire sizes well-chosen?

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
' Cable
'Section
1-22. What
t-9
is the shear stress in bolt A caused by the
www.avs4you.com Pin

71. di am.
B

applied load shown in the figure? The bolt is 6 mm in Fig. Pt-24

diameter, and it acts in double shear. All dimensions Fig. DI-29
are in min. 1-25. A 6-ft-diameter cylindrical tank is to be sup- T 700 N

�,t 600 -< 800----*'-

ported at each end of a hanger arranged as shown in '1-30. A braced structural frame is designed to resist
the figure. The total weight supported by the two hang- the lateral forces shown in the figure. Neglecting the
ers is 15 k. Determine the shear stresses in the

-' 400200 800

10kN
1-in-diameter pins at points A and B due to the weight Fig. Pt-27
of the tank. Neglect the weight of the hangers and as- t-28. Find the stress in the mast of the derrick shown
sume that contact between the tank and the hangers 20 kN
is frictionless.
in the figure. All members are in the same vertical

20 kN

20 kN
Fig. Pt-22

t-23. Calculate the shear stress in pin A of the bull- 8 t

dozer if the total forces acting on the blade are as
shown in the figure. Note that there is a l-in-diameter
pin on each side of the bulldozer. Each pin is in single
shear. Fig. Pt-30

Fig. Pt-25 Fig. Pt-28

56 Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Problems 7

frame weight, determine the axial stresses in members (a) Find the bearing stress of the wood on the concrete. 60kN t,.2 A supported? The ultimate strength of the rods is 800
BD, FG, and DE; the respective areas for these mem- (b) If the allowable pressure on the soil is 100 kN/m 2, MPa, and the factor of safety is to be 2. Rod AB has
bers are 160, 400, and 130 mm 2. determine in plan view the required dimensions of a A = 200 mm2; rod BC has A = 400 mm 2. (The ends

-.,
'1-31. A planar system consists of a rectangular beam square footing. Neglect the weight of the footing. of the wires in such applications require special at-
AC suported by steel members AE and BE and a pin t-34. For the structure shown in the figure, calculate tachments.)
at C, as shown in the figure. Member AE is made up the size of the bolt and area of the bearing plates re- 1-40. Find the required cross-sectional areas for all
of two r by I in parallel flat bars, and pin C, acting in quired if the allowable stresses are 18,000 psi in tension tension members in Example 1-5. The allowable stress
double shear, is  in in diameter. Determine the axial is 140 MPa.
and 500 psi in bearing. Neglect the weight of the Fig. Pt[37
stress in bars AE and the shear in pin C. beams. 1-4t. A tower used for a highline is shown in the figure.
t.38. A joint for transmit ing a tensile force is to be If it is subjected to a horizontal force of 540 kN and
made by means of a pin, as shown in the figure. If the the allowable stresses are 100 MPa in compression and
Bearing
plates
diameter of the rods being connected is D, what should 140 MPa in tension, what is the required cross-sec-
/ 6" X 10" be the diameter d of the pin? Assume that the allowable tional area of each member? All members are pin-con-
One bolt ., / / (actual) shear. stress in the pin is one-half the maximum tensile nected.
stress in the rods. (In Section 8-16, it wil be shown
540 kN
that this ratio for the allowable stresses is an excellent
assumption for many materials.)

Fig. Pt-34

' 3'  - 3'  t-35. What minimum distances a and b are required
Fig. Pt-31 beyond the notches in the horizontal member of the

't-32.
cable shown
By means
in the
of
figure
numerous
is designed
vertical
to support
hangers,
a con-
the
truss
cross
actual
shown?
section.
size.)
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
All members
(See
Assume
Table
the ultimate
are nominally
10 in the Appendix
strength
8 by 8 in
for
of wood
the
in

in
finuously
able
distributed
and haners,
distributed

load of
load.
can be approximated
2 kN/m.
This load,

Determine
tosether
as a uniformly
the cross
with the

sec-
shear
of safety
parallel
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to the grain
of 5. (This detail
to be 500 psi. Use
is not recommended.)
a factor

Fig. Pt.38
3.0 rn v
Fig. Pt-41
tion required [or the cable if the yield strength o[ the t-39. Two high-strength steel rods of dif erent diam- t-42. For the frame shown for Problem 1-30, find the
material is 1000 MPa and the required [actor of safety eters are attached at A and C and support a mass M
is 2. (Hfi: The cable assumes the shape of a parabola required cross-sectional areas for members AB, AD,
at B, as shown in the figure. What mass M can be and BF. The allowable stress in tension is 120 MPa
and develops only a horizontal [orce  at Rs lowest
poinL The larser resultant at a support is equal to the and that in compression is 75 MPa.
larsest [orce in the cable.) 't-43. A planar truss system has the dimensions
shown in the figure. Member AE is continuous and can

10 m "l
rn

1-36.
shear
100,000
A steel
until
bar
failure;
lb. If the
of
the
allowable
Fig.

1 in diameter
ultimate
stress
Pt-35

load
is loaded
is found
is to be based
in double
to
on
be
a
1500

A /. 2400

safety factor of 3, what must be the diameter of a pin

Fig. F�1-32 designed for an allowable load of 6000 lb in single
shear?

Section 1-11 1-31. What is the required diameter of pin B for the
bell crank mechanism shown in the figure if an applied 3600
1-33. A 150 mm square wooden post delivers a force force of 60 kN at A is resisted by a force P at C? The
of 50 kN to a concrete footing, as shown in Fig. 1-11. allowable shear stress is 100 MPa. Fig. Pt-39 Fig. Pt-43
 58 ' Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts Problems 59

resist bending. All joints are pinned. Determine the consists of two 4 x 3� x  in angles, each 8 in long;
sions can be drawn regarding the ASD and LRFD de-

< L ct) P
diameter required for tension member AB to carry the  in high-strength bolts spaced 3 in apart are used in
applied force at A. The allowable stress is 20 ksi.
sign approaches? -in holes. Use the allowable stresses given in Prob-
lem 1-50.
'1-44. A planar frame has .the dimensions shown in
the figure. Members AC and DF are continuous and Section 1-13
can resist bending. All joints are pinned. Determine 1-50. Find the capacity of tension member AB of the
the diameter required of a high-strength steel rod for Fink truss shown in the figure if it is made from two
member CD. Assume that the ultimate strength for the 3 by 2 by  in angles (see Table 7 in the Appendix)
rod is 1250 MPa and that the efficiency of the end at- attached to a -in-thick gusset plate by four -in high-
tachments is-80%. The safety factor for the rod is 2. strength bolts in 4n"' diameter holes. The allowable W12X36

D 20 kN
stresses are 22 ksi in tension, 15 ksi in shear, and 87
ksi in bearing on the angles as well as the gusset.
2m Fig. Pt-46
t-47. Three equal 0.5-kg masses hre attached to a 10-
mm-diameter wire, as shown in the figure, and are ro-
2m Fig. P1-5t
tated around a vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 1-25, on
a frictionless
stresses in the
plane
three
at 4 Hz.
segments
Determine the
of the
axial
wire and plot the
D C
'2m t-52. A structural multiple-riveted lap joint, such as
results on a diagram as a function of r. Consider the
is shown in the figure, is designed for a 42-kip load.
masses to be concentrated as points.
(a)
The plates are { in thick by 10 in wide. The rivets in
{-in holes are { in. (a) What is the shear stress in the

Fig. Pt-44
NON-ACTIVATEDp;VERSION OO 1,02'. Z 2 angles
P2 P middle
upper
rivet?
plate in rows
(b) What are
1-1 and
the tensile
2-29.
stresses in the

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 7//-7' I I 3" x 2" Section 1-11 75"
'%45. To support a load P = 180 kN, determine the
necessary diameter for rods AB and AC for the tripod
shown in the figure. Neglect the weight of the structure "<-'0.6 m--0.6 m-i< 0.6 m-- 1 o 9 o I
and assume
lowance
that the joints
has to be made for
are pin-connected.
threads.
No al-
The allowable
Fig. P1-47 ooooo I
' I P4 Gusset 3/8"
2o,
Detail at A ' thick
tensile stress is 125 MPa. All dimensions are in meters. 't-48. A bar of constant cross-sectional area A is ro-
Fig. 11-52
tated around one of its ends in a horizontal plane with
A (b)
a constant angular velocity o. The unit weight of the
R�ds,l material
along
is "1. Determine
the bar and plot the
the variation
result on
of the
a diagram
stress cr
as a
Fig. 11'50 Section 144

function of r. %5L Find the capacity of a standard connection for a t-53. Rework Example 1-8 for an 8 x 6 x  in angle
W 12 x 36 beam shown in the figure. The connection using - n fdlet welds.

Fig. Pt-45
r L Fig. Pt.48
*%46. A pin-connected frame for supporting a force
P is shown in the figure. Stress cr in both members AB
Section 1-12
and BC is to be the same. Determine the angle a nec-
essary to achieve the minimum weight of construction. t-49. Rework Example 1-7 for D. = L. = 10 kips.
Members AB and BC have a constant cross section. With the help of this additional solution, what conclu-
 Sec. 2-2. Normal Strain 6t

pter During an experiment, the change in gage length is noted as a function

P
of the applied force. With the same load and a longer gage length, a larger
deformation is observed, than when the gage length is small. Therefore,
it is more fundamental to refer to the observed deformation per unit of
length of the gage, i.e., to the intensity of deformation.
IfLo is the initial gage length and L is the observed length under a given
load, the gage elongation 'AL = L - Lo. The elongation e per unit of
initial gage length is then given as

(2-1)

This expression defines the extensional strain. Since this strain is asso-
ciated with the normal stress, it is usually called the nor/nal strain.' It is
a dimensionless quantity, but it is customary to refer to it as having the
2-1. Introduction dimensions of in/in, m/m, or txm/m (microstrain). Sometimes it is given
Fig. 2-'1 Diagram of a tension
as a percentage. The quantity  generally is very small. In most engi- specimen in a testing
This chapter is subdivided into two parts. In Part A, extensional strain neering applications of the type considered in this text, it is of the order machine.
for axial y
stress-strain
idealizations
loaded
relationships
members
for stress-strain
is defined
are il ustrated
behavior
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
fol ow.
and some
for selected
These
typical
materials.
provide
experimental
Analytical
the basis for
of magnitude
It is of interest
of 0. I percent.
to note that in some engineering applications, as, for example,

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calculating deflections in axial y loaded members. Statically determinate in metal forming, the strains may be large. For such purposes, one defines the
cases are considered first. Statically indeterminate situations encountered so-called natural or true strabz . The strain increment de for this strain is defined
as dL/L, where L is the instantaneous length of the specimen, and dL is the
in axial y loaded members are discussed in Part B. incremental change in length L. Analytically,

 = dL/L = In L/Lo = In(1 + e) (2-2)

o

For small strains, this definition essential y coincides with the conventional strain
e. If under the integral, the length L is set equal to Lo, the strain definition given
by Eq. 2-1 is obtained. 
Natural strains are useful in theories of viscosity and viscoplasticity for ex-
pressing an instantaneous rate of deformation. Natural strains are not discussed
2-2. Normal Strain elsewhere in this text?

A solid body subjected to a change of temperature or to an external load Since the strains generally encountered are very small, it is possible to
deforms. For example, while a specimen is being subjected to an increas- employ a highly versatile means for measuring them, using expendable
ing force P as shown in Fig. 2-1, a change in length of the specimen occurs electric strain gages. These are made of very fine wire or foil that is glued
between any two points, such as A and B. Initial y, two such points can to the member being investigated. As the forces are applied to the mem-
be selected an arbitrary distance apart. Thus, depending on the test, either ber, elongation or contraction of the wires or foil takes place concurrently
1-, 2-, 4-, or 8-in lengths are commonly used.. This initial distance between with similar changes in the material. These changes in length alter the
the two points is called a gage length. In an experiment, the change in electrical resistance of the gage, which can be measured and calibrated
the length of this distance is measured. Mechanical dial gages, such as Fig. 2-2 Small clip-on
shown in Fig. 2-1, have been largely replaced by electronic extensometers t Natural strains were introduced by P. Ludwik in 1909. See A. Nadai, Theory
of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1950), extensometer (courtesy of
for measuring these deformations. An example of a small clip-on exten- and L. E. Malven, Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium (En- MTS Systems Corporation).
someter is shown in Fig. 2-2. glewood Clif s, N J: Prentice-Hall, 1969).
60
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

Tool steel
Connecting wires to indicate the strain taking place. Such gages, suitable for dif erent

Veryfinewire .' environmental

from
shown
4 to 150
in Fig.
conditions,
mm (0.15
are available
to 6 in). A schematic
2-3, and a photograph
in a range

of a typical
diagram
small
of lengths,
of a wire
varying
gage
foil gage is shown
is
Low-alloy
in Fig. 2-4. 2

t;elnt"
100

2.3. Stress-Strain Relationships

In solid mechanics, the mechanical behavior of real materials under load
is of primary importance. Experiments, mainly tension or compression
/ - -Y paper

Lowcar
Bonding base tests, provide basic information on this behavior. In these experiments,
cement macroscopic (overall)
response of specimens to the applied loads is ob-
Fig. 2-3 Wife strain gage served in order to determine empirical force-deformation relationships. steel

(protective top cover not Researchers in material science 3 attempt to provide reasons for the ob-
shown). served behavior.
It should be apparent from the previous discussion that for general I t
0.20 0.40
purposes, it is more fundamental to report the strain of a member in Fig. 2-5 Typical stress-strain
tension or compression than to report the elongation of its gage. Similarly, Strain,  (in/in) diagrams for dif erent steels.
stress is a more significant parameter than force since the effect on a
material of an applied force P depends primarily on the cross-sectional
area of the member. As a consequence, in the experimental study of the
mechanical
the relationship
properties
between
of matedhals,
stress and
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
it is customary
strain in a particular
to plot diagrams
test. Such dia-
of

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grams, for most practical purposes, are assumed to be independent of the
size of the specimen and of its gage length. In these diagrams, it is cus-
tomary to use the ordinate scale for stress and the abscissa for strain.
Experimental y determined stress-strain diagrams dif er
widely for dif-
ferent
temperature
a number
materials.

few representative
of other
Even
at which
for the same
the test was conducted,
variables.
materials
Conventional
are il ustrated
material they

stress-strain
in Figs.
dif er
the speed
depending
of the test,
diagrams
2-5 and 2-6. These
on the
and
for a
are
20 ,/CWoodast iron(C.I./R)ubber
shown to larger scale in Fig. 2-6, particularly for strain. Since for most
0.01 0 0.01

2 See Society for Experimental Mechanics (SEM), A. S. Kobayashi (ed.),

Handbook
1987).
3 See, for
on Experimental

example, references
Mechanics

given
(Englewood

on page 3.
Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
Concret/ e Strai(in, n/in)
- -20

Fig. 2-4 Typical single-

element metal-foil electrical-

C.I./ --40
resistance strain gage
(courtesy of Micro-
Meas. urements Division,
Measurements Group, Inc., Fig. 2-6 Typical stress-strain
Raleigh, North Carolina, diagrams for dif erent
materials.
USA).

65
64 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-4. Hooke's Law 65

engineering applications, deformations must be limited, the lower range True stress-strain

oksi1
of strains is particularly important. The large deformations of materials diagram B

A/ Ductile
in the analysis of such operations as forging, forming, and drawing are
not pursued.
An il ustration of fractured tension specimens after static tension tests,
i.e., where the loads were gradually applied, is shown in Fig. 2-7. Steel
and aluminum alloy specimens exhibit ductile behavior, and a fracture / Convptio0al  Brila I material x"
occurs only after a considerable amount of deformation. This behavior is  dim
clearly exemplified in their respective stress-strain diagrams; see Fig. 2-
6. These failures occur primarily due to slip in shear along the planes
forming approximately 45 � angles with the axis of the rod (see Fig. 1-8).
A typical "cup and cone" fracture may be detected in the photographs
Approximately
of steel
iron specimen
and aluminum
typically
alloy
occurs
specimens.
very suddenly,
By contrast,
exhibiting
the failure
a square
of a cast-
fracture
0.0012 A materials
across the cross section. Such cleavage or separation fractures are typical 0 0.020 0.20  in/in
of brit le materials. (a) (b)
Several types of stress-strain diagrams may be identified from static Fig. 2-8 Stress-strain
tests at constant temperature. The curve shown in Fig. 2-8(a) is charac- dif er drastically. The "steepness" of these curves also varies greatly. diagrams. (a) Mild steel. (b)
teristic of mild steel, whereas the curves shown in Fig. 2-8(b) cover a Numerically, each material has its own characteristic curve. The terminal Typical materials.
wide range of diverse materials. The upper curve is representative of some point on a stress-strain diagram represents the complete failure (rupture)
brit le tool steels or concrete in tension, the middle one of aluminum alloys of a specimen. Materials capable of withstanding large strains without a
or plastics,
However,
and: the lower
the extreme
curve of Fig. 2-8(b)
values NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
of strain
is representative
that these
of rubber.
materials can withstand
significant
converse
increase in stress are referred
applies
to as ductile
to brit le materials.
/naterials. The

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Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of a
specimen4; such stresses are often referred to as conventional or engi-
neering stresses. On the other hand, it is known that some transverse I I
contraction or expansion of a material always takes place. For mild steel
or aluminum, especial y near the breaking point, this effect, referred to
as necking, is particularly-pronounced; see Fig. 2-9. Brit le materials do
not exhibit it at usual temperatures, although they too contract trans-
versely a lit le in a tension test and expand in a compression test. Dividing Shape of
I specimen
the applied force, at a given point in the test, by the corresponding actual I nearthe
area of a specimen at the same instant gives the so-called trt e stress. A I breaking
I point
plot of true stress vs. strain is called a true stress-strain diagram; see Fig. 1

2-8(a).

2.4. Hooke's Law

I
Fig. 2-7 Ductile fractures for For a limited range from the origin, the experimental values of stress vs.
(a) A572 steel and (b) 6061-
T6 aluminum alloy. Brit le
strain lie essential y on a straight line. This holds true almost without Original
fracture for (c) cast iron. reservations for the entire range for glass at room temperature. It is true diameter of
specimen
(Numbers refer to ASTM
designations for steel and 4 These are referred to as Cauchy stresses, named in honor of the great French Fig. 2-9 Typical contraction
that of Aluminum mathematician (1789-1857). Definition of stress recognizing the change in cross- of a specimen of mild steel
Association for aluminum sectional area during straining is associated with the names of Piola (1833), the in tension near the breaking
alloy). (a) (b) (c) Italian elasticJan, and Kirchhoff (1852), the renowned German physicist. point.
66 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-5. Further Remarks on Stress-Strain Relationships 67

for mild steel up to some point, as A in Fig. 2-8(a). It holds nearly true crystals. Because of this random orientation, properties of materials be-
up to very close to the failure point for many high-grade alloy steels. On come
tropic.-With
essential y alike
some exceptions,
in any direction. 7 Such
such as wood, in this text, complete
materials are called iso-
ho-
Yield
tsoihel, otanneal
her ed hand,copper,the straialugmihtnum, part ofor tcasthe curve hardlhelyess, exists ifnor concret
iron. Nevert all prac-e, mogeneity (sameness from point to point) and isotropy of materials is
strength
tical purposes, up to some such point as A, also in Fig. 2-8(b), the rela- generally assumed.
tionship between stress and strain may be said to be l#ear for all ma-
terials. This sweeping idealization and generalization applicable to all
materials is known as Hooke's law/ is Symbolically, this law can be 2.5. Further Remarks 'on Stress-Strain Relationships
expressed by the equation In addition to the proportional limit defined in Section 2-4, several other
interesting points can be observed on the stress-strain diagrams. For in-
(2-3)
stance,
strength
2-8(a) is
the highest
of a material.
points

called the yield strength

(B in Fig. 2-8) correspond
Stress associated with the long plateau
of a material.
to the ldtimate

As wil be brought
ab in Fig.
out
v/
later, this remarkable property of mild steel, in common with other ductile -- - 0.2% offset
which simply means that stress is directly proportional to strain, where materials, is significant in stress analysis. For the present, note that at Fio. 240 Offset method of
the constant of proportionality is E. This constant E is called the elastic an essential y constant stress, strains 15 to 20 times those that take pl.ace determining the yield
modulus, modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus. 6 As e is dimen- strength of a material.
up to the proportional limit occur during yielding. At the yield stress, a
sionless, E has the units of stress in this relation. In the U.S. customary large amount of deformation takes place at a constant stress. The yielding
system of units, it is usually measured in pounds per square inch, and in phenomenon is absent in most materials.
the SI units, it is measured in newtons per square meter (or pascals). A study of stress-strain diagrams shows that the yield strength (stress)
Graphically, E is interpreted as the slope of a straight line from the is so near the proportional limit that, for most purposes, the two may be
origin
stress
tic litnit
to the rather
corresponding
of the material.
vague point
to the lat er
Physically,
A on a uniaxial
point is termed
the elastic
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
stress-strain
the proportional
modulus
diagram.

represents
or elas-
The

the
taken
For materials
to be the same. However,
that do not possess
it is much
a well-defined
easier to locate
yield strength,
the former.
one is
sometimes "invented" by the use of the so-called "offset method." This
stif ness
alles is a definite
of the material
property
to an imposed
of a material.
load.
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The value
experiments,
percent
of the elastic
of strain is drawn it is known
parallel
mod-
to the straight-line
is il ustrated in Fig. 2-10, where a line offset an arbitrmy amount
portion of the initial
of 0.2

that e is always a very small qaantity; hence, E must be large. Its ap- stress-strain diagram. Point C is then taken as the yield strength of the
proximate values are tabulated fora few materials in Tables 1A and B of material at 0.2-percent offset.
the Appendix. For all steels, E at room temperature is between 29 and That a material is elastic usually implies that stress is directly propor-
30 x 106 psi, or 200 and 207 GPa. tional to strain, as in Hooke's law. Such materials are linearly elastic or
It fl ows from the foregoing discussion that Hooke's law applies only Hookean. A material responding in a nonlinear manner and yet, when
up to the proportional litnit of the material. This is highly significant as unloaded, returning back along the loading path to its initial stress-free
in most of the subsequent treatment, the derived formulas are based on state of deformation is also an elastic material. Such materials are called
this law. Clearly, then, such formulas are limited to the material's be- nonlinearly elastic. The dif erence between the two types of elastic ma-
havior in the lower range of stresses. terials is highlighted in Figs. 2-1 l(a) and (b). If in stressing a material its
Some materials, notably single crystals and wood, possess dif erent elastic limit is exceeded, on unloading it usually responds approximately
elastic moduli in dif erent directions. Such materials, having dif erent in a linearly elastic manner, as shown in Fig. 2-11(c), and a permanent
physical properties in dif erent directions, are called anisotropic. A con- deformation, or set, develops at no external load. As wil become apparent
sideration of such materials is excluded from this text. The vast majority after the study of Section 2-11, the area enclosed by the loop corresponds
of engineering materials consist of a large number of randomly oriented to dissipated energy released through heat. Ideal elastic materials are
considered not to dissipate any energy under monotonic or cyclic loading.
' Actually, Robert Hooke, an English scientist,. worked with springs and not For ductile materials, stress-strain diagrams obtained for short com-
with rods. In 1676, he announced an anagram "c e i i i n o s s s t t u v," which
in Latin is Ut Tensio sic Vis (the force varies as the stretch).
pressions blocks are reasonably close to those found in tension. Brit le
 Young's modulus is so called in honor of Thomas Young, the English scientist.
His Lectures on Natural Philosophy, published in 1807, contain a definition of * Rolling operations produce preferential orientation of crystal ine grains in
the modulus of elasticity. some materials.
 Sec. 2-6. Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations 69

Dissipated

(a) (b) Permanent

set
Elastic
recovery
elergy
E

I
iI
Gyp

/
/
/

(c) I
I
Fig. 2-1t Stress-strain diagrams: (a) linear elastic material, (b) nonlinear elastic material, and (c) inelastic or
plastic material. (a) (b) (c)

P materials, such as cast iron and concrete are very weak in tension but Fig. 2-t3 Idealized stress-strain diagrams: (a) rigid-perfectly plastic material; (b) elastic-perfectly plastic
not in compression. For these materials, the diagrams dif er considerably, material; and (c) elastic-linearly hardening material.
depending on the sense of the applied force.
It is well to note that in some of the subsequent analyses, it wil be a case, a stress.can range and terminate anywhere between +%,, and
advantageous to refer to elastic bodies and systems as springs. Sketches -%,. For moderate amounts of plastic straining, this assumption is in
such as shown in Fig. 2-12 are frequently used in practice for interpreting good agreement with experimental observations.
the physical behavior of mechanical systems. The -e idealization shown in Fig. 2-13(c) provides a reasonable ap-

2.6. Other Idealizations of

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Constitutive Relations
proximation
models over a wider
for
range
many
of strain.
materials
Beyond
and is more accurate
the elastic
than the
range,
previous
on an
increase in strain, many materials resist additional stress, a phenomenon
In an
based
increasingly
on the assumption
larger number
of linearly
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of technical
elastic behavior
problems, stress
are insufficient.
analyses
For
referred
In some
to as strain
refined
hardening.
analyses, the stress-strain shown in Fig. idealization
P
this reason, several additional stress-strain relations are now in general 2-13 may not be sufficiently accurate. Fortunately, the use of com- with
(a) use. Such relations are frequently referred to as constitutive relations or puters, much better modeling of constitutive relations for real material is
P laws. The three idealized stress-strain relations shown in Fig. 2-13 are possible. For completeness, one such well-known algebraic formulation
encountered particularly often. The two shown in Figs. 2-13(a) and (b) fol ows. In as much as implementation of such formulations requires a
wil be used in this text; the one in Fig. 2-13(c) is often more realistic, considerable amount of computer programming, this approach is not in-
however, its use is considerably more complicated and generally wil be tended for general use in this text.
avoided because of the introductory nature of this book. An equation capable of representing a wide range of stress-strain curves
The idealized -e relationship shown in Fig. 2-13(a) is applicable to has been developed by Ramberg and Osgood. s This equation 9 is
problems in which the elastic strains can be neglected in relation to the
plastic ones. This occurs if plastic (inelastic) strains are dominant. Per-
fectly (ideally) plastic behavior means that a large amount of unbounded e
�o
 +3  \(__'
Cro fro/
" (2-4)
deformation can take place at a constant stress. The idealization shown
in Fig. 2-13(b) is particularly useful if both the elastic and plastic strains where eo, o, and n are characteristic constants for a material. The con-
have to be included. This situation frequently arises in analysis. Both of stants eo and o correspond to the yield point, which, for all cases other
the previous idealizations are patterned after the behavior of low-carbon
steel (see Figs. 2-6 and 2-8), where at he yield stress %,, a substantial 8 W. Ramberg and W. R. Osgood, Description of Stress-Strain Curves by Three
(b) plateau in the stress-strain diagram is generally observed. In both in- Parameters, National Advisory Commit ee on Aeronautics, TN 902, 1943.
stances, it is assumed that the mechanical properties of the material are 9 The coefficient 3/7 is chosen somewhat arbitrarily; dif erent values have been
Fig. 2-t2 Linear (Hookean) used in some investigations. In this formulation, a discontinuity in the function
and nonlinear spring the same in tension and in compression, and %,, = [ -%, I. It is also arises when n = m.
response. assumed that during unloading, the material behaves elastically. In such

68
7O Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 7t

6061-T6 aluminum
n=2 75�F
60
2 ... 500�F
100 .700�F
65
28

50
130
4.8 X 10 -a
�, 40 18
Fig. 244 Ramberg-Osgood -- 54
stress-strain. diagrams. 0 1 2 3 4 /%  30 23

than that of ideal plasticity, is found by the offset method (see Fig. 2-10).
The exponent
Eq. 2-4 is writ en
n determines
in dimensionless
the shape
form,
of the curve,
a convenient
Fig. 2-14. Note
scheme in
that trai (mm/, 10 -s

analysis. One of the important advantages of Eq. 2-4 is that it is a con- 10

tinuous mathematical function. For example, an instantaneous or tangent --.-- -1 X10 -s

moduhts Et defined as ! ! I I I ,
2 3 4 5
-lOO Strain (%)

Fig. 245 Menegotto-Pinto Fig. 2-t6 Effect of strain rate

(2-5) computer model simulation and temperature on stress-
of cyclic stress-strain strain curves for 6061-T6
diagrams for steel. aluminum alloy.

can be uniquely determined. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION behavior

deflections
and a member
continue
subjected
to increase
to a constant
with time; see
stress,
Fig. 2-17.
the elongations
This phenom-
or
In most applications, it is advantageous to work with the inverse of Eq.
2-4,
equation,
i.e., to express
developed
stress
by
as a function
Menegotto
www.avs4you.com
and Pinto, m remarkably
of strain.
accurate
With the aid of such an enon
floors
is referred
and in turbine
of mechanical
to as creep.

assemblies
discs,
Creep
for example.
operating
is observed
Likewise,
at high temperatures,
in reinforced
the prestress
concrete
in bolts
as well as pre-
simulations of cyclic stress-strain diagrams can be obtained. An example
stress in steel tendons in reinforced concrete, tend to decrease gradually
is shown in Fig. 2-15. I In this diagram, a series of characteristic loops,
referred to as hysteretic loops since they represent the dissipation of en- with time. This phenomenon is referred to as relaxation; see Fig. 2-18.
ergy (see Section 2-11), are clearly evident.
Regardless of the idealization used for a stress-strain diagram, it must 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars
be recognized that it is strongly dependent on ambient temperature. An
example of such an effect is il ustrated in Fig. 2-16. 2 It is also iml When the deflection of an axial y loaded member is a design parameter,
to be aware of the fact that no time-dependent phenomena in the behavior it is necessary to determine the deformations. Axial deformations are also
of materials is considered in this text. For example, with time-dependent required in the analysis of statically indeterminate bars. The deflection

o See M. Manegotto, and P. E. Pinto, "Method of Analysis for Cyclically

Loaded Reinforced Concrete Plane Frames Including Changes in Geometry and Constant strain,
Nonelastic Behavior of Elements under Combined Normal Force and Bending" Constant stress, o o

in IABSE (International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering) S

posium on Resistance and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well-
Defined Repeated Loads, Lisbon, 1973.
 F. C. Filippou, E. P. Popov, and V. V. Bert,ero, "Effects of Bond Deteri-
oration on Hysteric Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Joint." Report No. UCB!
EERC-83/19, August, 1983, p. 119. 0 Time Time
.2 K. G. Hoge, "Influence of Strain Rate on Mechanical Properties of 6061-T6
Aluminum Under Uniaxial and Biaxial States of Stress, "Experimental Me- Fig. 2-17 Creep in bar under Fig. 2-18 Stress-relaxation
constant stress. curve.
chanics, 6, no. 10 (April 1966), p. 204.
 Sec. 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 73
72 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

du = u(L) - u(O) = e. dx

:u!
where u(L) = ur and u(O) = UB are the absolute or global displacements
of points D and B, respectively. As can be seen from the figure, u(0) is
a rigid body axial translation of the bar. The dif erence between these
P P. displacements is the change in length A between points D and B. Hence
a JOB
(a)
(2-7)

Any appropriate constitutive relations can be used to define e..

Fig. 2-t9 An axial y loaded For linearly elastic materials, according to Hooke's law, e. = .dE,
bar (b) Eq. 2-3, where . = P. dA., Eq. 1-13. By substituting these relations Jr/to
Eq. 2-7 and simplifying,
characteristics of bars also provide necessary information for determining
the stif ness of systems in mechanical vibration analysis.
Consider the axial y loaded bar shown in Fig. 2-19(a) for deriving a
relation for axial bar deformation. The applied forces Pi, P2, and P3 are (2-8)
held in equilibrium
is permit ed
in the bar
by the force P4.
to gradually
between points
change.
B and
NON-ACTIVATED
The cross-sectional
The change
D due
in length that takes place
to the
VERSION area A of the bar

applied forces is to be
determined.
In order to formulate the relation, www.avs4you.com
Eq. 2-1 for the normal strain is recast
where A is the change
?. = P(x),
E. = E(x)can
the cross-sectional
vary
in length

along the
of an elastic
area A. = A(x),
length of a bar.
bar of length
and the
L, and
elastic
the force
modulus
for a dif erential element dx. Thus the normal strain e. in the x direction
is Procedure Summary
It should be emphasized that the central theme in engineering me-
chanics of solids consists of repeatedly applying three basic concepts. In
(2-6) developing the theory for axial y loaded bars these basic concepts can be
summarized as fol ows:

1. Equilibrium conditions are used for determining the internal resisting

where, due to the applied forces, u is the absolute displacement of a point forces at a section, first introduced in Chapter 1. As shown later in
on a bar from an initial fixed location in space, and du is the axial de- this chapter, this may require solution of a statically indeterminate
formation of the infinitesimal element. This is the governing dif erential problem.
equation for axial y loaded bars. 2. Geo/net/7 ofdefor/nation is used in deriving the change in length of
It is to be noted that the deformations considered in this text are gen- a bar due to axial forces by assuming that sections initial y perpen-
erally veo' small (infinitesimal). This should become apparent from nu- dicular to the axis of a bar remain perpendicular after straining, see
merical examples throughout this text. Therefore in calculations the bitial Fig. 2-19(b).
(undeformed) dimensions of members can be used for calculating defor- 3. Material properties (constitutive relations) are used in relating axial
mations. In the fol owing derivation this permits the use of the initial normal stresses to axial normal strain and permit calculation of axial
length L, between points such as B and D in Fig. 2-19, rather than its deformations between sections.
deformed length. Solutions based on this theory give correct average stresses at a section,
Rearranging Eq. 2-6 as du = e. dx, assuming the origin of x at B, and
integrating, see Section 1-6. However, at concentrated forces and abrupt changes in
 Sec. 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 75
74 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

cross section irregular local stresses (and strains) arise. Only at distances
about equal to the depth of the member from such disturbances are the A.E - AE - x = A-
stresses and strains in agreement with the developed theory.
solutions based on the concepts of engineering mechanics of solids are
best suited for relatively slender members. The use of this simplified pro-

I pL]
cedure is rationalized in Section 2-10 as Saint-Venant's principle. (2-9)
Hence,
Several examples showing application of Eq. 2-8 fol ow.

EXAMPLE 2-t
A graphic interpretation of the solution is shown in Figs. 2-20(f)-(h). The con-
Consider bar BC of constant cross-sectional area A and of length L shown in Fig. stant axial bar strain fol ows by dividing the constant axial force P by AE. Since
2-20(a). Determine the deflection of the free end, caused by the application of a the axial strain is constant, the displacements of the points on the bar increase
concentrated force P. The elastic modulus of the material is E. directly with the distance from the origin ofx at a constant rate. No displacement
is possible at the left end.
Solution It is seen from Eq. 2-9 that the deflection of the rod is directly proportional to
the applied force and the length and is inversely proportional to A and E.
The deformed bar is shown in Fig. 2-20(b). Conceptually, it is often convenient Since Eq. 2-9 frequently occurs in practice, it is meaningful to recast it into-the
to think of such elastic systems as springs; see Fig. 2-20(e). fol owing form:
A free-body diagram for an isolated part of the loaded bar to the left of
arbitrary section a-a is shown in Fig. 2-20(c). From this diagram, it can be con- P = (AE/L) A (2-10)
cluded that the axial force P. is the same everywhere and is equal to P. It is given

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
that A. = A, a constant. By applying Eq. 2-8, This equation is related to the familiar definition for the spring constant or
stiess k reading

C' - ForceI www.avs4you.com

k = p/A [lb/in] or [N/m] (2-11)
(a) P

This constant represents the force required to produce a unit deflection, i.e., A

(b)
P
(f) o Axial force
L = 1. Therefore,
constant cross
for
section,
an axial y loaded ith bar or bar segment of length Li and

C'

(c)
(g) AE
I ki=AiE1---] Li
(2-12)

0 L and the analogy between such a bar and a spring shown in Fig. 2-20(e) is evident.
Axial strain
{d)
The reciprocal of k defines the flexibility �, i.e.,

� = 1/k = A/p [in/lb] or [N/m] (2-13)

Displacement PL
The constant � represents the deflection resulting from the application of a unit

A-
(e) AE
(hi force, i.e., P = 1.
For the particular case of an axial y loaded ith bar of constant cross section,
0 L
Axial displacement Zi
f, - (2-14)
AiE
Fig. 2-20
76 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2.7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 77

The concepts of structural stif ness and flexibility are widely used in structural Soldion
analysis, including mechanical-vibration problems. For more complex structural
systems, the expressions for k and f become more involved. By inspection, it can be seen that the bar is in equilibrium. Such a check must
ahvays be made before starting a problem. The variation in P,. along the length
of the bar is determined by taking three sections, a-a, b-b, and c-c in Fig. 2-
EXAMPLE 2-2 21(a) and determining the necessary forces for equilibrium in the free-body dia-
grams in Figs. 2-21(b)-(d). This leads to the conclusion that withh each bar seg-
Determine the relative displacement of point D from O for the elastic steel bar ment, the forces are constant, resulting in the axial force diagram shown in Fig.
of variable cross section shown in Fig. 2-21(a) caused by the application of con- 2-21(e). Therefore, the solution of the deformation problem consists of adding
centrated forces P = 100 kN and P3 = 200 kN acting to the left, and P2 = 250 algebraically the individual deformations for the three segments. Equation 2-9 is
kN and P4 = 50 kN acting to the right. The respective areas for bar segments applicable for each segment. Hence, the total axial deformation for the bar can
OB, BC, and CD are 1000, 2000, and 1000 mm 2. Let E = 200 GPa. be writ en as

PcoLco
2000 mm
A = �. PL
AlE = PoLo
AoBE + PcLc
ABcE + .AcZ>EK
__
where the subscripts identify the segments.

A a100kN' :
(a)
O Using this relation, the relative displacement between O and D is
100 x 103 x 2000 150 x 103 x 1000 50 x 103 x 1500
(b) A = + 1000 x 200 x 103 - 2000 x 200 x 103 + 1000 x 200 x 103
= +1.000 - 0.375 + 0.375 = + 1.000 mm

(c)
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION --
250 kN
150 kN Note that in spite of large
A graphic interpretation
stresses in the bar, the elongation
of the solution is shown in Figs.
is very
2-21(0
small.
and (g). By

www.avs4you.com
dividing the axial forces in the bar segments by the corresponding AE, the axial
250 kN 200 kN strains along the bar are obtained. These strains are constant within each bar
(d)
,o kN
segment. The area of the strain diagram for each segment of the bar gives the
change in length for that segment. These values correspond to those displayed
numerically before.
+100 kN

(e) � , +50 kN
EXAMPLE 2-3
o Determine Lhe deflection of free end B of elastic bar OB caused by its own weight
Axial force w lb/in; see Fig. 2-22. The constant cross-sectional area is A. Assume that E is
given.
0.5 X 10 -3
0.25 X 10 -3
(f) Soldion

The free-body diagrams of the bar and its truncated segment are shown, respec-
Axial strain
tively, in Figs. 2-22(a) and (b). These two steps are essential in the solution of
such problems. The graph for the axial force P. = w(L - x) is in Fig. 2-22(c).
I mm 0.625 mm 1 mm By applying Eq. 2-8, the change in bar length A(x) at a generic point x,
(g)

Relative axial displacement

= _o A.,E AE 1 - x) dx = -
Fig. 2-2t A plot of this function is shown in Fig. 2-22(d), with its maximum as B.
78 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 79

wL }wL FwL4 2.23k

.__.. ,, , . P=3k

x 0 0- A C efshapeormed B
(c)
Fig. 2.22 (a) (b) (c) (d)
2.83k -----6" " (b)

(a) Fig. 2-24

The deflection of B is

wL 2 WL Solution
L 2AE 2AE As found in Example 1-3, the axial forces in the bars of the bracket are CrA =

where W = wL
If a concentrated
is the
force
total weight
P, in addition
of the bar.
to the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION bar's own weight, were acting on
17.8 ksi and Crac = 12.9 ksi. The length
is 8.49 in. Per Table
103 ksi. Therefore,
1A in the Appendix,
according
of member

to Eq. 2-9, the individual

AB is 6.71 in and that of BC
for the specified material,
member length
E = 10.6 x
changes

www.avs4you.com
bar OB at end B, the total deflection due to the two causes would be obtained are

by superposition as
I i
17.8 x 6.71
-- 11.3 x 10 -3 in
L I -- _ -- PL WL [P + (W/2)]L 10.6 x 10 3
I I
A = + 2AE = AE (elongation)
12.9 x 8.29
(contraction)
I I
In problems where the area of a rod is variable, a proper fitnction for it must ABc- 10.6 X 103 -- 10.3 X 10 -3 in
be substituted into Eq. 2-8 to determine deflections. In practice, it is sometimes
sufficiently accurate to analyze such problems by approximating the shape of a These length changes, as BB and BB2, are shown to a greatly exaggerated scale
rod by a finite number of elements, as shown in Fig. 2-23. The deflections for
in relation to the bar lengths in Fig. 2-24(b). The indicated locations of points B
each one of these elements are added to obtain the total deflection. Because of
Fig. 2-23
and B2 are incompatible with the physical requirements of the problem. Therefore,
the rapid variation in the cross section shown, the solution would be approximate. elongated bar AB and shortened bar CB2 must be rotatedrespective around their
support points A and C such that points B and B2 meet at common point B3.
This is shown schematically in Fig. 2-24(b). However, since in classical solid
mechanics, one deals with small (infinitesimal) deformations, an approximation
EXAMPLE 2-4 can be introduced. In such analyses, it is customary to assume that short arcs of
large circles can be approximated by normals to the members along which the
For the bracket analyzed for stresses in Example 1-3, determine the deflection bar ends move to achieve compatibility at the joints. This construction 3 is in-
of point B caused by the applied vertical force P = 3 kips. Also determine the dicated in Fig. 2-24(b), locating point B4. An enlarged detail of the changes in bar
vertical stif ness of the bracket at B. Assume that the members are made of 2024- lengths and this approach for locating point B4 is shown in Fig. 2-24(c). The
T4 aluminum alloy and that they have constant cross-sectional areas, i.e., neglect
the enlargements at the connections. See idealization in Fig. 2-24(a). First introduced by M. Wil iot in 1877.
8O Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-7. Deformation of Axial y Loaded Bars 8t

required numerical results can be obtained either graphically or by using trigo-

A
nometry. Here the lat er procedure is fol owed. O C
If A is the deflection or displacement of point B to position B4, Fig. 2-24(c),
and changes in bar lengths ABc= BB2 and AAB = BB,
' ' L -

cos 02 and lAB = I COS 01

On forming equal ratios for both sides of these equations, substituting the nu-
merical values for Ac and AA found earlier, and simplifying, one obtains

cos 02 IBc 10.3 X 10 -3

.. 0.912
cos 0 lAB 11.3 X 10 -3
(c)
However, since

lb)
02 = 180 � - 45 � - 26.6 � - 0 = 108.4 �
Fig. 2-25
it fol ows that

cos 02 = cos 108.4 � cos 0 + sin 108.4 � sin 0, **EXAMPLE 2-5

and
cos
cos 01
- cos 108.4 � + NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
sin 108.4 � tan 0, = 0.912
Two hinge-ended
to immovable
Initial y, points
supports
elastic bars of equal
are joined
A, B, and C are on a straight
lengths
in the middle
and cross-sectional
by a pin, as shown
line. Determine the vertical
areas attached
in Fig. 2-25(a).
deflection

Therefore, www.avs4you.com A of point

Solution
C as a function of applied force P. Consider small deflections only.

tan 0 = 1.29 and O = 52.2 �

The given structural system is incapable of supporting any vertical force in its
initial configuration. Therefore, equilibrium of the system in a slightly deflected
Based on this result, condition must be examined, Fig. 2-25(b), where initial bar lengths L become L*.
For this position of the bars, one can write an equation of equilibrium for joint
I = IAa/cos 0 = 18.4 x 10 -3 in C' and express elongations of the bars via two dif erent paths. One such relation
for elongation of each bar fol ows from Eq. 2-9 and the other from purely geo-
forming an angle of 11.2 � with the vertical. metric considerations. On these bases, from equilibrium,
Since Arm = A cos 11.2 � = 18.0 x 10 -3 in, the vertical stif ness of the bracket
is given by the spring constant P = 2T sin 0

TL*
P 3 and - L* - L = L* - L'cos0
- 167 kips/in AE
lvert 18.0 X 10 -3

This problem contains geometric nonlinearity in displacement, which has been Hence, T = AE(1 - cos 0)
neglected; therefore, fghe solution is accurate only for. small deformations, a com-
mon practice for many engineering problems. On substituting this expression for T into the first equation,

-.. . . . . . P = 2AE(1 - cos 0) sin 0

 Final shape
82 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

Further, by expanding cos 0 and sin 0 into Taylor's series, the elastic
by v (nu)
modulus
and is defined
E, and is called
as fol ows:
Poisson's ratio. 4 It wil be denoted P P
e = 2AE 7., - + .. )( 0-7.,+. . )
On retaining only one term in each series,

p  AEO 3
I Ilateralstrain lateralstrai1n
v = 'aal st - axial strain
(2-16)

Final shape
(a)

However, since the analysis is being made for small deflections, angle where the axial strains are caused by uniaxial stress only, i.e., by simple
A/L. Therefore, tension or compression. The second, alternative form of Eq. 2-16 is true
because the lateral and axial strains are always of opposite sign for uni-
axial stress.

P   AE A3 or A = L  AE ' (2-15) range.

The value
Generally,
of v fluctuates
it is on the
for dif erent
order
materials
of 0.25 to 0.35.
over a relatively
In extreme
narrow
cases,
values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5 (rubber) occur.
This result, shown qualitatively in Fig. 2-25(c), clearly exhibits the highly nonlinear The lat er value is the largest possible. It is normally attained by materials (b}
relationship between P and A. By contrast, most of the problems that wil be during plastic flow and signifies constancy of volume. 15 In this text, Pois-
encountered in this text wil lead to linear relationships between loads and dis-
son's ratio wil be used only when materials behave elastically. Ficontgr.action 2-26 (a) andLateral(b) lateral
placements. The more accurate solutions of this problem show that the approx-
imate solution just obtained gives good results for A/L, on the order 0.3. In conclusion, note that the Poisson effect exhibited by materials causes expansion of solid bodies
In this problem, the effect of geometry change on equilibrium was considered, no additional stresses other than those considered earlier anless the trans- subjected to axial forces
whereas
small.
in Example 2-4, it was neglected because the displacement
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION was very verse deformation is inhibited or prevented. (Poisson's effect).

www.avs4you.com EXAMPLE 2-6

2-8. Poisson's Ratio Consider a careful y conducted experiment where an aluminum bar of 50-mm
diameter is stressed in a testing machine, as shown in Fig. 2-27. At a certain
In addition to the deformation of materials in the direction of the applied instant the applied force P is 100 kN, while the measured elongation of the rod
force, another remarkable property can be observed in all solid materials, is 0.219 mm in a 300-mm gage length, and the diameter's dimension is decreased
namely, that at right angles to the applied uniaxial force, a certain amount by 0.01215 mm. Calculate the two physical constants v and E of the material.
of lateral (transverse) expansion or contraction takes place. This phe-
nomenon is il ustrated in Fig. 2-26, where the deformations are greatly
exaggerated. For clarity, this physical fact may be restated thus: if a solid Solution
body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts laterally; on the other Transverse or lateral strain:
hand, if it is compressed, the material "squashes out" sideways. With
this in mind, directions of lateral deformations are easily determined, 0.01215
/. = 300 mm

depending on the sense of the applied force. ...

50
0.000243 mm/mm
For a general theory, it is preferable to refer to these lateral defor-
mations on the basis of deformations per unit of length of the transverse
In this case, the lateral strain et is negative, since the diameter of the bar de-
dimension. Thus, the lateral deformations on a relative basis can be ex-
creases by/X,.
pressed in in/in or m/m. These relative unit lateral deformations are termed
lateral strains. Moreover, it is known from experiments that lateral strains
4 Named after S. D. Poisson, the French scientist who formulated this concept
bear a constant relationship to the longitudinal or axial strains caused by in 1828.
an axial force, provided a material remains elastic and is homogeneous s A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. 1 (New York:
D = 50 mm

and isotropic. This constant is a definite property of a material, just like McGraw-Hil , 1950). Fig. 2-27

83
Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2.9. Thermal Strain and Deformation 85
Axial strain:
For a decrease in temperature, bT assumes negative values.
An il ustration of the thermal effect on deformation of bars due to an  1
A 0.219 I I
e,, = - = + - 0.00073 mm/mm increase in temperature is shown in Fig. 2-28. l
L 300

Poisson's ratio:
EXAMPLE 2-7
e, ( - 0.000243) Determine the displacement Of point B in Example 2-4 caused by an increase in
v .. - 0.333
e,, 0.00073 temperature of 100�F. See Fig. 2-29(a).

Next, since the area of the rod A = x x 502 = 1960 mm 2, from Eq. 2-9, Soldion
Determining the deflection at point B due to an increase in temperature is similar
PL 100 X 103 X 300 to the solution of Example 2-4 for finding the deflection of the same point caused
E- - =70x 103 N/mm 2 = 70 GPa
AA 1960 X 0.219 by stress. Per Table 1A in the Appendix, the coefficient of thermal expansion for
2024-T4 aluminum alloy is 12.9 x 10 -6 per �F. Hence, from Eq. 2-18, (b)

In practice, when a study of physical quantities, such as E and v, is being made,

it is best to work with the corresponding stress-strain diagram to be assured that AAB = 12.9 x 10 -6 X 100 X 6.71 = 8.656 x 10 -3 in
the quantities determined are associated with the elastic range of the material ABc= 12.9 x 10 -6 X 100 X 8.49 = 10.95 X 10 -3 in
behavior. Also note that it makes no dif erence whether the initial or the final (c)
lengths are used in computing strains, since the deformations are very small. Here the displacement At of point B to position B4, Fig. 2-29(b), caused by a Fig. 2-28 Thermal expansions
change in temperature, is related to the bar elongations in the fol owing manner: of bars resting on frictionless

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Ar cos 02 = A,_a and Ar cos 0 = ABc

surface.
represent
increase
Dashed
final shape
in temperature.
lines
for an

2-9.
With changes
Thermal
of temperature,
Strain
solid bodies
and Deformation
www.avs4you.com expand on increase of tem-
Forming
values for
equal
AAa
ratios
and Aac,
for both sides
and simplifying
of these
leads
equations,
to the fol owing
substituting
result:
numerical

perature and contract on its decrease. The thermal strain er caused by a COS 02 AAB 8.656 X 10 -3
= 0.7905
change in temperature from To to T measured in degrees Celsius or Fah- cos 0 Ac 10.95 X 10 -3
renheit, can be expressed as
Fig. 2-29

(2-17)
8 2

where
expansion.
sonably
Equal
mogeneous
o is an
For
constant.
thermal
isotropic
experimental y
moderately

strains develop
materials.
in every
For a body
narrow

direction
of
determined
ranges
coefficient
in temperature,

length
for
of

unconstrained
L subjected
linear
c remains
thermal
rea-

to
ho-
a
B
26.6o B
uniform temperature, the extensional deformation A r due to a change in
temperature of  T = T - To is
(b)

At = a(gT)L.) (2-18)
(a)
86 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2.10. Saint-Venant's Principle and Stress Concentrations 87

Here, however, 02 = 45 � + 26.6 � - 0 = 71.6 � - 0; therefore, P

P
P

cos 02 = cos 71.6 � cos 02 + sin 71.6 � sin 0z

COS 02
and -- - cos 71.6 � + sin 71.6 � tan 0 = 0.7905
COS 0 

Hence, tan 02 = 0.500 and 02 = 26.6 � 2.575 1.38703,,

(b)
Oma x = 1.027oav
Based on this result,
{d)

A T -- ABc/COS 01 = 12.2 X 10 -3 in (a)

Fig. 2-30 Stress distribution near a concentrated force in a rectangular elastic plate.
forming an angle of 45 � - 0 = 18.4 � with the horizontal.
It is interesting to note that the small displacement Ar is )f comparable order using the methods of the theory of elasticity gives the results shown in
of magnitude to that found due to the applied vertical force P in Example 2-4. Figs. 2-30(b), (c), and (d). 17 The average stress av as given by Eq. 1-13
is also shown on these diagrams. From these it can be noted that at a
section a distance b/4 from an end, Fig. 2-30(b), the maximum normal
stress greatly exceeds the average. For a purely elastic material the max-
2-10. Saint-Venant's Principle and Stress Concentrations imum stress theoretically becomes infinite right under the concentrated
force, since a finite force acts on a zero area. In real situations, however,
The analysis of axial y loaded bars based on engineering mechanics of
a truly concentrated force is not possible and virtually all materials exhibit
solids
uniformly
strains
is very accurate
distributed
are uniform
for bars of constant
end forces.
everywhere.
For
In reality,
such
cross
ideal
however,
section
conditions
when

applied
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
transmit ing
stresses
forces
and
often
some
impossible.
plastic behavior; therefore the attainment of an infinite stress is

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It is important to note two basic aspects from this solution. First, the
approximate concentrated forces, and the cross sections of members can
average stress for all cases, being based on conditions of equilibrium, is
change abruptly. This causes stress and strain disturbances in the prox- always correct. Second, the normal stresses at a distance equal to the
imity of such forces and changes in cross sections. In the past these width of the member are essential y uniform.
situations were studied analytically using the mathematical theo3, of elas- The second observation il ustrates the famed Sa#zt-Venant's principle.
ticity. In such an approach, the behavior of two or three dimensional
It was enunciated by the great French elastician in 1855. In common
infinit.esimal elements is formulated and the conditions of equilibrium, engineering terms it simply means that the manner of force application
deformation and mechanical properties of material 6 are satisfied subject on stresses is important only in the vicinity of the region where the force
to the prescribed boundary conditions. More recently a powerful nu- is applied. This also holds true for the disturbances caused by changes
merical procedure has been developed, where a body is subdivided into
in cross section. Consciously or unconciously this principle is nearly al-
a discrete number of finite elements, such as squares or cubes, and the
ways applied in idealizing load carrying systems.
analysis is carried out with a computer. This is called the finite element
Using the finite element method,8 the results of a solution for the same
method of analysis. The end results of analyses by either one of these
problem are shown in Fig. 2-31. The initial undeformed mesh into which
two methods can be very effectively used to supplement solutions in en-
the planar block is arbitrarily subdivided, and the greatly exaggerated
gineering mechanics of solids. An example showing the more accurate
deformed mesh caused by the applied force are shown in Fig. 2-31(a). By
solutions by these two advanced methods for the nature of stress distri-
placing the mesh on rollers as shown, only the upper half of the block
bution at concentrated force fol ows. These solutions provide comparison
with those found by applying the method of engineering mechanics of 27 S. Timoshenko, and J. N. Goodier, Treaty of Elasticity, 3rd. ed., New York:
solids. McGraw-Hil , 1970, p. 60. Fig. 2-30 is adapted from this source.
A short block is shown in Fig. 2-30(a) acted upon by concentrated forces 8 For this subject see for example, O. C. Zienkiewicz, The Finite Element
Method, 3rd ed. (London: McGraw-Hil Ltd., 1977). K. J. Bathe and E. L. Wilson,
at its ends. Analyzing this block for stresses as a two dimensional problem Numerical Methods in Finite Element Analysis (Englewood Clif s, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1976). R. H. Gallagher, Finite Element Fundamentals (Englewood Clif s,
6 These are the same basic concepts as use ineering mechanics of solids. N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975).
88 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 240. Saint-Venant's Principle and Stress Concentrations 89

Deformed 100
mesh Y

3.0

2.8
ndeformed
mesh 30 2.6
25
2.4

2.2
K
2.0

1.8
2.7 o.v
1.6

1.4

1.2
. .f2.  . . .O. . c.L. .;. . ?. . t.?. . .?. . 2.. 1.0 Fig. 242 Stress-
10 x
1.5 %v 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 concentration factors for flat
rid bars in tension.

(a) members. For the example given before, at a depth below the top equal
Fig. 2-3t .(a) Undeformed and deformed mesh of an elastic plate. (b) cry contours, (c) Normal stress to one-quarter width, K = 2.575. Hence mx = 2.575 . Generalizing
distributions at b/4 and b/2 below top. this scheme, the maximum normal stress at a section is

needed to be analyzed because of symmetry around the mid-section. The

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
'mx=Kg
a =KP-P-
1
calculated stress contours in Fig. 2-31(b) clearly show the development
(2-19)
of large stresses in the vicinity of the concentrated force. Unlike the A

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solution based on mathematical elasticity, in the finite element model the
stresses at the applied force are very large, but finite, because of finite
mesh size. As to be expected, the corners carry no stress. The stress
distribution at b/4 and b/2 below the top, shown in Fig. 2-31(c), are in where K 'is an appropriate stress-concentration factor, and P/A is the
reasonable agreement with the more accurate results given in Figs. average stress per Eq. 1-13.
2-30(b) and (c). Better agreement can be achieved by using a finer mesh. Two particularly signScant stress-concentration factors for flat axial y
This versatile method can be applied to bodies of any shape and for any loaded bars are shown in Fig. 2-32? The Ks that may be read from the
load distribution. Its use in accurate stress analysis problems is gaining graphs give the ratio of the maximum normal stress to the average stress
an ever wider use. However, because of the simplicity of the procedures on the net section as shown in Fig. 2-33. A considerable stress concen-
discussed in this text, at least for preliminary design, they remain indis- tration also occurs at the root of threads. This depends to a large degree
pensable. upon the sharpness of the cut. For ordinary threads, the stress-concen-
The example cited above is extreme, since theoretically infinite stresses 0 This figure is adapted from M. M. Frocht, "Factors of Stress Concentration
appear to be possible at the concentrated force. There are numerous sit- Photoelastically Determined." Trans., ASME, 1935, vol. 57, p. A-67.
uations, however, such as at bolt holes or changes in cross section, where
the maximum normal stresses are finite. These maximum stresses, in \

relation to the average stress as given by Eq. 1-13 for linearly elastic
materials, depend only on the geometrical proportions of a member. The ,)
ratio of the maximum to the average stress is called the stress-concen-
tration factor, designated in this text as K. Many such factors are available
in technical literature 19 as functions of the geometrical parameters of Oav K = �max K =
gav Fig. 243 Measing of the
stress-concentration factor
9 R. J. Roark and W. C. Young, Formulas for Stress andStrain, 5th ed. (New
(a) (b) K.
York: McGraw-Hil , 1975).
9O Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 24t. Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress

tration factor is on the order of 2 to 3. The application of Eq. 2-19 presents centration is practically eliminated, and a nearly uniform distribution of
no dif iculties, provided proper graphs or tables of K are available. In the stress across the net section occurs prior to necking.
past many such factors have been determined using the methods of pho- The previous argument is not quite as true for materials less ductile
toelasticity (see Sec. 9-4). than mild steel. Nevertheless, the tendency is in that direction unless the
An example of low-cycle fatigue fracture in tension of a high-strength material is unusually brit le, like glass. The argument presented applies
bolt with a minimum specified strength of 120 ksi (830 MPa) is shown in to situations where the force is gradually applied or is static in character.
Fig. 2-34. Note that the fracture occurred at the root of the threads. It is not applicable for fiuctuating loads, as found in some machine parts.
For fatigue loadings, the working stress level that is actually reached
locally determines the fatigue behavior of the member. The maximum
EXAMPLE 2-8
permissible stress is set from an S-N diagram (Section 1-9). Failure of
Find the maximumstress in member AB in the forked end A in Example 1-3.
most machine parts can be traced to progressive cracking that originates
at points of high stress. In machine design, then, stress concentrations
Soldion are of paramount importance, although some machine designers feel that
the theoretical stress concentration factors are somewhat high. Appar-
Geometrical proportions: ently, some tendency is present to smooth out the stress peaks, even in
members subjected to cyclic loads.
radius of the hole 3/16 From the previous discussion and accompanying charts, it should be Fig. 2.35 Stress distribution
- - 0.375 at a hole in an elastic-ideally
Fig. 2-3 Low-cycle tensile
net width 1/2 apparent why a competent machine designer tries to "streamline" the plastic flat bar with
fatigue fracture of 7/8 in junctures and transitions of elements that make up a structure. progressively increasing
A325 steel bolt. From Fig. 2-32? K - 2.15 for r/d = 0.375. applied force P.
Average stress fi'om Example 1-3: Crav = P/A,et = 11.2 ksi.
Maxhnum

hole,
This answer
stressr

a fact that may

indicates
Eq. 2-19: Crmax = Kcrav
that actually
be highly significant.
a large
= 2.15
local NON-ACTIVATED� 222-11.
VERSION
Elastic Strain Energy
x 11.2
increase
for
= 24.1
in stress
ksi.
occurs at this In mechanics, energy is defined as the capacity
Uniaxial
to do work,
Stress
and work is
the product of a force times the distance in the direction that the force
www.avs4you.com moves.
areas
In solid
are forces,
deformable
and deformations
bodies, stresses multiplied
are distances.
by their
The product
respective
of these
two quantities is the internal work done in a body by externally applied
In considering stress-concentration factors in design, it must be re- forces. This internal work is stored in an elastic body as the internal elastic
membered that their theoretical or photoelastic determination is based on energy of deformation, or the elastic strain energy. A procedure for com-
the use of Hooke's law. If members are gradually stressed beyond the puting the internal energy in axial y loaded bars is discussed next.
proportional limit of a ductile material, these factors lose their signifi- Consider an infinitesimal element, such as shown in Fig. 2-36(a), sub-
cance. For example, consider a flat bar of mild steel, of the proportions jected to a normal stress .. The force acting on the right or the left face
shown in Fig. 2-35, that is subjected to a gradually increasing force P. of this element is  dy dz, where dy dz is an infinitesimal area of the
The stress distribution wil be geometrically similar to that shown in Fig. element. Because of this force, the element elongates an amount e. dx,
2-33 until O'ma x reaches the yield point of the material. This is il ustrated where e. is normal strain in the x direction. If the element is made of a
in the top diagram in Fig. 2-35: However, with a further increase in the linearly elastic material, stress is proportional to strain; Fig. 2-36(b).
applied force, f max remains the same, as a great deal of deformation can Therefore, if the element is initial y free of stress, the force that finally
take place while the material yields. Therefore, the stress at A remains acts on the element increases linearly from zero until it attains its ful
virtually frozen at the same value. Nevertheless, for equilibrium, stresses value. The average force acting on the element while deformation is taking
acting over the net area must be high enough to resist the increased P. place  . dy
is - dz. This average force multiplied by the distance through
This condition is shown in the middle diagram of Fig. 2-35. Finally, for which it acts is the work done on the element. For a perfectly elastic
ideally plastic material, stress becomes uniform across the entire net sec- body, no energy is dissipated and the work done on the element is stored
tion. Hence, for ductile materials prior to rupture, the local stress con- as recoverable internal strain energy. Thus, the internal elastic strain en-
ergy U for an infinitesimal element subjected to uniaxial stress is
2 Actually, the stress concentration depends on the condition of the hole,
whether it is empty or fil ed with a bolt or pin. 22 This section can be postponed until study of Chapter 12.
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-tt. Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress

0r
U = f ol dV (2-23)

These forms of the equation for the elastic strain energy are convenient
in applications, although they mask the dependence of the energy expres-
z
x
sion on force and distance.
For a particular material, substitution into Eq. 2-22 of the value of the
stress at the proportional limit gives an index of the material's ability to
store or absorb energy without permanent deformation. The quantity so
found is called the modtthts of resilience and is used to dif erentiate ma-
terials for applications where energy must be absorbed by members. For
example, a steel with a proportional limit of 30,000 psi and an E of 30 x
106 psi has a modulus of resilience of 2/2E = (30,000)2/2(30)106 = 15 in-
lb/in 3, whereas a good grade of Douglas fir, having a proportional limit
of 6450 psi and an E of 1,920,000 psi has a modulus of resilience of (6,450)2/
Fig. 246 (a) An element in (1,920,000) = 10.8 in-lb/inL
uniaxial tension and (b) a E
By reasoning analogous to that before, the area under a complete stress-
Hookean stress-strain
diagram. (a) (b)
strain diagram, Fig. 2-37, gives a measure of a material's ability to absorb
energy up to fracture and is called its toughness. The larger the total area
under the stress-strain diagram, the tougher the material. In the inelastic
dU = 2 :,dydz x e:,dx = �xexdxdydz = (2-20)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
range, only a small part of the energy absorbed by a material is recover-
average distance able. Most of the energy is dissipated in permanently deforming the ma-
force
terial and is lost in heat. The energy that may be recovered when a spec-

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work imen has been stressed to some such point as A in Fig. 2-37(b) is
represented by the triangle ABC. Line AB of this triangle is parallel to
where dV is the volume of the element. line OD, since all materials essential y behave elastically upon the release
By recasting Eq. 2-20, one obtains the strain energy stored in an elastic of stress.
body per unit volume of the material, or its strain-energy density Uo.
Thus, Stronger
material

Dissipated
R
Tougher
d U o'xex material

Uo- d- 2 (2-21)

This expression may be graphically interpreted as an area under the in-
clined line on the stress-strain diagram; Fig. 2-36(b). The corresponding
area enclosed by the inclined line and the vertical axis is called the com-
plementre3, energy, a concept to be used in Chapter 12. For linearly elastic
materials, the two areas are equal. Expressions analogous to Eq. 2-21
c

Permanent
set JT _,le resilience
apply to the normal stresses %. and  and to the corresponding normal
strains ey and e:. Hyperelastic
resilience
Since in the elastic range, Hooke's law applies, . = Ee., Eq. 2-21
may be writ en as

dU Ee} ty} (a) (b)

Uo- dV- 2 - 2E (2-22) Fig. 247 Some typical properties of materials.

94 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-t2. Deflections by the Energy Method 95

EXAMPLE 2-9
(2-24)
Two elastic bars, whose proportions are shown in Fig. 2-38, are to absorb the
same amount of energy delivered by axial forces. Neglecting stress concentra-
2A tions, compare the stresses in the two bars. The cross-sectional area of the left
bar is A, and that of the right bar is A and 2A as shown. In this treatment, it is assumed that the external force is gradually
applied. This means that, as it is being applied, its ful effect on a member
Soldion is reached in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 2-36(b) for stress.
The bar shown in Fig. 2-38(a) is of uniform cross-sectional area, therefore, the
Therefore, the external work We is equal to one-half of the total force
normal stress ch is constant throughout. Using Eq. 2-23 and integrating over the multiplied by the deflection in the direction of the force action. In the
volume V of the bar, one can write the total energy for the bar as next section, this approach wil be generalized for dynamic loads.

fv0.I ' fv 0.7

(a) (b)
EXAMPLE 2-t0
Fig. 2-38
Find the deflection of the free end of an elastic rod of constant cross-sectional
where A is the cross-sectional area
of the bar, and L is its length. area A and length L due to axial force P applied at the free end.
The bar shown in Fig. 2-38(b) is of variable cross section. Therefore, if the
stress or2 acts in the lower part of the bar, the stress in the upper part is EO't 2 . Soldion
Again, by using Eq. 2-23 and integrating over the volume of the bar, it is found
that the total energy that this bar wil absorb in terms of the stress or2 is If force P is gradually applied to the rod, external work, W,. = �pA, where A is
the deflection of the end of the rod. The expression for the internal strain energy
U of the rod was found in Example 2-9, and since cr = P/A, it is
U2 = 0.2 dV = 0. owerpart dV +  2E
- NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
U = 0.7 AL
pperpart dV
p2L
0. (0'2/2)2 2A AL
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2E 2AE
- 2E + 2E
Then, from We = U,
If both bars are to absorb the same amount of energy, U = U2 and
p A p2L PL
- and A = --
AL) = AL or 0.2 = 1.2650. 2 . 2AE AE

which is the same as Eq. 2-9.

Hence, for the same energy load, the stress in the "reinforced" bar is 26.5
percent higher than in the plain bar. The enlargement of the cross-sectional area
over a part of the bar is actually detrimental. This situation is not found in the
design of members for static loads.
The use of Eq. 2-24 can be extended to bar systems consisting of several
members. Since internal strain energy is a positive scalar quantity, the
energies for the several members can be simply added arithmetically. This
total strain energy U can then be equated to the external work W, caused
� 2-12. Deflections by the Energy Method by one force for finding the deflection in the direction of that force. To
The principle of conservation of energy may be very effectively used for il ustrate, for the bracket shown in Fig. 2-24 for Example 2-4,
finding deflections of elastic members due to applied forces. General
methods for accomplishing this wil be discussed in Chapter 12. Here a 1 P,BLAB 1 PcLBc 1
U- + .. pA
more limited objective, determining the deflection caused by the appli- 2 AABE 2 AacE 2
cation of a single axial force, is considered. For such a purpose, the
internal strain energy U for a member is simply equated to the external where the subscripts refer to members. A solution of this equation gives
work W,, due to the applied force, i.e., deflection A of force P.
96 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-t3. Dynamic and Impact Loads 97

This method is extended in Chapter 12 to solution of problems with evenly elastic system may be treated as an equivalent sprhg. Using the
any number of applied forces for finding the deflections at any point in spring constant k, the static deflection A.t of the spring due to the weight
any direction. W is As, = W/k. Similarly, the maximum dynamic deflection Amax =
pay,/k, where Pdyn iS the maximum dynamic force experienced by the
*'232-13. Dynamic and Impact Loads spring. Therefore, the dynamic force in terms of the weight W and the
deflections of the spring is
A freely fal ing weight, or a moving body, that strikes a structure delivers
what is called a dynamic or impact load or force. Problems involving such Amax
forces may be analyzed rather simply on the basis of the fol owing ideal- Pdyn = As---- W (2-25)
izing assumptions:
1. Materials behave elastically, and no dissipation of energy takes place This relationship is shown in Fig. 2-39(b).
at the point of impact or at the supports owing to local inelastic At the instant the spring deflects its maximum amount, all energy of
deformation of materials. the fal ing weight is transformed into the strain energy of the spring. There-
fore, an equation representing the equality of external work to ,.'nternal
2. The inertia of a system resisting an impact may be neglected.
strain energy may be writ en as
3. The deflection of a system is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the applied force whether a force is dynamically or statically ap- 1
(2-26)
plied. W(h + Amax) = Pdyn Amax
Then, using the principle of conservation of energy, it may be further
assumed that at the instant a moving body is stopped, its kinetic energy A graphical interpretation of this equation is shown in Fig. 2-39(c). Note

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is completely transformed into the internal strain energy of the resisting that a factor of one-half appears in front of the strain-energy expression,
system. At thi� instant, the maximum deflection of a resisting system since the spring takes on the load gradually. Then, from Eq. 2-25,
occurs and vibrations begin. However, since only maximum stresses and

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deflections are of primary interest, this subject wil not be pursued. 1 (A max) 2
W(h + Amax) -- -- W
As an example of a dynamic force applied to an elastic system, consider 2 Ast
a fal ing weight striking a spring. This situation is il ustrated in Fig. 2-
39(a), where a weight W fal s from a height h above the free length of a
spring. This system represents a vety general case, since conceptually, or (Amax) 2 -- 2Ast Ama x -- 2h Ast = 0

hence
23 This is an optional section.
Ama x - Ast q- '/(hst) 2 q- 2h As,

or Amax = Ast 1 + + AstJ (2-27)

and again using Eq. 2-25,

Ast Amax

External
fal ing
work
weight
of Strain energy
of spring
Deflection
Pdyn = W (1 + + j (2-28)
(a) (b) (c) Equation 2-27 gives the maximum deflection occurring in a spring struck
Fig. 2-39 Behavior of an elastic system under an impact force. by a weight W fal ing from a height h, and Eq. 2-28 giveg the maximum
98 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-t4. General Considerations 99

Long bolts
force experienced by the spring for the same condition. To apply these
equations, the static deflection A st caused by the gradually applied known O'max--dyn -- 177 1+ 1 + 1.66 x -6 = 243 MPa
weight W is computed by the formulas derived earlier.
After the effective dynamic force Pdyn is found, it may be used in com- The large dif erence in the stresses for the two solutions suggests the need for
putations as a static force. The magnification effect of a static force when
flexible systems for resisting dynamic loads. A further study of this problem, and
dynamically applied is termed the impact factor and is given by the expres- taking into account the results obtained in Example 2-9, leads to the conclusion
sion in parentheses appearing in Eqs. 2-27 and 2-28. The impact factor is that for obtaining the smallest dynamic stresses for the same system, one should:
surprisingly large in most cases. For example, if a force is applied to an (a)
elastic system suddenly, i.e., h = 0, it is equivalent to twice the same 1-. select a material with a small elastic modulus;
force gradually applied. If h is large compared to A st, the impact factor 2. make the total volume of the member large; Short bolts

is approximately. equal to st. 3. stress the material uniformly, and avoid stress concentrations.
Similar equations may be derived for the case where a weight W
moving horizontal y with a velocity v and is suddenly stopped by an elastic
body. For this purpose, it is necessary to replace the external work
by the fal ing weight in the preceding derivation by the kinetic energy Several cases can be cited as il ustrations of practical situations where
a moving body, using a consistent system of units. Therefore, since the these principles are used. Wood is used in railroad ties since its E is low,
kinetic energy of a moving body is Wv2/2g, where g is the acceleration and the cost per unit volume of the material is small. In pneumatic cyl- (b)
of gravity, it can be shown that inders and jackhammers, Fig. 2-41, very 10ng bolts are used to attach the
ends to the tube. Long bolts provide a large volume of material, which, Fig. 2-4t (a) Good design and
in operation, is uniformly stressed in tension. In the early stages of the (b) bad design of a
Pdyn = W -stl) 2 . and Amax = Ast / gAst112 (2-29) development of this equipment, short bolts were used, and frequent fail- pneumatic cylinder.
where A.t is the static deflection caused by
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION W acting in the
ures occurred.

direction. In Eq. 2-29, W is in U.S. customary

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EXAMPLE 2-tt

Determine the maximum stress in the steel rod shown in Fig. 2-40 caused by a
mass of 4 kg fal ing freely through a distance of 1 m. Consider two cases: one as 244. General Considerations
-- _F __4 kg shown
steel rod,
in the figure,
assume E =
and
200
another
GPa, and
when
for
the
the
rubber
washer,
washer
take k =
is removed.
4.5 N/mm.
For
As pointed out in Section 1-9, for some structural systems, the equations
for static equilibrium are insuff icient for determining reactions. In such
Solufion cases, some of the reactions are superfluous or redundant for maintaining
15 mm
1.5 m  round rod equilibrium. In some other situations, redundancy may also result if some
The 4-kg mass applies a static force P = ma = 4 x 9.81 = 39.2 N. The rod area
m
A = 'rr x 152/4 = 177 mm 2. Note that the rod length is 1500 mm. of the internal forces cannot be determined using the equations of statics
Sohttion for rod with washer: alone. Both cases of such statical indeterminacy can arise in axial y

I 6mm
loaded systems. Two simple idealized examples are shown in Fig. 2-42.
PL P 39.2 x 1500 39.2 For the system shown in Fig. 2-42(a), reactions R and R2 cannot be
Ast --AE + k 177 x 200 x 103 + 4.5 determined using
equations of statics alone. However, for the system
= 1.66 x 10 -3 + 8.71 = 8.71 mm shown in Fig.
2-42(b), whereas the reaction can be readily found, the
distribution of forces between the two springs requires additional con-
Rubber
compression
washer
f max--dyn- A 39.17 ( 1+ 1 + 8.71 x = 3.58 MPa sideration.
tem components
There
In both

are various
must
instances,
be considered.
procedures
the deformation

for resolving
characteristics

structural
of the sys-

indeterminacy
Fig. 2-40 Solution for rod without washer: in order to reduce a problem to statical determinacy such that the internal
 Sec. 245. Force Method of Analysis
tO0 . Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

forces can readily be found. Common 'to all of these procedures, the same
three basic concepts encountered before are applied, and must be satis-
fied:

1. Equilibrium conditions for the system must be assured both in the

local and global sense.
2. Geonetric conpatibi[ity among the deformed parts of a body and
at the boundaries must be satisfied.
3. Constitutive relations (stress-strain relations) for the materials of the
system must be complied with.
Two general methods for solving simpler problems wil be presented.
The approach in one of these methods consists of first removing and then
restoring a redundant reaction such that the compatibility condition at the Fig. 2-43 Force (flexibility)
boundaries is satisfied. This is the force method of analysis, since solution method of elastic analysis for
is obtained directly for the unknown reaction forces. Alternatively, a statically indeterminate
axial y loaded bar.
compatibility of displacements of adjoining members and at the
Deformations are greatly
aries is maintained throughout the loading process, and solution for dis- (a) (b) (c) (d) exaggerated.
placements are obtained from equilibrium equations. This is the displace-
merit method of analysis.
It is important to reiterate that'in any one of these methods, the fun- is temporarily removed, making the system statically determinate. Here
damental
librium,
sequence
problem
compatibility,
in which
consists

they
of fulfil ing
and conformity
are applied
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
the three basic requirements:
with
is immaterial.
constitutive relations.
equi-
The
an arbitrary
the system
a simplified
choice
of two bar segments
structural
is made

system
to remove
to deform,
is referred
the upper
as shown
to as the
reaction

prbnao,
R, permit ing
in Fig. 2-43(c).
systen,
Such
since,

2-15. Force Method of Analysis

www.avs4you.com from the point
(However,
be necessary
of view of statics,
from the point
and, thus, in the actual
it can, by itself,
of view of strength,
field situation,
the
carry
redundant
cannot
the applied
reaction
be removed.)
load.
may
Fig. 2-42 Examples of (a)
Note that only the bottom bar segment is stressed here. Therefore, the
external statical As an example of the force method of analysis, consider the linearly elastic
indeterminancy, and (b) same axial deformation/Xo, occurs at A, at the top of bar, as at point B.
axial y loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-43. The initial y undeformed
internal statical
bars are shown in Fig. 2-43(a) with zig-zag lines as a reminder that they Then if the flexibility of the lower elastic bar is f2, the deflection
indeterminancy.
can be treated as springs. On applying force P at B, reactions R and R2
Ao = f2P (2-30)
develop at the ends and the system deforms, as shown in Fig. 2-43(b).
Since only one nontrivial equation of statics is available for determining
the two reactions, this system is statically indeterminate to the first de- This result, shown in Fig. 2-43(c), violates the geometric boundary con-
dition at A. In order to comply, the deflection a i caused by R  acting on
gree. Here the upward direction of the applied force P, as well as that
the unloaded bar ABC is found next; see Fig. 2-43(d). This deflection is
assumed for R  and R2, coincides with the positive direction of the x axis.
For this reason, these quantities wil be treated as positive. With this sign caused by the stretching of both bars. Therefore, if the flexibilities of
these bars are f and f2, Fig. 2-43(a), the deflection
convention, if an applied force acts downward, it would be taken as
ative. A calculated reaction with a negative sign signifies that it acts in
A = (f + f2)R (2-31)
the opposite direction from the assumed. Adherence to this sign
tion is desirable, although in axial y loaded bar problems, it is not
since the directions of deflections and reactions can be usually seen The compatibility of deformations at A is then achieved by requiring that
inspection. However, for computer solutions', as well as for the more

Ao+ A= 0
complex problems discussed in Chapter 13, a strict adherence to a selected (2-32)
sign convention becomes necessary.
In applying the force method to axial y loaded bars, one of the
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-15. Force Method of Analysis i03

R 2
By substituting Eqs. 2-30 and 2-31 into Eq. 2-32 and solving for R, one
has R1N x3P 1.75P

I
f,_
R = ---P (2-33)
f, + f2

{P -F
-1.75Pf

The negative sign of the result indicates that R t acts in the opposite di-
rection from the assumed. As to be expected, according to Eq. 2-31, this
also holds true for A .
t---2.50Pf
The complete solution of this statically indeterminate problem is the
algebraic
reactions
mining
Inasmuch
becom6
sum

the internal
known,

as member
forces
of the solutions
the previously
shown

and deflections
flexibilities
in Figs. 2-43(c)
discussed
apply.
are particularly
procedures

useful
and (d). After the

in formulating
for deter-

R 2
P
0.75P I 0 - 1,25P 0
Axial force Displacement
solutions by the force method, this approach is also known as the flexi-
bility tnethod of analysis. (a) (b) (c) (d) {e)

The algebraic sum of the two solutions, as before, is an application of Fig. 2-45
the principle ofsuperposition, and wil be frequently encountered in this doubling a displacement, say from A  to A2, also doubles the load. This
text. This principle is based upon the premise that the resultant stress is not so for a nonlinear system. Therefore, for linear systems experi-
strain in a system due to several forces is the algebraic sum of their effects encing small deformations, the sequence or number of loads is immaterial.
when separately applied. This assumption is true only if each effect The procedure just described is very general for linear systems and any
linearly
the deflections
in the effect
related to the force
0r deformations
of another force.
causing
due to one force
Fortunately,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
it. It is only approximately
cause
the magnitudes
an abnormal
true whe
chan
of deflections
number
as well
of axial
as thermal
in the analysis.
loads,
effects
However,
bar cross
on the length
the force
sections,

method
dif erent
of a bar system
material

is not favored
properties,
can be included
in practice
are relatively
important
greatly exaggerated.
small in most
to note that the deformation
Moreover,
engineering

since
structures.
shown
the deformations
www.avs4you.com
In that regard,
in Figs. 2-43(b)
are very
to (d)
it because
ficult.
Three
a systemic

examples
selection of the redundants

fol ow il ustrating
for large

applications
problems is dif-

of the force method to

the undeformed, i.e., the initial, bat' lengths are ased in calculat#g axial y loaded elastic bar systems.
throaghout.
An il ustration of force-deformation relationships for linear and nonlin-
ear systems is shown in Fig. 2-44. For the linear systems considered, here EXAMPLE 2-12

F
An elastic bar at both ends is loaded as shown in Fig. 2-45. The known flexibility
coefficients f and 2f for each of the three bar segments are shown in the figure.
Determine the reactions and plot the axial force and the axial displacement dia-
2F grams for the bar.

Solution

"Nonlineal
Remove the lower support to obtain the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 2-45(b)
system and calculate A 0. Since the applied forces act downward, because of the sign
F 1 convention adopted in Fig. 2-43(b), they carry negative signs. The deflection
caused by R2 on an unloaded system is calculated next. Then, on solving Eq. 2-
32, the reaction R2 is determined. The remainder of the solution fol ows the same
Fig. 2-44 Comparison of
procedure as that described in Example 2-2.
force-displacement
relationships between linear Ao =  f,P, = -2fP - f(2P + P) = -5fP
and nonlinear systems. i
 Sec. 2-15. Force Method of Analysis 105
104 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

and A, = (2f + f + f)R2 = 4fR2 RL

and A = Rf -
AE
Since A -F A2 = 0, R2 = 1.25P
Since A0 + A = 0, R = -ot(�T)AE

Note that the applied forces are supported by a compressive reaction at the bottom
and a tensile reaction at the top. In problems where the bar lengths and the cross-
sectional areas, together with the elastic moduli E for the materials, are given,
the flexibilities are determined using Eq. 2-14. EXAMPLE 2-14
The axial force diagram is plot ed in Fig. 2-45(d). The compr.essive force in the
_bottom third of the bar causes a downward deflection of 1.25P x 2f = 2.5Pf. For the planar system of the three elastic bars shown in Fig. 2-47(a), determine
The tensile forces stretch the remainder of the bar 0.75P� + 1.75P� such that the forces in the bars caused by applied force P. The cross-sectional area A of
each bar is the same, and their elastic modulus is E.
displacement at the top is zero. In this manner, the kinematic boundary conditions
are satisfied at both ends of the bar.
Solution
A free-body diagram of the assumed primary system with the support from the
EXAMPLE 2-13 middle bar removed by cutting it at point B is shown in Fig. 2-47(b). Then, by
An elastic bar is held at both ends, as shown in Fig. 2-46. If the bar temperature using statics, the forces in the bars are determined, and the deflection of pcfint
D is calculated using the procedure il ustrated in Example 2-4. Since bar BD
increases by �T, what axial force develops in the bar? AE for the bar is constant. carries no force, deflection 0 at point B is the same as it is at point D. Recognizing
symmetry,
Solution

First, the upper support is removed and A0 is determined using Eq. 2-18. The F0 = 0 and 2F20 cos et = P
raising
by the
of the temperature
2-13, A  is calculated.
rise
causes
By applying
no axial force in the bar. Thus, by using Eq.
Eq. 2-32, the axial force in the bar, R, caused
in temperature is found.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Therefore, F20 -
2 cos
P
et

Ao = www.avs4you.com
et(gT)L Since L4z cos et = L, L4t = L/cos et
Fig. 2-47
F
Ro=O

F2 F F2 Fm Fm=0 F20 F21 L

P P

{a) (b)
D

(e)
Fig. 2.46 =0 rR 1
t06 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-16. Introduction to the Displacement Method t07

Hence, per Eq. 2-9, the stretch of bar AD in the primary system is

However, since Ao equals

(A,D)O
DD4 in Fig.
-- 2AE cos 2 a
2-47(c),
PL

x
// / / , __ __

R R/?/A/ /
PL
Ao cos a = (AAO)O and Ao - 2AE cos 3 c

where the negative sign signifies that the deflection is downward.

The same kind of relationship applies to the upward deflection of point D caused kaA
by the force F; see Figs. 2-47(d) and (e). However, the deflection of point B is
increased by the stretch of the bar BD. The lat er quantity is calculated using Eq.
2-9 again. On this basis,

FL FL
A  -- AE + 2AE cos 3ix Fig. 2-48
(stif ness)
Displacement
method of analysis
R2
for a statically indeterminate
By applying Eq. 2-32, i.e., A0 + A1 = 0, and noting from statics that F + (a) (b) (c) axial y loaded bar.
2F2 cos a = P, on simplification,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
In this il ustrative problem, it can be seen that the displacement A at
B causes compression in the upper bar AB and tension in the lower bar
F = 2cos 3aP + 1 and F, =
- 2cos 3aP + lC�S'-a (2-34) BC. Therefore, if k and k2 are the respective stif nesses for the bars, the

www.avs4you.com respective
reactions
2-48(c). These
internal
are shown
points
forces
on isolated
are referred
are k A and
free-bodies
to as
k2 A. These

the node
at points
points.
internal
A, B, and C in
The sense
forces

of
and
Fig.
the
internal forces is known since the upper bar is in compression and the
2-16. Introduction to the Displacement Method lower one is in tension. By writing an equilibrium equation for the free
Another well-organized procedure for analyzing statically indeterminate body at node B, one has
problems is based on determining the displacements at selected points
and providing information for finding the reactions and internal forces. -k A - k2 A -3- P = 0 (2-35)
As an example of this displacement method of analysis, consider P
elastic axial y loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-48. The stif nesses, and A - (2-36)
k + k2
= AiEi/Li, Eq. 2-12, for the bar segments are indicated in the figure as
k and k2. An applied force P at point B causes reactions R and R2.
forces and the displacement A at B are considered positive when they act The equilibrium equations for the flee-bodies at i nodes A and C are
in the positive direction of the x axis. This problem is statically indeter-
minate to the first degree. R = -k A and R2 = -k2 A (2-37)
The main objective in this method of analysis is to determine the
placement A, the principal parameter of the problem. In this em Hence, with the aid of Eq. 2-36,
there is only one such quantity and therefore the problem is said to
one degree of kinematic indeterminacy, or one degree of fi'eedom. Thi s: k k2
R = P and R2 - -- P (2-38)
is the only class of problems that is discussed in this section. More k + k2 k + k2
plex cases with several axial loads and changes in the cross sections
the bars, giving rise to several degrees of freedom, are considered in negative signs in Eq. 2-38 indicate that the reactions act in the op-
next section. direction from the assumed.
t08 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-t7. Displacement Method with Several Degrees of Freedom t09

Since in this solution bar stif nesses are employed, this procedure is
often called the stif ness/nethod.

EXAMPLE 2-15 ,k (A- A2)

An
method
elastic stepped
find the reactions. The bar
bar is loaded as shown
segment
in Fig.
stif nesses
2-49. Using
k and k2,
the
as well
displacement
as their
P2[
k 1
areas A and A2, and E are given. [
Soldion
k 2 (A 2 --
According to Eql 2-12 the stif nesses k's for the upper and lower bar segments
respectively, are

k = AE/a and k2 = A2E/b

P3
Therefore, per Eq. 2-36, the deflection A at B due to downward force P is

Fig, 2-49 P] k3(A 3 -- A4)

k + k2 AE/a + A2E/b
,/
According to Eqs. 2-37, Rt = -kA andR2 = -- k2 A. By substituting the LJ
previous expressions for A, k and k2,

P
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
one obtains

P
y

P4 P.
Fig.
with
2-50
four
Axial y
degrees
loaded
of
bar

www.avs4you.com
R - and R2 = (2-3[ (a) (b) (c) freedom.
1 + aA2/bA 1 + bA/aA2
either direction. Therefor e, this bar system has four degrees of freedom,
i.e., one d.o.f. per node.:-' ' '
An application of forces at the nodes causes the bar system to displace
*'242.17 ' Displacement Method with Several. Degrees in a geometrically compatible manner, as shown in Fig. 2-50(b). Here
both the applied forces and the node displacements are shown with the
of Freedom positive sense coinciding with the positive direction of the x axis. Possible
In this section the displacement method is extended for axial y
bars to include several degrees of freedom (d.o.f.). This method is
displacernents at the nodes give rise to several special cases. With no
deflEtion at the ends, one has a statically indeterminate problem. If,
most widely used approach for solving both linear and nonlinear t however, only one node point is held and forces or displacements are
However, the discussion wil be limited to linearly elastic problems. applied at the other nodes, the problem is statically determinate. How-
already noted in the previous section, solution of nonlinear problems ever, if a displacement is specified at a node, it is not possible to also
this method is beyond the scope of this text. specify an applied force and vice versa.
The displacement method is perfectly general and can be used for With imposition of the applied forces and/or displacements, internal
analysis of statically determinate as well as indeterminate problems. forces develop in the bar system. The magnitude and sense of these forces
this in mind, consider a bar system consisting of three segments can be arrived at in the fol owing manner. With the adopted sign con-
stif ness defined by their respective spring constants ki's, as shown vention, the bar segment extension 25 between the ith and the (i + l)th
Fig. 2-50(a). Each one of these segments terminates at a node point, nodes is Ai - A,+,. By multiplying this stretch by the spring constant

ofwhiarechcommon
tothtewaodjobar
24 This

inisegment
ng Eachnodri
s. fortihsegment
section

ebarthiente,trnal
ensifolrcee(az--A/)k/+detisermined.
markedinthefigurefrom1to4,ispermit etoddisplaceverticalily 2Thicsanbeclarifiebynot
is more
d inthge f ectonabarsegment
advanced
ofnodedisplace- and can be omit ed. ments taken one at a time.
11o Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-17. Displacement Method with Several Degrees of Freedom 1'il

Free-body diagrams for isolated nodes showing these internal as well as The displacement method is very extensively used in practice in the
applied node forces are shown in Fig. 2-50(c). analysis of large complex problems with the aid of computers. Two simple
The problem is resolved by writing equilibrium equation  F. = 0 for exarnp. les fol ow.
each node. Thus, beginning with node 1, the fol owing set of equations
is obtained:
EXAMPLE 2-16
P, - k(A - A2) = 0
For the elastic weightless bar' held at both ends, as shown in Fig. 2-5 l, determine a k
P2 + k(A - A2) - k2(A2 - A3) = 0 � (2-40) the node displacements and the reactions using the displacement method. The
P3 + k2(A2 - A3) -- k3(A3 -- A4) : 0 cross section of the bar is constant throughout.
P4 + k3(A3 -- A4) : 0
Solution
It is to customary recast these equations into the fol owing form
Here only A2 and A3 have to be found as A = A4 = 0. Therefore, the system
kl A -kl A2 = P has two degrees of kinematic freedom. The stif ness coefficient k is the same for
- k A +(k, + k2) A2 -k2 A3 = P2 each segment of the bar. Applying Eqs. 2-41 and setting A  = A4 = 0, one obtains
-k2 A2 + (k2 + k3) A3 -- k3 A4 = P3 (2-41) -k A2 = R
-- k3 A 3 + k3 A 4 = P4 a k
2k A2 -k A3 = -P
-k A2 +2k A3 = -P
In most problems, the applied forces Pi's are known, and the remaining -k A3 = R2
Pi's occurring at nodes of zero displacement are reactions. However,
these equations can be applied tO a broader range of problems by spec- By solving the second and third equations simultaneously, A2 = A3 = -P/k,
ifying displacements
develop.
instead of applied forces.
node must have a known (often zero) displacement
As noted earlier, at any one node,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION In such cases, at least one
where a reaction
one can specify
would
either an
then from
be anticipated,
bottom one
the first
means
is supported
and the last equations,
that, in effect, the upper
at the base. The middle
load is hung
segment
R = R2 = P. This result,
from the top and
of the bar does
which could
the
not
Fig. 2-51

applied force or a displacement,

simultaneously for the unknown quantities. www.avs4you.com
but not both. These equations are solved
In this problem, the force method would be simpler
distort and deflects as a rigid body through a distance of A2 = A3.
to apply than the displace-
In typical applications of the displacement method, either the deflec- ment method since there is only one degree of static indeterminacy.
tions A/s or reactions P/s are the unknowns, and for clarity, it is cus-
tomary to recast Eq. 2-41 in the fol owing matrix form:
EXAMPLE 2-17
a k
k -k 0 (a) Consider the same loaded bar as in Example 2-16 supported only at the top
-kl k + k2 -k2 (2-42) and free at the bottom; see Fig. 2-52. Determine the node displacements and the
0 -k2 k2 + k3 -k3 A3
L4l L:l
reaction. For this case, R = 0. (b) Rework part (a) if the free end is displaced
0 0 -k3 3P/k upwards.
a k
Solution
This equation shows how the system symmetric stif izess matrix is
up from the member stif nesses. The pattern of this matrix repeats (a) Here A = 0, and three nodal displacements, A2, A3, and A4, must be de-
any number of node points. This formulation more clearly than the earlier termined. Therefore, this statically determinate problem has three degrees of free-
case of single d.o.f. system shows why this approach is often referred dom. Applying Eqs. 2-41, one has
as the stif lyess method. Excellent computer programs are available for a k

solving these equations simultaneously? -k A2 = R

2k A2 -k A3 = -P
26 E. L. Wilson, CAL-86, Computer Assisted Learning of Structural -k A2 +2k A3 -k A4 = -P
and the CAL/SAP Development System, Report No. UCB/SESM-86/05, -k A3 +k A4 = 0
=o
ment of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California,
1986. By solving the last three equations simultaneously, A2 = 2P/k, A3 = A4 = Fig. 2-52
11:1 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 248. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 113

-3P/k, and then from the first equation, R = 2P. These results can be easily In calculating these quantities, it is usually convenient to visualize the
checked by the procedures discussed in Part A of this chapter. bars cut and separated at B, and to determine A's for each part of the
(b) In this case, a force R2 of unknown magnitude must be applied at the free end system maintained in equilibrium by the forces at the cut.
to cause the specified displacement A4 = 3P/k. As before, A = 0. Therefore, Any
appropriate constitutive laws, including thermal effects and move-
whereas the first three equations established for part (a) apply, the fourth equation ment of supports, can be included in formulating the last equation. If the
must be revised to read bar behavior is linearly elastic, with the aid of Eq. 2-9, the specialized
equation becomes
-kA3 + kA4 = R2
RL R2L2
-- = -- (2-45)
After substituting the given value for 4 and solving the four applicable equations AE A2E2
simultaneously, 2 _= 0, 3 = P/k, and R = 0.
Since no restfictions are placed on the constitutive relations for cal-
culating deflections in Eq. 2-44, numerous nonlinear problems are tract-
able. Problems with internal statical indeterminacy can be solved in a
similar manner. It must be emphasized, however, that, except for con-
2-18. Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear tinuous members of linearly elastic material, superposition cannot be used
Problems with the described procedure. Several examples using the just-descfibed
procedure, as well as some other variations, fol ow.
The procedures discussed in the preceding three sections are very effec-
tive for solution of linearly elastic statically indeterminate axial y loaded
bar problems. By limiting the problems to one degree of kinematic in- EXAMPLE 248
determinacy,
material
symmetric
behavior.
the procedure
bars in Fig. 2-47 can be analyzed
In this
regardless
can be extended
approach, NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
of the mechanical
to include
the stepped bar
cases of inelastic
in Fig. 2-53 or A stepped
upper
bar is held
part of the bar
at both ends at immovable
has a cross-sectional area
supports; see Fig.
A; the area of the
2-54(a).
lower
The
part is
properties
in Fig. 2-45(a),
distinctly
in each part of a two-part
dif erently
having two degrees
stressed segments,
system.
of kinematic
On the other hand, the bar
indeterminacy
is not susceptible
www.avs4you.com
and three
to this kind of
A2. (a) If the material
the reactions
of discontinuity
R and
of the section?
of the bar is elastic
R2 caused
with
by the
Use Eqs.
application
2-43
an elastic

and 2-45.
modulus
of an axial force
(b) If A = 600 mm 2, A2
E, what
P at the
are
point

= 1200 m m2, a = 750 mm, b = 500 mm, and the material is linearly elastic-
analysis.
perfectly plastic, as shown in Fig. 2-54(d), determine the displacement A  of the
In this extended approach, the forces remain the unknowns and step as a function of the applied force P. Let E = 200 GPa. (c) Assuming that
related at the juncture of the two systems by a compatibility condition. at the instant of impending yield in the whole bar, the applied force P is removed,
In su6h problems, a global eqtdlibrit m equation can always be writ en determine the residual force in the bar and the residual deflection at the bar step.
for a system. For example, for the bar in Fig. 2-53, such an equation is (d) Using a stress-strain diagram for the material, show the strain history for each
of the two bar parts during application and removal of force P.

R+ R2+ P = 0) (2-43) Solution

(a) In this approach, it is convenient to visualize the bar to be divided in two, as

shown in Figs. 2-54(b) and (c). The upper part is subjected throughout its length
Then, to assure cotnpatibility at the juncture of the two bar segments, the to a tensile force R and elongates an amount A. The lower part contracts an
deflections at B are determined using two dif erent paths. Therefore amount A2 under the action of a compressive force R2. These deflections must
ends A and C are held, the deflection of bar AB at B is A4B and that for be equal. Therefore, using Eqs. 2-43 and 2-44 or its equivalent, Eq. 2-45, one has
bar BC is ABc; and it fol ows that the fol owing:

From statics:

Fig.'2-53 A bar of nonlinear

material. R + R2 = P
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2-t8. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 115
114

P P 3P
R = 1 + 750 x 1200/(500 x 600) 4 and R2 4
R . R
Hence, the normal stresses are

cr = R/A = P/2400 and or2 -- R2/A2 - -P/1600

As [ cr2 I > crY, the load at impending yield is found by setting cr2 = -400 MPa.
R2 At this load, the lower part of the bar just reaches yield, and the strain attains
A 2 400 MPa
the magnitude of �yp = cryp/E = 2 x 10 -3. Therefore, from the previous rela-
tionship between cr2 and P,
2 gX 10 a
Pyp = 1600 tryp = 640 x 103 N = 640 kN

x// / 4 '/ /x
and A 2 = A = �ypb = 2 x 10 -3 x 500 = 1 mm
These quantities locate point A in Fig. 2-54(e).
(a) (b) (d) Material properties On increasing P above 640 kN, the lower part of the bar continues to yield,
carrying a compressive force R2 = CrypA2 = 480 kN. At the point of impending
yield for the whole bar, the upper part just reaches yield. This occurs when R
P1 = CrypAl = 240 kN and the strain in the upper part just reaches gyp = CrypiE.
Therefore,

A, , 1 NON-ACTIVATED
. 3 3 VERSION
Oyp

00.75
B C
720 P = R + R2 = 720 kN
640
A , :"'"" Contained
www.avs4you.com
and /x = eypa = 2 x 10 -3 X 750 = 1.5 Inm
DLI 
/ --lastic range
plastfloicw 
0.50
2 X 103
2 ' X 10 a
These
is uncontained
Note
information
quantities

the simplicity
on
and

the
locate
P
point
= 720
of calculating
deflection
B in Fig.
kN is the

characteristics
the
2-54(e).
ultimate
limit
Beyond

load,
of
or limit

the
which,
this

system.
load
point,

however,
of the

In
the plastic

general,
rod.
provides
plastic
flow

no
0 0.375 I 1.5 64 mm
limit analysis is simpler than 'elastic analysis, which in turn is simpler than tracing
the elastic-plastic load-deflection relationship.
(e) (f) Strain path in (g) Strain path in
lower bar
upper bar **(c) According to the solution in part (b), when the applied force P just reaches
Fig. 2-54 720 kN and deflects 1.5 mm, point B in Fig. 2-54(e), the whole bar becomes plastic.
At this instant, R = 240 kN and R2 = 480 kN. On removing this force, the bar
From compatibility: rebounds elastically (see Section 2-6). In the elastic equations, such a force must
be treated with an opposite sign from that of the initial y applied force. Therefore,
gl a R2b per the solution found for part (b) based on Eqs. 2-39, the upper and lower re-
A = A 2 or actions caused by the removal of the force P are, respectively, - P/4 and - 3P/4.
AlE A2E
The residual force Rr in the bar is equal to the initial force in either one of
the bar parts less the reduction in these forces caused by the removal of the applied
By solving these two equations simultaneously, force. Hence, for the upper part of the bar,
P P (2-39) Re = R - P/4 = 240 - 720/4 = 60 kN
R = 1 + aA2/bA and - R2 - 1 + bA1/aA2
Lik.ewise, for the lower part of the bar,
yielding the same result as found in Example 2-15.
(b) By direct substitution of data into Eqs. 2-39, Re = R2 - 3P/4 = 480 - 3 x 720/4 = 60 kN
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 2.18. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 117
116

Both results are the same, as they should be, as no applied force remains at the Solution
bar discontinuity.
The residual deflection at the bar discontinuity can be determined using either This problem is internally statically indeterminate since the manner in which the
part of the bar. For example, since the upper part loses P/4 = 180 kN of the resistahce to the force P is distributed between the two materials is unknown.
tensile force, based on Eq. 2-9, it contracts aPt/(4AE) = 1.125 mm. Hence, the However, the total axial force at an arbitrary section can easily be determined;
residual deflection is 1.5 - 1.125 = 0.375 mm, as shown in Fig. 2-49(e). The elastic see Fig. 2-55(c). For an internal statically indeterminate problem, the requirements
rebound shown in this figure by the dashed line BD is parallel to OA. of equilibrium remain valid, but an additional condition is necessary to solve the
problem. This auxiliary condition comes from the requirements of compatibility
*(d) The strain histories for the two parts of the bar are given in Figs. 2-54(f) and of deformations. However, since the requirements of statics involve forces and
(g). As shown in part (b), the lower segment begins to yield first. At that instant, deformations involve displacements, a connecting condition based on the prop-
/x = 1 mm and the strain in the lower bar is A/b = 2 x 10 -3, whereas in the erty of materials must be added.
upper bar it is /x /a = 1.33 x 10 -3. These results are identified by points A in Let subscripts a and s on P, e, and cr identify these quantities as being for
the figures. The ins{ant when the upper bar begins to yield occurs at /x = 1.5 aluminum and steel, respectively. Then, noting that the applied force is supported
mm. Therefore, the strains in both parts of the bar have increased by a factor of by a force developed in steel and aluminum and that at every section, the dis-
1.5 and are so shown in the figures by their respective point.s B. No increase in placement or the strain of the two materials is the same, and tentatively assuming
the stress can occur in the lower bar during this time, as it is in a state of pure elastic response of both materials, one has the fol owing:
plastic deformation. When the applied load is completely removed, the residual
deflection /x = 0.375 mm. Hence, the corresponding residual strains A/a and From equilibrium:
/x /b are, respectively, 0.50 x 10 -3 and 0.75 x 10 -3 m/m. The corresponding
points are identified by points D in Figs. 2-54(f) and (g). Pa + Ps = PorP2

From compatibility:
EXAMPLE 2-19

A 30-in long atuninum rod is enclosed

and (b). The two materials are bonded
NON-ACTIVATED
within a steel-alloy
together.
tube; see Figs. 2-55(a)
If the stress-strain diagrams for
VERSION Aa = As or �a ' Es

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the two materials can be idealized as shown, respectively, in Fig. 2-55(d), what From material properties:
end deflection wil occur for P = 80 kips and for P2 = 125 kips? The cross-
sectional areas of steel As and of aluminum A are the same and equal to 0.5 in 2. and es = crdEs
o ksi
By noting that cr = P/A and crs= PdAs, one can solve the three equations.
A s From the diagram the elastic moduli are Es = 30 x 10 a psi and E = 10 x 10 a
psi. Thus,
20C Steel

i
era Ors Pa Ps

(b)
150
Hence, Ps = [AEd(AE)]P = 3P, and P + 3Pa = P = 80 k; therefore, P
=20k, andP = 60k.
By applying Eq. 2-9 to either material, the tip deflection for 80 kips wil be

dx 100 Aluminum A -

PsL
AsEs
PaL
AaEa
-
20
0.5
x 103 x 30
x 10 x 106
= 0.120 in

/ This corresponds to a strain of 0.120/30 = 4 x 10 -3 in/in. In this range, both

materials respond elastically, which satisfies the material-property assumption
made at the beginning of this solution. In fact, as may be seen from Fig. 2-55(d),
1.67 4 5 6.67 10 tX10 since for the linearly elastic response, the strain can reach 5 x 10 -3 in/in for both
materials, by direct proportion, the applied force P can be as large as 100 kips.
At P = 100 kips, the stress in aluminum reaches 50 ksi. According to the
Fig. 2-55 (a) (c) (d) stress-strain diagram, no higher stress can be resisted by this material,
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Sec. 248. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 119

although the strains may continue to increase. Therefore, beyond P = 100 kips, Solution
the aluminum rod can be counted upon to resist only Pa = Aao'yp = 0.5 X 50 =
25 kips. The remainder of the applied toad must be carried by the steel tube. If the applied force P is sufficiently large to close the small gap, a force P wil
Therefore for P2 = 125 kips, 100 kips must be carried by the steel tube: Hence, be developed in the steel rod and a force Pc, in the copper tube. Moreover, upon
crs= 100/0.5 = 200 ksi. At this stress level, e = 200/(30 x 103) = 6.67 x 10 -3 loading, the steel rod wil compress axial y A, which is as much as the axial
in/in. Therefore, the tip deflection deformation Ac, of the copper tube plus the initial gap. Hence,

A = esL = 6.67 x 10 -3 x 30 = 0.200 in From statics:

Ps + Pcu = 25,000 lb
Note that it is not possible to determine/x from the strain in aluminum, since no
unique strain corresponds to the stress of 50 ksi, which is all that the aluminum
rod can carry. However, in this case, the elastic steel tube contains the plastic From compatibility:
flow. Thus, the strains in both materials are the same, i.e., es = �a = 6.67 x
10 -3 in/in; see Fig. 2-55(d). As = Ac. + 0.0025
If the applied force P2 = 125 kips were removed, both materials in the rod
would rebound elastically. Thus, if one imagines the bond between the two ma- By applying Eq. 2-9, A = PL/AE, substituting, and simplifying,
terials broken, the steel tube would return to its initial shape. But a permanent
set (stretch) of (6.67 - 5) x 10 -3 = 1.67 x 10 -3 in/in would occur in the alu-
minum rod. This incompatibility of strain cannot develop if the two materials are - + 0.0025
bonded together. Instead, residual stresses develop, which maintain the same
axial deformations in both materials. In this case, the aluminum rod remains
15.0025 15
slightly compressed and the steel tube is slightly stretched. The procedure for the
2 x 30 x 106Ps - 3 x 17 x 106Pc" = 0.0025
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
solution of this kind of problem is il ustrated in the next example.
Ps- 1.176Pc, = 10,000 lb

EXAMPLE 2-20 www.avs4you.com Solving the two equations

Pcu = 6900
simultaneously,

lb and Ps = 18,100 lb
A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 2 in 2 and a length of 15.0025 in is loosely
inserted into a copper tube, as shown in Fig. 2-56. The copper tube has a cross-
sectional area of 3 in 2 and is 15.0000 in long. If an axial force P = 25 kips is and dividing these forces by the respective cross-sectional areas gives
applied through a rigid cap, what stresses wil develop in the two materials? As-
sume that the elastic moduli of steel and copper are Es = 30 x 10 6 psi and Ecu crcu = 6900/3 = 2300 psi and ors = 18,100/2 = 9050 psi
= 17 x 10 6 psi, respectively.
If either of these stresses were above the proportional limit of its material or if
the applied force were too small to close the gap, the above solution would not
P=25k be valid. Also note that since the deformations considered are small, it is suffi-
ciently accurate to use Ls = Lc,.
0.0025"
Alternative Solution

The force F necessary to close the gap may be found first, using Eq. 2-9. In
Steel rod developing this force, the rod acts as a "spring" and resists a part of the applied
A s = 2 in 2 force. The remaining force P' causes equal deflections A and A, in the two
materials.
Lcu =

Copper
tube
AAsEs 0.0025 x 2 x 30 x 106
= 3 in 2 F .. 10,000 lb = 10 kips
Ls 15.0025
Fig. 2-56 P' =P- F= 25 - 10 = 15 kips
 Sec. 2-t8. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems
Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

Then if P's is the force resisted by the steel rod, in addition to the force F, and tightened. Find the stress in the tube if the temperature of the assembly is raised
Pu is the force carried by the copper tube, from60 �Fto 160�F. LetE = 17 x 106 psi, Es = 30 x 106 psi, a = 9.1 x
10 -6 p.er �F, and a = 6.5 x 10 -6 per �F.
From statics:
Solution
p; +p' = P' = 15
If the copper tube and the steel bolts were free to expand, the axial thermal
cu

elongations shown in Fig. 257(b) would take place. However, since the axial
From compatibility: deformation of the tube must be the same as that of the bolts, the copper tube
P;Ls
wil be pushed back and the bolts wil be pulled out so that the net deformations
cu or wil be the same. Moreover, as can be established by considering a free body of
AsEs Ac,E th assembly above some arbitrary section such as A-A in Fig. 2-57(a), the com-
presslye force P in the copper tube and the tensile force P in the steel bolts
2 x 15.300025x 106 P' s = 3 x 1715 x 106 p, . . P' = 2017 Ps , are equal. Hence,

From statics:
By solving the two appropriate equations simultaneously, it is found tha t Pu = Pu = Ps = P
6.9 kips and P's = 8.1 kips, or Ps = P} + F = 18.1 kips.
If (cryp)s = 40 ksi and (cryp)c = 10 ksi, the limit lead for this assembly can be From compatibility:
determined as fol ows:

Pull = (Cryp)sAs +'(f yp)cuAcu = 110 kips

At the ultimate
initial lengths of the
lo&d, both
parts
materials
is of no consequence.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
yield, therefore, the small discrepancy in the and
This
2-9,
kinematic
becomes
relation, on the basis of Fig. 2-57(b) with the aid of Eqs. 2-18

EXAMPLE 2-21
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a(gT)Lu AuEu = as(gT)L
PuLcu
+
PsLs

A copper tube 12-in long and having a cross-sectional area of 3 in 2 is placed or, since L = L, �T = 100 � and 0.442 in 2 is the cross section of one bolt,
between two very rigid caps made of Invar27; see Fig. 2-57(a). Four -in steel
bolts are symmetrically arranged parallel to the axis of the tube and are lightly 9.1 x 10 -6 X 100 -
Pcu
3 x 17 x 106
27 Invar is a steel alloy which at ordinary temperatures has an a  0 and for Ps
this reason is used in the best grades of surveyor's tapes and watch springs. = 6.5 X 10 -6 X 100 +
4 x 0.442 x 30 x 10 a
Elastic deformations

By solving the two equations simultaneously, P = 6750 lb. Therefore, the stress
in the copper tube is crc = 6750/3 = 2250 psi.
Thermal d
The kinematic expression just used may also be set up on the basis of the
fol owing statement: the dif erential expansion of the two materials due to the
change in temperature is accommodated by or is equal to the elastic deformations
Final
position
that take place in the two materials.

EXAMPLE 2-22

A steel bolt having a cross-sectional area A = 1 in 2 is used to grip two steel

washers of total thickness, L, each having the cross-sectional area A2 = 9 in2;
(a) see Fig. 2-58(a). If the bolt in this assembly is tightened initial y so that its stress
Fig. 2-57
 Sec. 2-t8. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear Problems 123
1:22 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

By solving the two equations simultaneously,

P P
X - = 0.1P = 1500 lb.
1 + A2/A 1 + 9
ml

Therefore, the increase of the stress in the bolt is X/A = 1500 psi, and the
= 9A 1
stress in the bolt after the application of the force P becomes 21,500 psi. This
remarkable result indicates that most of the applied force is carried by decreasing
Section a-a
t t--tft tt tit the initial compressive force on the assembled washers since Y = 0.9P.
h h- Y
The solution is not valid if one of the materials ceases to behave elastically or
if the applied force is such that the initial procompression of the assembled parts
h h+x
is destroyed.
P Situations approximating the above idealized problem are found in many prac-
(a) (b) (c) . tical applications. A hot rivet used in the assembly of plates, upon cooling, de-
Fig. 2-58 velops within it enormous tensile stresses. Thoroughly tightened bolts, as in a
head of an automobile engine or in a flange of a pressure vessel, have high initial
tensile stresses; so do the steel tendons in a prostressed concrete beam. It is
is 20 ksi, what wil be the final stress in this bolt after a force P = 15 kips is crucial y important that on applying the working loads, only a small increa�e
applied to the assembly? occurs in the initial tensile stresses.

Solution

A free-body
58(b), where
force in the washers.
corresponding
It is the initial
From
to the initial conditions
statics,
NON-ACTIVATED
of the assembly
tensile force in the bolt, and Ic is the initial
It = Io A free-body
is in Fig. 2-
compressive VERSION
of the assembly after the
EXAMPLE
Extend
2-23
the solution of Example 2-14 for the frame shown in Fig. 2-59(a) into the
force
the tensile
the washers
P is applied
force in the bolt,'and Y is the
due to P. As a result of these
is shown in Fig.
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2-58(c), where X designates the increase
decrease
forces,
in plastic range of material
in the compressive
X and Y, if the adjacent
force on
behavior
parts
and plot
cross-sectional
havior with the
area
material
A of each
yielding
bar is the
at crvp.
same.
a force-displacement
Assume ideal
diagram.
elastic-plastic
The
be-

remain in contact, the bolt elongates the same amount as the washers expand
elastically. Hence, the final conditions are as fol ows: P

Ovp A
From statics:
B
I + 2 cosa
P + (I- Y) = (I, +X) B D
A ' F2 F, F2
I + 2 cos 3 a
or since Ic = I,
X+Y=P
o /
x, Elastic

/ range

From compatibility:
c AlE
Abolt  Awasher s COS 20
O,p L
c' P
By applying Eq. 2-9, (c)
P
(b)

XL YL A2 (a)
Fig. 2-59
A - A2E
 Sec. 2-19. Dif erential Equation Approach for Deflections 't25
Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

Solution ,.282-19. Alternative Dif erential Equation Approach for

Deflections
The equilibrium equation for forces atjoint C, Fig. 2-59(c), recognizing symmetry,
is In Section 2-7, the axial deflection u of a bar was in essence determined
by solving a first-order dif erential ex = du/dx, Eq. 2-6. It is instructive
F + 2F2cosat = P to reformulate this problem as a second-order equation. Such an equation
for linearly elastic materials fol ows from two observations. First, since,
The compatibility equation at joint C, Fig. 2-59(a), relating the elongations in in general, du/dx =  = cr?E = P/AE, one has
bars AC' and DC' with that of bar BC' is

A 2 = A COS at (2-46)
p = AEx x
In both of these equations, it is assumed that the deformations are small.
ever, these equations hold true whether the bar material behaves elastically
plastically.
By noting that the inclined bars are L/(cos ct) long, using Eq. 2-9 and the es- The second relation is based on the equilibrium requirements for an in-
tablished compatibility equation, finitesimal element of an axial y loaded bar. For this purpose, consider
a typical element such as that in Fig. 2-60, where all forces are shovn
F2[L/cos at] FL with a positive sense according to the previously adopted sign convention.
--cosat or F2 = Fcos 2at SinceFx = 0ordP +pdx = 0, and
AE AE

By substituting the last expression into the equilibrium equation at joint C, and
simplifying leads-to the same results
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
as found in Example
dx - P
2-14:
n
(2-47)

P and F2 1 + 2c0sP 3at

F = 1 + 2c0s 3at. www.avs4you.com
This equation
-

states that the rate of change

cos 2 at (2-34)

with x of the internal axial

It is seen from this solution that the maximum force occurs in the vertical bar.
At the impending yield Fl = crypA, and, per Eq. 2.9, A  = crypL/E. By substituting
force P is equal to the negative of the applied force p. On this 'basis,
assuming AE constant,
F, = crypA into the left side of Eq. 2-34, the force P = crypA(1 + 2 cos 3 a) at
the limit of elastic behavior is obtained. This value of P occurring at A  = CrypL/
E is identified by point A in Fig. 2-59(c).
By increasing force P above the first yield in the vertical bar, force F = crvpA
remains constant, and the equation of statics at joint C is sufficient for determining xx = AE xx or AE dx 2 - p (2-48)
force F2 until the stress in the inclined bars reaches Cryp. This occurs when F2 =
CryvA. At the impending yield in the inclined bars, and the vertical bar already
yielding, the joint C equilibrium equation gives P = CrypA(1 q- 2 cos ct). This 2a This section is optional; can be studied after Section 2-7 before the accom-
condition corresponds to the plastic litnit load for the system. Note that the pro- panying examples.
cedure of finding this load is rather simple, as the system is statically determinate
when the limit load is reached. In Chapter 13, such a limit load is associated with Px lb per
unit length
the concept of the collapse mechanism.
At the impending yield in the inclined bars, per Eq. 2-9, A2 = (CrypiE)[L/cos or] p P+dP
and A  = A2/cos ct = CrypL/(E cos 2 cO. This value of A  locates the abscissa for
point B in Fig. 2-59(c). Beyond this point, all bars continue to yield without bound
based on ideal plasticity.  -dx  Fig. 2-60 Infinitesimal
element of an axial y loaded
bar.
 Problems
Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

Itisimporttonotanttheatthtehreebasiconcept
c ofengis neeri
me-ng
The constants of integration C and C2 can be found by noting that the deflection
chanics of solids are included in deriving this governing dif erential equa- t is zero at both ends, i.e., u(0) = 0 and u(L) = 0. Hence, from the last equation,
tion. The requirements of statics are satisfied by making use of Eq. 2-47,
and that of kinematics through the use of Eq. 2-6. The constitutive relation AEu(0) = 0 and C2 = 0
is defined by Eq. 2-3. A solution of Eq. 2-48 subject to the prescribed AEu(L) = poL2/2 + CL = 0 and C = - poL/2
boundary conditions constitutes a solution of any given axial y loaded
elastic bar problem. Equation 2-48 is equally applicable to statically de- Since u'(x) = du/dx, from Eq. 2-46,
terminate and statically indeterminate problems. However for ease of
R2 = P(O) = AE u'(O) = -poL/2
solution px/AE should be a continuous function. When the function is
discontinuous, several alternatives are possible. One of them consists of
The negative sign shows that this force is generated by compressive stresses.
obtaining solutions for each segment of a bar and enforcing continuity Similarly,
conditions at the junctures? This is related to the statically determinate
procedure discussed in Section 2-7, and to the statically indeterminate R = P(L) = AE u'(L) = poL/2 = poL/2
procedure considered in Sections 2-16 and 2-17. For concentrated forces,
singularity function. s, discussed in Section 5-16, can be used to advantage. These results indicate that the applied forces are shared equally by the two sup-
However direct use of Eq. 2-48 for bars where several axial loads are ports.
applied and/or cross sections change becomes cumbersome. Therefore
the procedures discussed before, including the scheme for dividing prob- (b) The general solution for the problem found in (a) remains applicable. However,
dif erent constants of integration must be determined from the two boundary
lems into statically determinate and indeterminate ones, are more useful conditions. These are P(O) -- 0 and u(L) -- O; hence, AE u'(O) = 0 and C -- O.
in practical applications. Similarly,
The example that fol ows il ustrates the procedure when px is a con-

x X
tinuous function.
NON-ACTIVATED AEu(L)VERSION
= poL2/2 + C2 = 0 and C2 = -poL2/2

EXAMPLE 2-24 www.avs4you.com Therefore,

R3
(a) Consider a bar of uniform cross section held between two rigid supports spun AEu - PO2 (L 2_ x 2)
in a centrifuge such that an approximately uniformly distributed axial force po N/m
develops in the bar, as shown in Fig. 2-61(a). Determine the reactions at the ends.
(b) If the same bar is supported only at one end, Fig. 2-61(b), what wil the dis- As is to be expected,
placements u(x) be along the bar?
R3 =AEu'(L) = poL
Solution
Po\
(a) Using Eq. 2-48, and noting Eq. 2-46, on integrating twice:

d eu and 12 mm in diameter, what axial stress is caused by

Problems
AE x2 = -(-Po) = po the applied force? Assume elastic behavior and let E
du Section 2-4 = 75 GPa.

AE xx = pox + C = P 2-t. A standard steel specimen of� in diameter is elon-

pox 2 gated 0.0087 in in an 8-in gage length when it was sub-
AEu - + Cix + C2 Section 2-7
2 jected to a tensile force of 6250 lb. If the specimen was
known to be in the elastic range, what is the elastic 2-3. A steel rod 10 m long used in a control mechanism
29 This requires the displacements of the abutting bar segments at a modulus of the steel? must transmit a tensile force of 5 kN without stretching
nuity to be equal, and that the axial forces acting on an isolated infinitesimal 2-2. The axial strain for an aluminum rod due to an more than 3 mm, nor exceeding an allowable stress of
(a) (b) element at the discontinuity be in equilibrium. (See, for
example, the element
applied force is 10 -3 m/m. If the rod is 400 mm long 150 MPa. (a) What is the diameter of the rod? Give
Fig. 2-61 B in Fig. 2-48(c) where at a discontinuity the force P may also be zero.)
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Problems

the answer to the nearest mil imeter. E = 210 GPa.

Does strength or stif ness of the rod control the design?  1800 
(b) Find the spring constant for the rod.
2-4. Revise the data in Example 2-2 to read as fol ows:
P = 10 kips, P3 = 100 kips, and P4 = 30 kips, and rum

2400
the bar segments AB, BC, and CD are, respectively,
4-, 2-. and 3-ft long. Then find (a) the force P2 nec-
100"
essary for equilibrium and (b) the total elongation of
rod AD. The cross-sectional area of the rod from A to
Bis 1 in 2, from B to C is 4 in 2, and from C to D is 2 60" Fig. P245
in 2. Let E = 30 x 103 ksi. (c) Plot the axial displace- Pinned
vertical displacements are small, the.horizontal dis-
ment diagram along the bar. joint
placements are negligibly small).
2-$. Find the axial spring constant for the bar of vari- Fig. P2-'11 2-'16. A planar mechanical system consists of two rigid
able cross section in Example 2-2. bars, BD and EG, and three rods, AB, CF, and EH,
2-6. Assume that segments L, Z2, and L3 of the cir- tionless drum weighing 500 kg is placed in the position as shown in the figure. On application of force P at G
cular member of variable cross section in Problem shown, what wil be the elongation of rod AB? Let E the stress in all rods is 15 ksi. Each rod is 20 in. long.
1-13 are, respectively, 600, 500, and 400 mm long. Plot = 200 GN/m 2. (a) Determine the vertical deflection of points B, D,
Fig. P2-9
the axial force, the axial strain, and the axial displace- 2-t2. Determine the shortening of steel tubular E, and G caused by the application of force P = 300
ment diagrams along the bar length E = 200 GPa.
240. In a California oil field, a very long steel spreader bar AB due to application of tensile forces at lb. (Since vertical displacements are small, the hori-
2-7. Find the axial spring constant for the bar in Prob- C and D. The cross-sectional area of the tube is 100 zontal displacements are negligibly small.) (b) Show
pipe got stuck in hard clay (see figure). It was nec-
lem 2-6. mm 2. Let E = 200 GPa. the deflected shape for the system, greatly exagger-
essary to determine at what depth this occurred.
2-8. A solid bar 50 mm in diameter and 2000 mm long ating the vertical displacements. Let E = 30 x 103 ksi.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
engineer on the job ordered the pipe subjected to
consists of a steel and an aluminum part fastened to- large upward tensile force. As a result of this
gether as shown in the figure. When axial force P is tion, the pipe came up elastically 2 ft. At the same time,

20" C
applied to the system, a strain gage attached to the the pipe elongated 0.0014 in in an 8-in gage length.
-aluminum
Determine
system behaves
indicates
the magnitude
elastically,
an axial strain
of applied
find the total
of 873 IJ.m/m.
force P. (b) If the
elongation
(a)

of
Approximately
the cross-sectional
that the media
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where was the pipe stuck?

surrounding
area
Assume
of the
that
pipe
the pipe hindered
was
the elas-
constant and
the bar. Let Es, = 210 GPa, and E^ = 70 GPa. tic deformation of the pipe very lit le in a static test.
20" E /
derrick
'2-13. Determine the
Fig.

elongation
P2-'12

in rod AB in Problem
-20" I F P=300Ibr G
1-43 if it is made of 0.125-in-diameter aluminum-alloy
wire. Let E = 10 x 103 ksi.
'2-'14. Determine the elongation in the 20-mm-diam-
eter high-strength steel rod CD for the frame in Prob-
lem 1-44. Let E = 200 GPa. Fig. P246
Fig. P2-8 2-'15. A rigid machine part AD is suspended by double
Pipe 2-]7. Jr in xampie 2-3, the rod is a ] in  umium
hangers AE and BF, as shown in the figure. The hang-
b weighJag ].12 lb/It, what sou]d its length be
ers are made of cold-worked Monel Alloy (Ni-Cu)
Clay  the free end to elongate 0.250 in under its ow weight?
2-9. Two wires are connected to a rigid bar, as shown whose elastic modulus E = 180 GPa. This material
 = ]0 x ]0 gsi.
in the figure. The wire on the left is of steel, having A yields at approximately 600 MPa. The cross-sectional
2-]8. Wat wil be te deQecdoa of the free end of the
= 0.10 in - and E = 30 x 106 psi. The aluminum-alloy Fig. P2-10 area is 50 mm 2 for hanger pair AE and 100 mm 2 for
wire on the right has A = 0.20 in 2 and E = 10 x 106 hanger pair BF. Determine the deflection that would rod in xamgJe 2-3 , instead of ooke's law,
psi. (a) If a weight W = 2000 lb is applied as shown, 2-1t. A wall bracket is constructed as shown in the occur at D by applying a downward force of 10 kN at stress-straJ relatiosig is  = g", were n is a
how much wil it deflect due to the stretch in the wires? figure. All joints may be considered pin-connected. C. Check hanger stresses to assure that an elastic so- her dependent on the progenies of the material?
(b) Where should the weight be located such that the Steel rod AB
has a cross-sectional area of 5 mm 2. Mem- lution is applicable. Sketch deflected member AD, 2-]9. A rod of two derent cross-sectional areas
bar would remain horizontal? ber BC is a rigid beam. If a 1000-mm diameter fric- greatly exaggerating the vertical displacements (since made of soft cogget and is subjected to a tensile load
t30 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Problems

20 rnm change in the length of the rod due to the application

A = 1 in 2 A = � in 2 I1
of force P. Assume that the support provided for the
/e' ' P
i1 25 mm
rod by the surrounding material varies linearly as
shown. Express the answer in terms of P, A, a, and
E, where E is the elastic modulus of the rod.
2-26. For the same frame as in Example 2-4, Fig.
600 mm
Fig. P249 150 rn
2-24, find the horizontal and vertical deflections at
point B caused by applying a horizontal force of 3 kips
at B. Assume linearly elastic behavior of the material.
as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the elongation 2-27. Determine horizontal and vertical elastic dis-
of the rod caused by the application of force P = 5 placements of load point B for the two-bar system hav-
kips. Assume that the axial stress-strain relationship ing the dimensions shown in the figure. Assume that
is 75 rnrn
for each bar, AE = 104 kips.
 = call6,000 + (cr/165) 3
Fig. P2-23
Fig. P2-2i '
where cr is in ksi. (b) Find the residual bar elongation '2-24. Find the total elongation A of a slender elastic
upon removal of force P. Assume that during unloa.d- weight when hung from the top. The mass per unit bar of constant cross-sectional area A, such as shown
ing, copper behaves as a linearly elastic material with volume for this material is 'y and the elastic modulu in the figure, if it is rotated in a horizontal plane with 100"
an E equal to the tangent to the virgin cr-e curve at the is E. an angular velocity of to radians per second. The unit
origin.' 2-22. Two bars are to be cut from a 1-in-thick metal weight of the material is % Neglect the small amount
2-20. A two-bar system has the configuration shown plate so that both bars have a constant thickness of of extra material by the pin. Hint: First find the stress
in the figure. The cross-sectional area for bar AB is in. Bar A'is to have a constant width of 2 in throughout at a section a distance r from the pin by integrating the
0.200 in 2 and for bar BC is 0.150 in 2. If the stress-strain

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
its entire length. Bar B is to be 3 in wide at the effect of the inertial forces between r and L. See Ex-
diagram for the rods is bilinear as shown, how 'much and 1 in wide at the bottom. Each bar is to be subjected ample 1-6. Fig. P2-27
would each wire elongate due to the application of ver- to the same load P. Determine the ratio LA/LB so that
tical force P = 4 kips?

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both bars wil stretch the same amount. Neglect the 2-28. For the data given in Problem 2-20, assuming
weight of the bar. linearly elastic behavior, find the horizontal and ver-
tical displacements of load point B. Let E = 10 x 103
-A 4-54- ksi.
2-29. A jib crane has the dimensions shown in the
figure. Rod AB has a cross-sectional area of 300 mm 2
Fig. P2-24 and tube BC, 320 mm 2. (a) Find the vertical stif ness

'P
38'
=4k 
' '2-25.
is bonded
An elastic rod having
to the surrounding
a cross-sectional
material, which
area
has
A
a
of the crane
flection
Let E
at point

=
B. (b) Determine
caused
200 GPa.
by the application of force
the vertical
P = 16 kN.
de-

thickness a, as shown in the figure. Determine the

oksi E2 =5 X 103 ksi

10Ei--10X
103ksi Fig. P2-22 Rod 

2-2'i. The small tapered

Fig. P2-20

symmetric. piece shown in the

2-23. The dimensions of a frustum of a right
cone supported

material
at the large end on a rigid
shown in the figure. Determine the deflection
top due to the weight of the body. The unit weight
is 'y; the elastic modulus is E. H�nt:
base
of the io yO unitdistarcence)per 2000
figure is cut from a 4-mm-thick plate. Determine the the origin of the coordinate axes at the vertex of
increase in length of this piece caused by its own extended cone. Fig. P2-25 Fig. P2-29
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Problems t33

Section 2-8 Sections 24'1 and 242

2-30. A steel bar 2 in wide and 0.5 in thick is 25 in 2-40. Verify the vertical deflection of point B caused
long, as shown in the figure. On application of force by applied force P = 3 kips in Example 2-4 using Eq.
P, the bar width becomes narrower by 0.5 x 10 -3 in. 2-24.

Estimate the magnitude of applied force P and the axial 24

2-41. By applying Eq. 2-24, find the deflection of point
elongation of the bar. Assume elastic behavior and Fig. P2-37 G in Problem 2-16.
take E = 30 x 10 3 ksi and v = 0.25. 2-42. Find the vertical deflection of point B caused
by the applied load in Problem 2-27 using Eq. 2-24.
Fig. P2-32 stress concentration factors from Fig. 2-32. Where 2-43. Find the vertical deflection of point B caused
might a potential fracture occur? by the applied force P in Problem 2-29 using Eq. 2-24.
dency for thermal expansion is counteracted by 2-38. A machine part of constant thickness for trans-
contraction. 2-44. A mechanical system consisting of a steel
mit ing cyclical axial loading should have the dimen-
2-33. For the data given in Problem 2-20, find the spreader bar AB and four high-strength steel rods, AC,
sions shown in the figure. (a) Select the thickness
Fig. P2-30 CB, AD, and DB, is subjected to forces at C and D,
tical and horizontal displacement of point B caused needed in the member for transmit ing an axial force
as shown in the figure. Determine the increase in dis-
a rise in temperature of 100 �F in the rod. As: of 12 kN in order to limit the maximum stress to 80
2-3t, A 10-mm-thick low-alloy-steel plate 150 mm tance CD that would occur on applying the two 8-kN
elastic behavior and use a and E given in Table 1 MPa. Approximate the stress concentration factors forces. Both bars AC and CB have a cross-sectional
wide and 2000 mm long is subjected to a set of uni: the Appendix for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. from Fig. 2-32. (b) Where might a potential fracture
formly distributed frictional forces along its two edges, area of 20 mm 2, arid both bars AD and DB, 40 mm 2.
2-34. For the data given in Problem 2-29, find the occur?
as shown in the figure. If the total decrease in the trans- The cross-sectional area of the spreader bar is 100
tical and horizontal displacements of point B mm 2. Let E = 200 GPa.
verse 150-mm dimension at section a-a due to the ap- by a rise in temperature of 80 �C only in the rod.
plied forces is 15 x 10 -3 mm, what is the total elon- a = 11.7 x 10-6/�C. A
gation of the bar in the longitudinal direction. Let E

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION kN

P
= 200 GPa and v = 0.25. Assume that the steel be-
haves as a linearly elastic material. 1 2
Section 2-'10

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1
2-35. A 6 by 75 mm plate 600 mm long has a circulm
150 _Px N/mm hole
axial
of
tensile
25 mm
force
diameter
that
located
can be
in its
applied
center.
to this
Find
plate
the Fig. P2-38

the longitudinal direction without exceeding an 2-39. A long slot is cut out from a 1 by 6 in steel bar B

16oo ]4oo
able stress of 220 MPa.
10 ft long, as shown in the figure. (a) Find the maxi-
2-36. Determine the extent by which Fig. P2-44
mum stress if axial force P =' 50 kips is applied to the
tensile bar used in a mechanical application is bar. Assume that the upper curve in Fig. 2-32 is ap-
Fig. P2-31
ened by having an enlarged section, as shown in plicable. (b) For the same case, determine the total Section 2-`13
figure. Since the bar is to be loaded cyclically, elongation of the rod. Neglect local effects of stress
stress concentrations. concentrations and assume that the reduced cross-sec- 2-45. Compare the dynamic stresses in the three steel
Section 2-9
tional area extends for 24 in.
(c) Estimate the elon- bars of dif erent diameters shown in the figure in their
2-32. A rigid bar rests on aluminum-alloy and steel gation of the same rod if P = 160 kips. Assume that
uprights, as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the in- 2 !" radius
115 mm
steel yields 0.020 in per inch at a stress of 40 ksi. (d)
clination of the horizontal bar after a raise in temper- P P On removal of the load in part (c), what is the residual
ature of 100 �C. Assume the coefficients of thermal deflection? Let E = 30 x 106 psi. 1.5 kg

. 1F
expansion for aluminum alloy and steel to be, respec- 1  I
tively, 23.2 x 10-6/�C and 11.7 x 10-6/�C. To a

0mm1Tn
2" wide slot (1"radii at ends)
greatly exaggerated scale, sketch the position of the 2
10 turn 15 mm

bar after
would
were
the raise
develop
prevented
in temperature.
in the upright members
from
(b) What
if their
stresses

expanding?
tops
Let the elastic mod- 2-37. A machine part 10 mm
Fig. P2-36

thick, having the

c,_.+ I
uli for aluminum alloy and steel be, respectively, 75 mensions shown in the figure, is to be subjected to (a) (b) (c)
GPa and 200 GPa. Compare the obtained stresses with cyclic loading. If the maximum stress is limited to
those given in Table 1 of the Appendix. Hint: The ten- MPa, determine allowable force P. Approximate Fig. P2-39
 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Problems

response to 1.5-kg masses fal ing freely through a dis- Ab,, the deflection at b due to the application of a unit downward force of 5 kN, as shown in the figure. Ini- Section 2-t6
tance of 1 m. Let E = 200 GPa. Assume no energy is force at a. LetA = 2A2. (In Section 13-4, it is shown tial y, this force is equally distributed among the three 2-56. An elastic bar held at both ends is loaded by an
dissipated through plastic deformation of the impact that this relationship is true in general for elastic sys- wires. The stresses in the wires are well within the
axial force P, as shown in the figure. Cross section A
surfaces, nor at points of high local stresses occurring tems. It is widely used in analysis. This conclusion can linearly'elastic range of material behavior. (a) Deter- of the bar is constant. (a) Determine the reactions arid
at supports. be reached by inspection for statically mine the forces in the wires caused by a temperature
interpret the results in relation to the position of the
2-46. Determine the stif ness required in the. spring, bars.) drop of 50 �C in the right wire. Properties of the wires: applied force. (b) Plot the axial displacement diagram
for the system shown in the figure, for stopping a mass 2-49. Consider the bar given in Example 2-2 and as- A--- 10mm 2, L = 2000mm, E= 200 x 103N/mm 2, assuming that E is known.
of 1 kg moving at a velocity of 3 rn/sec such that, during sume that ends A and D are held and that P2 = a = 12.5 x 10-6/�C. (b) At what change in temper-
impact, the spring deflection would not exceed 20 mm. kN and P3 = 200 kN act in the directions shown. (a) ature in the middle wire would it become slack?
Neglect frictional effects. Determine the reactions. (b) Plot the axial force,
strain, and axial displacement diagrams.
2-50. If in Problem 2-49, in addition to the applied
forces, there is a drop in temperature of 100 �F, what
reactions would develop at the supports? Let a =
x 10-6/�F. Fig. P2-56
2-51. For the 2-in 2 constant cross-sectional elastic bar
Fig. P2-46 shown in the figure, (a) determine the reactions, and 2-57. For symmetrically arranged springs in parallel,
(b) plot the axial-force, axial-strain, and axial-displace- the combined spring constant k = n ki; see figure
ment diagrams. Let E = 10 x 103 ksi. (a). Justify that for the springs in series, as in figure
Section 2-t5 (b), the system spring constant k fol ows from 1/k =
Fig. P2-53  1/ki, or, alternatively, � = n fi, where � is sys-
2-47. An elastic bar of variable cross section, held at tem flexibility, and �i the flexibility of an ith spring.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
both ends, is loaded as shown in the figure. The flex- 2-54. Initial y, on applying a 3-kN force to a rigid bar
ibilities.of the bar segments are �/2, �, and �. Deter- hung by three parallel wires (see the figure), all three
mine the reactions, and plot the axial-force and axial- wires become taut. What additional forces would de-
Fig. P2-51

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. displacement diagrams. velop in the wires if the left wire slips out 3 mm from
its support. Each of the steel wires is 2000 mm long,
2-52. If a load of 1 kip is applied to a rigid bar sus- has a cross-sectional area of 10 mm 2, and an elastic
pended by three wires as shown in the figure, modulus of 200 GPa.
force wil be resisted by each wire? The outside wire
are aluminum (E = 10 7 psi). The inside wire is
(E = 30 x 106 psi). Initial y, there is no slack in the IP

wire. (b)
Fig. P2-47
Fig. P2-57
2-48. Consider the same elastic bar of variable cross-
---200   200 >
sectional area shown in the two alternative figures. 2-58. A symmetrical arrangement of springs is at-
Determine deflection A,b at a caused by the applica- tached to a rigid bar and carries an applied force P, as
tion of a unit force at b, and show that it is equal to Alum. wires shown in the figure. (a) Find the reactions. Hint: Use
A = 0.3 in 2
L = 25'
Steel wire

A2 L/4 t I A = 0.2
/. = 50'
in 2
P=3kN
1 : k = 300 N/mm

l./4 1 k2 = 200 N/mm

Fig. P2-54

AI 1lb L/4

7// / / /. //
L/4
/ /,. // / , 7
Fig. P2-52 2-55.
clination
area of
Rework
bar
angles
BD
Example
as
a to 30 � and
2A. The
2-14
taking
cross
by changing
the
sections
the
cross-sectional
of bars
bar in-
AD
P = 6.2 kN
k = 250 N/mm

2-53. Three identical equally spaced steel wires

Fig. P2-48 tached to a rigid bar support a mass M developing a and DC remain equal to A. Fig. P2-58
i36 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars Problems i37

the relationships given in Problem 2-57. (b) How is the dom are there? (c) Find the forces acting on
total deflection distributed between the upper two springs.
springs? 2-6:3. A rigid bar is supported by a pin at A and
2-59. Rework Problem 2-52 using the displacement linearly elastic wires atB and C, as shown in the f
method. The area of the wire at B is 60 mm 2 and for the one i
C is 120 mm 2. Determine the reactions at A, B, and
2-60. An elastic bar of variable cross section and held
caused by applied force P = 6 kN. Fig. P2-65
at both ends is axial y loaded, as shown 'in the figure.
The cross-sectional area of the small part is A and of Fig. P2-69
the larger, 2A. (a) Using the displacement method, find
2-66. Rework Problem 2-65 after removing force P.
the reactionS. (b) Plot a qualitative axial-displacement Hint: The degree of kinematic indeterminacy can be
reduced by using a relationship given in Problem 2-57. serve as reinforcement. (a) Determine the instanta-
diagram. Hint: Use the relationship given in Problem
2-57 for determining the combined stif ness of the bar neous elastic strength of the column based on allow-
able stresses. (b) Estimate the ultimate (plastic)
segments to the left of P. 1000 Section 2-t8
strength of the column. Assume that both materials are
2-67. A material possesses a nonlinear stress-strain elastic-perfeCtly plastic. For steel, let Cra,o, = 24 ksi,
relationship given as cr = Ke n, where K and n are ma- Cryp = 60 ksi and E = 30 x 106 psi, and for concrete,
terial constants. If a rod made of this material and of Crano, = 2000 psi, Cryp = 3600 psi and E = 2 x 106
-500o5+500o- constant area A is initial y fixed at both ends and is psi. (It has been shown experimental y that when steel
then loaded as shown in the figure, how much of ap- yields, the concrete "yield" strength is approximately
plied force P is carried by the left support? 0.85crut, where Cru, is the ultimate compresslye
Fig. P2-60
Fig. P2-63 strength of an unreinforced cylindrical specimen of the
same material, age, and curing conditions. In order to
'2-6t. A bar of constant thickness and held at both

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
achieve ductile behavior of columns, the use of lateral
ends hgs the geometry shown in the figure. Determine 2-64. Five steel rods, each having a cross-sectional ties or spiral reinforcement is essential.)
the reactions caused by the axial y applied force P. area of 500 mm 2, are  a  b assembled in a symmetrical man- 2-70. A rigid platform rests on two aluminum bars (E
Hint: First find the stif ness for the tapered part of the ner, as shown in the figure. Assume that the steel be-

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bar. Fig. P2-67 = 10 7 psi) each 10.000 in long. A third bar made of
haves as a linearly elastic material with E = 200 GPa. steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) and standing in the middle is
Determine the deflection of joint A due to downward 9.995 in long. (a) What wil be the stress in the steel
2-68. A rod is fixed at A and loaded with an axial force
force P = 2 MN. Assume that, initial y, the rods are bar if a force P of 100 kips is applied on the platform?
P, as shown in the figure. The material is elastic-per-
-7- taut.
(b) How much do the aluminum bars shorten? (c) What
fectly plastic, with E = 200 GPa and a yield stress of
200 MPa. Prior to.loading, a. gap of 2 mm exists be- wil be the ultimate (plastic) strength for the system if
(ffyp)Al = 40 ksi and (Cryv)St = 60 ksi?
L/2 < L/2 � 
/ Z// // /Z/ /,/ / / / / / /, tween the end of the rod and fixed support C. (a) Plot
the load-displacement diagram for
the load point as-
suming P increases from zero to its ultimate value for P
Fig. P2-61 the rod. The cross section from A to B is 200 mm 2 and
that from B to C is 100 mm 2. (b) What wil be the re-
2-62. A rigid bar is hinged at end A and, in addition, sidual displacement of point B upon release of the ap-
is supported on three identical springs, each having plied force?
stif ness k. (a) What is the degree of statical indeter-
minacy of this system? (b) How many degrees of free- Fig. P2-64
-l- 2 mm A = 2 in 2

AI St !AI
Section 2-t7
A=4in 2
2-65. An elastic bar of variable cross section and held
at both
shown in the figure.
ends is axial y
The cross
loaded at several
section for the
points,
larger
as I---250mm---250 mm  A = 2 in 2
L

area is 2A, and for the smaller, A. (a) Compare the:: Fig. P2-68
degrees of kinematic and static indeterminacies. (b)
Determine the reactions if P = 3P, P2 = 2P, and P3 2-69. The cross section of a short reinforced concrete
Fig. P2-62 = P. (c) Plot axial-force diagram. column is as shown in the figure. Four 1-in round bars Fig. P2-70
t38 Axial Strains and Deformations in Bars

2-7t. A force P = 1 kN is applied to a rigid bar sus- 2-73. An aluminum tube is axial y compressed be-
pended
wires are
by three
of equal
wires, as shown
size and the same
in the
material.
figure.
For
All
each
tween
the figure.
the two heavy
If it is known
nuts of a steel
that
bolt,
the axial
as shown
stress in the
pter
wir, A = 80 mm 2, E =. 200 GPa, and L = 4 m. If, sleeve at 80 �C is 20 MPa, at what temperature does
initial y, there were no slack in the wires, how wil the this prestress become zero? For the aluminum tube:
applied load distribute between the wires? A = 1000mm 2, E= 70 x 103MPa, andct = 23.2 x
10 -6 per �C. For the steel bolt: A = 500 mm 2, E
// / / / / , 2'/ / / / / /, 200 x 103 MPa, and ct = 11.7 x 10 -6 per �C.
Aluminum tube

200
mm
100
mm
100
mm
4000
mm  _ Steelbolt
F

P  100 _ ' Section

Fig. P2.71 Fig. P2-73

2-72. An aluminum rod 7 in long, having two dif erent 2-74. Rework Example 2-23 after assuming that the
cross-sectional areas, is inserted into a steel link, as elastic modulus E1 for the middle bar is three 3-1. Introduction
shown in the figure. If at 60 �F no axial force exists in smaller than that for the outside bars, i.e., E2 = E3 =
the aluminum rod, what wil be the magnitude of this 3E. In addition to the normal strain discussed in the previous chapter in con-
force

Ctst
when
psi hnd ct^ = 12.0
= 6.5 x
the temperature

10-6/�F.
x 10-6/�F;
rises to 160 �F? E^,
Est = 30 x 106 psi and
= 107 2-75.
Problem
that the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Plot
2-64
yield
the
caused
load-deflection

stress for
by the
the
applied
material
diagram
force
cryp
for
P,
= 250
joint A in

MPa.
nection with axial y loaded bars, in general, a body may also be subjected
to shear strains. For the purposes
must be related to the applied
of deformation analysis,
shear stress. This topic is discussed
such strains
in Part
0.30 in 2
Steel link: area of each
to rod is 0.35
bar parallel
in 2
Section
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A of this chapter. In Part B, general mathematical
and shear strains are given. Then, by employing
2-t9
definitions
the method
for normal
of super-
position, the generalized Hooke's law is synthesized, relating stresses
*2-76. Rework Problem 2-25 using Eq. 2-48. and strains for a three-dimensional state of stress. Next, in Part C, thin-
2-77. Rework Problem 2-24 using Eq. 2-48. walled pressure vessels and shells of revolution are considered. The gen-
*2-78. Rework Problem 2-56 using Eq. 2-48 and con- eralized Hooke's law is 'employed for the deformation analysis of these
tinuity conditions or singularity functions. important elements of construction. In the concluding part, Part D, a
solution for thick-walled cylinders is developed. This il ustrates a solution
Aluminum of a typical boundary-value problem in the mathematical theory of elas-
rod, 0.40 in 2 ticity, and, at the same time, provides bounds on the applicability of the
equat
solid
ions mechanics. established for thin-walled pressure vessels using engineering
Fig. P2-72

CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS FOR

SHEAR

3.2. Stress-Strain Relationships for Shear

In addition to the normal strains related to the axial strains in bars
discussed in Chapter 2, a body may be subjected to shear stresses that
cause shear deformations. An example of such deformations is shown in
t39
140
Hooke'Law,sPressure
Fig.
VesselandsT,hiWal
3-1.
ck. lCyled inders '
The change in the initial right angle between any two imaginary
Sec. 3-3. Elastic Strain Energy for Shear Stresses t41

planes in a body defines shear strain t (gamma). For infinitesimal elements

these small angles are measured in radians. The / subscripts shown
Fig. 3-1 associate a particular shear strain with a pair of coordinate
/
Transformation of shear strain to any other mutually perpendicular /
of planes wil be discussed in Section 8-13.
z
For the purposes of deformation analysis, it is essential to establish
relationship between shear strain and shear stress based on experiments I I
tJ
As wil become apparent in the next chapter, such experiments are mo
conveniently performed on thin-walled circular tubes in torsion. The
ments of such tubes are essential y in a state of pure shear stress. An (a) (b)
il ustration of the conditions prevailing in a tube wall are shown in Fig. 3-3 Shear stress-strain diagrams; (a) typical and (b) idealized for a ductile
3-2. The corresponding shear strains can be determined from the material.
priate geometric measurements. Fig. 3-4 Linear or Hookean
where G is a constant of proportionality called the shear modulus of elas- relation between pure shear
Note that per Section 1-4, the shear stresses on mutually perpendicula stress and strain.
ticity, or the modulus of rigidity. Like E, G is a constant for a given
planes are equal; see Fig. 3-2(a). Moreover, since in this discussion,
stresses and strains are limited to a planar case, the subscripts for
material. For emphasis, the relationship given by Eq. 3-1 is shown in Pig.
3-4.
can be omit ed; see Fig. 3-2(b). By using experiments with thin-walled
tubes, the generated shear stress-strain diagrams, except for their scale
greatly resemble those usually found for tension specimens (See Figs. 2- EXAMPLE 3-t
5, 2-6, and 2-13).
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
One of the shear mountings for a small piece of vibrating mechanical equipment
Two ,-/di_agrams are shown in Fig. 3-3. In the idealized diagram of
has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3-5. The 8-mm thick pad of Grade 50 rubber 
elspectastiveliyc, -perfectly the
plastic yield behavistressor,
shear
Fig. 3-3(b), ,yp and /yp designate, re-
and the shear yield strain.
has G = 0.64 N/mm 2. Determine the shear spring constant ks for this mounting.
Neglect'the stif ness of the outer metal plates to which the rubber is bonded.

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Fig.
deformations
3-1 Possible
of
shear
an element. In numerous technical problems, the shear stresses do not exceed the Solution
yield strength of the material. in this range of stress,
just as for axial y loaded bars, a linear relationship between pure shear A GA
stress and the angle / it causes can be 'postulated. Therefore, mathe- Here 3' '; hence from Eq. 3-1, x = Cry - t

maticextalleynsiof, Hooke'
onlawfosrhearstress
andstraireads
n
(a)

Further, '- F = ,ab - G Aabt

,x F
F Gab 0.64 x 20 x 40
Therefore, ks - - - = 64 N/mm
A t 8
y

This solution neglects small local effects at the ends since no shear stresses act (b)
at the two boundaries. Fig. 3-5

3-3. Elastic Strain Energy for Shear Stresses

An expression for the elastic strain energy for an infinitesimal element in
pure shear may be established in a manner analogous to that for one in
o  c uniaxial stress. Thus, consider an element in a state of shear, as shown
Fig. 3-2 Element in pure  P. B. Lindley, Engineering Design with Natural Rubber (Hertford, England:
shear. (a) (b) Malaysian Rubber Producers' Research Association, 1978).
 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Oylinders Sec. 3.4. Mathematical Definition of Strain 43

GENERALIZED CONCEPTS OF STRAIN AND

NOOKE'S LAW

**33-4. Mathematical Definition of Strain

Since strains generally vary from point to point, the definitions of strain
must relate to an infmitesimal element. With this in mind, consider an
extensional strain taking place in one direction, as shown in Fig. 3-7(a).
(a) . Some points like A and B move to A' and B', respectively. During strain-
Fig. 3-6 An element for x ing, point A experiences a displacement u. The displacement of point B
deriving strain energy due to is t q- A u, since in addition to the rigid-body displacement u, common
pure shear stresses. � (b)
to the whole element Ax, a stretch Au takes place within the element.
On this basis, the definition of the extensional or normal strain is 4
in Fig. 3-6(a). The deformed shape of this element is shown in Fig. 3-6(b),
where it is assumed that the bottom plane of the element is fixed in po- A u du
sition. 2 As this element is deformed, the force on the top plane reaches  = lim - (3-6)
,.-.,o A x dx
a final value of � dx dz. The total displacement of this force for a small
deformation of the element is ' dy; see Fig. 3-6(b). Therefore, since the 3 This and the next section can be omit ed without loss of continuity in the
external work done on the element is equal to the internal recoverable text.
4 A more fundamental definition of extensional strain, more amenable to the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
elastic strain energy,
more general concepts of stretching or extending, can be expressed, using Fig.
3-7(c), as
1 1 1
(3 -2)
dUshear = 'r dx dz x ' dy =   dx dy dz = D' C' - DC

average force distance www.avs4you.com where the vectorial displacements

ex = lim
axo

of points
DE

C and D are Uc = CC' and un =

(3-6a)

where dV is the volume of the infinitesimal element. DD'. For the small deformations considered here, Eq. 3-6a reduces to Eq. 3-6.
Also see Sections 8-11 and 12.
By recasting Eq. 3-2, the strain-energy density for shear becomes
I A, ,A' B ., B' y, V
0 U ' X, U
shear 2 (3-3) Ax + Au
U
.+dy
By using Hooke's law for shear stresses, � = G',/, Eq. 3-3 may be recast (a)
as

v

(U�)sher= - sher--2G (3-4) + dy

or ! 1

Ushe = fv ol dV (3-5) dy

Note the similarity of Eqs. 3-2-3-5 'to Eqs. 2-20-2-23 for elements in
a state of uniaxial stress. 8x
 Fig. 3-7 One and two-
Applications of these equations are given in Chapters 4, 10, and 12. dx
X U
x, u dimensional strained
(c) elements in initial and final
2 This assumption does not make the expression less general. (b) positions.
 Hooke'
Law,Pressure
s VesselandTshi,Walck.Cylledinders
t44 Sec. 3.5. Strain Tensor

If a body is strained in orthogonal directions, as shown for a two-di-

mensional case in Fig. 3-7(b), subscripts must be attached to e to dif er-
entiate between the directions of the strains. For the same reason, it is
also necessary to change the ordinary derivatives to partial ones. There-
'Yxz = 'Y= Ox + Oz 'Yyz 'Y Oy + Oz (3-10)
fore, if at a point of a body, u, v, and w are the three displacement com-
ponents occurring, respectively, in the x, y, .and z directions of the co- In Eqs. 3-9 and 3-10, the subscripts on ' can be permuted. This is per-
ordinate axes, the basic definitions of normal strain become missible since no meaningful distinction can be made between the two
sequences of each alternative subscript.
In examining Eqs. 3-7, 3-9, and 3-10, note that these six strain-dis-
Ou Ov
(3-7) placement equations depend only on three displacement components u,
ax Ox Oy v, and w. Therefore, these equations cannot be independent. Three in- (a)
dependent equations can be developed showing the interrelationships
among e,.x, eyy, ezz , 'xy, 'yz, and -=. The number of such equations
Note that double subscripts, analogously to those of stress, can be used reduces to one for a two-dimensional case. The derivation and the ap-
for these strains. Thus, plication of these equations, known as the equations of compatibility, are
given in texts on the theory of elasticity.

(3-8) **3-5. Strain Tensor

The normal and the shear strains defined in the preceding section together
express the strain tensor, which is highly analogous to the stress tensor

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
where one of the subscripts designates the direction of the line element,
already discussed. It is necessary, however, to modify the relations for
x

and the other, 'the direction of the displacement. Positive signs apply to (b}
elongations. the shear strains in order to have a tensor, an entity which must obey
certain laws of transformation. 5 Thus, the physically attractive definition
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In addition to normal strains, an element can also experience a shear
strain as shown for example in the x-y plane in Fig. 3-7(c). This inclines of the shear strain as the change in angle - is not acceptable when the
the sides of the deformed element in relation to the x and the y axes. shear strain is a component of a tensor. This heuristically may be attrib-
Since v is the displacement in the y direction, as one moves in the x uted to the fol owing. In Fig. 3-8(a), positive -y is measured from the
direction, Ov/Ox is the slope of the initial y horizontal side of the infini- vertical direction. The same positive -y is measured from the horizontal
tesimal element. Similarly, the vertical side tilts through an angle Ou/Oy. direction in Fig. 3-8(b). In. Fig. 3-8(c), the same amount of shear defor-
On this basis, the initial y right angle CDE is reduced by the amount Ov/Ox mation is shown to consist of two 'y/2's. The deformed elements in Figs.
+ Ou/Oy. Therefore, for small angle changes, the definition of the 3-8(a) and (b) can be obtained by rotating the element in Fig. 3-8(c) as a
strain associated with the xy coordinates is rigid body through an angle of 'y/2. The scheme shown in Fig. 3-8(c) is
the correct one for defining the shear-strain component as an element of x
a tensor. Since in this definition, the element is not rotated as a rigid body, (c)
the strain is said to be pure or #'rotational. Following this approach, one
Ov + (3-9) redefines the shear strains as Fig. 3-8 Shear deformations.

'7y = '7yx Ox Oy ,
2 2

To arrive at this expression, it is assumed that tangents of small angles y = , _ '2yz _ %,2 (3-11)
are equal to the angles themselves in radian measure. Positive sign for
the shear strain applies when the element is deformed, as shown in Fig. �zx = �xz -- --
3-7(c). (This deformation corresponds to the positive directions of the 2 2
shear stresses; see Fig. 1-4.)
The definitions for the shear strains for the xz and yz planes are similar 5 Rigorous discussion of this question is beyond the scope of this text. A better
appreciation of it wil develop, however, after the study of Chapter 8, where strain
to Eq. 3-9: transformation for a two-dimensional case is considered.
t46 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders Sec. 3-6. Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotropic Materials 147

From these equations, the strain tensor in matrix representation can be properties in the longitudinal, radial, and transverse directions, i.e., in
assembled as fol ows:
the three orthogonal directions. Such materials, referred to as orthotropic,
have nine independent material constants, whereas, as it wil be shown
in the next section, isotropic materials have only two. For ful y aniso-
tropic crystal ine materials the number of independent material constants
can be as large as 21.6 In this book consideration is basically limited to
?yx ?yz
 �xx
yx e.
Eyy  yz
�xz (3-12) isotropic
the developed
materials,
procedures
although by properly
can be applied
selecting
to orthotropic
the directions
problems.
of axes,
Notable
examples of these are wood and man-made materials, such as corrugated
sheets or fdament-reinforced plastics.
According to the basic concept of Hooke's law, a linear relationship
�x
The strain tensor is symmetric. Mathematically, the
notation employed exists between the applied stress and the resulting strain, such as shown
in Fig. 3-9. During this process, a lateral contraction or expansion of a Fig. 3.9 Linear relation
in the last expression is particularly attractive and has wide acceptance between uniaxial stress and
in continuum mechanics (elasticity, plasticity, rheology, etc.). Just as for body.takes place, depending on whether a body is being stretched or extensional strain.
the stress tensor, using indicial notation, one can write e u for the strain compressed. The extent of the lateral deformation is analytically for-
tensor. mulated using Poisson's ratio (see Section 2-8). Qualitative il ustrations
Analogously to the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be diagonalized, of deformations caused by stresses applied along the coordinate axes are
having only el, e2, and e3 as the surviving components. For a two-di- shown in Fig. 3-10.
mensional problem, e3 = 0; and one has the case of plane strain. The Consider first that the element shown in Fig. 3-10(a) is subjected only
tensor for this situation is to a tensile stress O'x, as shown in Fig. 3-10(b). For this case, from o' =
Ee, Eq. 2-3, one has e' = rx/E, where e' is the strain in the x direction.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION The corresponding lateral strains  and  along the y and z axes, re-

(:; x yy
0 i) or
(i'�i) www.avs4you.com
o) g2
0
or
e2
(3-13)
ed.,
ticity
6 A. P. Boresi
(New
(New
York:
York:
and O. M. Sidebottom,
Wiley,
McGraw-Hil ,
1985). I. S. Sokolnikoff,
1956). L.
Advanced
E. Malvern,
Mechanics
Mathematical
Introduction
of Materials,
Theory
to the
of Elas-
4th
Me-
The transformation of strain suggested by Eq. 3-13 wil be considered in chanics of a Continuous Medium, (Englewood Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969).
Chapter 8.
The similarities and dif erences between plane strain and plane stress,
defined in Section 1-4, wil be discussed in the next section after the
introduction of the generalized Hooke's law.
The reader should note that in discussing the concept of strain, the
mechanical properties of the material were not involved. The equations
are applicable whatever the mechanical behavior of the material. How-
ever, only small strains are defined by the presented equations. Also note
that strains give only the relative displacement of points; rigid-body
placements do not affect the strains. Initial shape Final shape
(a) (c)

3-6. Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotropic Materials

In this article, six basic relationships between a general state of stress
and strain are synthesized using the principle of superposition from
previously established simpler stress-strain equations. This set of ec
tions
applicable
the same
is referred

properties
to as the generalized
only to homogeneous
in all directions.
isotropic
Hooke's

Hooke's
materials,
law
law. These equations
i.e., materials having
Final
[  '"'shape
% Finalshape Fig.
deformations
normal
directions
340 Element

stresses
of
caused
acting
coordinate
by
in
for anisotropic materials. For example, wood has decidedly (b) (d) axes.
t48 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders
Sec. 3-6. Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotropic Materials 149

spectively, fol ow, using Poisson's ratio, Eq. 2-16, and are e = strain must be multiplied by the member's length. For example, the nor-
-Vrx/E. Similar expressions for strains e, e, and e apply when the
mal deformation Ax in the x direction is given as
element is stressed, as shown in Fig. 3-10(c), and again for strains
e', and e', when stressed, as shown in Fig. 3-10(d). By superposing these Ax = exLx (3-15)
strains, complete expressions for normal strains ex, ey, and e are
tained.
Since shear strains for the Cartesian axes can be treated as
where Lx is the member's length in the x direction. Similar relations apply
for Ay and A. An integration process is used when strains vary along
in Fig. 3-1, for the general problem only, the introduction of the the length.
priate subscripts into Eq. 3-1 are needed. 'From the generalized Hooke's law equations, some useful comments
Based on the above, six equations for the generalized Hooke's law
can be made to clarify the distinction between pJane stress and plane
isotropic linearly elastic materials for use with Cartesian coordinates
be writ en as
strain problems. An examination of Eq. 1-3 for the plane stress problem
shows that Crx and o'y may exist. If either one or both of these stresses
are present, according to the third Eq. 3-14, a normal strain e wil de-
velop. Conversely, in the plane strain problem, defined by Eq. 3-13, the
O'x O'y O'z
normal strain e must be zero. Therefore, in this case, if either O'x and/or
E % are present, it can be concluded from the third Eq. 3-14 that cr should
O'x O'y not be zero. The similarity and the dif erence between the two kinds of
problems can be further clarified from the table, where the stresses and
O'x O'y O' z strains are shown in matrix form.
(3-1<
Plane Stress Plane Strain

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
( rxv 0)
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v
0
o'y
0
0
0
e,-/20)
-/2
0
ey
0
0
0

'/2 ey ,r c& 0
0 0 e 0 0

These six equations have an inverse, i.e., they can be solved

taneously to express stresses in terms of strains. This is left for the EXAMPLE 3-2
as an exercise.
If normal stresses are compressive, the signs of the corresponding term A 50 mm cube of steel is subjected to a uniform pressure of 200 MPa acting on
change in the previous equations for the normal strains. The positive sense all faces. Determine the change in dimension between two parallel faces of the
cube. Let E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25.
of the shear strains corresponding to the positive direction of the
stresses (Fig. 1-3) is shown in Figs. 3-1 and 3-2. In the next section, it Solution
wil be shown that in Eq. 3-14, the three elastic constants, E, v, and
are not independent of each other, and that for isotropic materials, Using the Errst expression in Eq. 3-14 and Eq. 3-15, and noting that pressure is
are only two constants. a compressive stress,
If a body experiences a change in temperature, the three normal
equations should be modified by adding to each the expression given
Eq. 2-17. No changes in shear strains due to a change in temperature e, = 200 x 105 - 200 X 10 3 -- 200 x 10 i
place in isotropic materials since such materials have the same = --5 X 10 -4 mm/mm
in all directions. Ax = �xZx = -5 x 10 -4 x 50 = -0.025 mm (contraction)
It should be clearly understood that Eq. 3-14 gives strains, i.e.,
mations per unit length. If the strain is constant along the length of In this case A = Ay = Az.
member, in order to determine the deformation of such a member,
t50 Sec. 3-8. Dilatation and Bulk Modulus t5t
Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick.Walled Cylinders

3-7. E, G, and v Relationships

B

In order to demonstrate the relationship among E, G, and v, first it

be shown that a state of pure shear, such as shown in Fig. 3~11(a),
be transformed into an equivalent system of normal stresses. This can'
shown in the fol owing manner.
Bisect square element ABCD by diagonal AC and isolate a trian
()
element, as shown in Fig. 3-11(b). If this element is dz thick, then
area associated with sides AB or BC is dA, and that associated with
diagonal AC is V dA. Since the shear stress acting on the areas dA
� , the forces acting on these areas are ' dA. The components of
forces acting toward diagonal BD are in equilibrium. On the other
Fig. 342 Kinematics of
the components parallel to diagonal BD develop a resultant 'V dA act element deformation for
normal to AC. This force is equilibrated by the normal stresses 00 establishing a relationship
on area X, dA associated with diagonal AC. This gives rise to a between shear and
00X/ dA shown in the figure. Since the shear stress resultant and t extensional strains.
force must be equal, it fol ows that 00 = '. These stresses are shown
Eq. 3-11(c) and cannot be treated as forces. 001 002 T
'(b) Force diagram By isolating an element with a side BD, as shown in Eq. 3-11(d), E v E =  (1 + v) (3-18)
proceeding in the same manner as before, a conclusion is reached
002 = -'. The results of the two analyses are displayed in Fig. Equating the two alternative relations for the strain along the shear
This
Fig. 3-1 l(a).
representa. tion
Therefore,
of stress
a pure
is completely
shear stress
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
equivalent
at a point
to that shown
can be alternative
and 'simplifying,

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represented by the normal stresses at 45 � with the directions of the
stresses, as shown in Fig. 3-11(e), and numerically,
(3-19)
(c) 2(1 + v)
001  --0�2  'r

A B
This important stress transformation enables one to proceed in establi: is the basic relation between E, G, and v; it shows that these quan-
ing the relationship among E, G and v. For this purpose, consider tities are not independent'of one another. If any two of these are deter-
deformed element shown in Fig. 3-12, and determine the strain in experimental y, the third can be computed. Note that the shear
DB on two dif erent bases. In one approach, determine strain from G is always less than the elastic modulus E, since the Poisson
stresses; in the other, from the equivalent normal stresses. a positive quantity. For most matedhals, v is in the neighborhood
(d)
Considering only infinitesimal deformations, and let ing sin -  4.

  and cos  -- 1, it fol ows that displacement BB' due to shear is
The projection of this displacement onto diagonal DB', which, to the
of the approximation adopted, is equal to the stretch of DB, is
Therefore, since the length of DB is Va, its normal strain �45� is Dilatation and Bulk Modulus
Hence, recalling that ' = C,W, Eq. 3-1, one has extending some of the established concepts, one can derive an equa-
for volumetric changes in elastic matedhals subjected to stress. In the
-o 2
process of doing this, two new terms are introduced and defined.
e45o = - (3-15 The sides dx, dy, and dz of an infinitestimal element after straining
(e) However, the shear stresses causing the deformation shown in Fig. become (1 + e,) dx, (1 + %) dy, and (1 + ez) dz, respectively. After
12 are equivalent to the normal stresses represented in Fig. 3-1 l(e). g the initial volume from the volume of the strained element,
Fig. 3-1t Transformation of
pure shear stress into fore, if the x axis is directed along diagonal DB, the first Eq. 3-14 change in volume is determined. This is
equivalent normal stresses. applied by taking 00, = 00, cry = -002, and 00z = 0. In this manner
alternative expression for the normal strain in diagonal DB is found. Study of this section is optional.
52 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders Sec. 3.9. Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessels
r I = Inside
(1 + e,) dx (1 + ey) dy (1 + ez) dz - dxdydz

oa p pLridO_ r;dius

 (e + ey + ez) dx dy

where the products of strain e.ey + eyez + eze, + e,eyez, being small
are neglected. Therefore, in the infinitesimal (small) strain theory, e,
change in volume per unit volume, often referred to as dilatation, is
fined as

e= ex+ ey+
(a)

O2

P
The shear
Based
strains
on the generalized
cause no change
Hooke's
in volume.
law, the dilatation c an be found
/r �lA=P 0�
terms
Eqs. 3-14
of stresses
must
and
be added
material
together.
constants.
This
For
yields
this purpose, the first
,oAx pAl=2P= P 2e
P
1 - 2v
--(cr. + cry + cr0 (3-21 (d) (e) (f)
e = ex + ey + ez - E
Fig. 3-13 Diagrams for analysis of thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels.
which
normal
means
stresses.
that dilatation is proportional
NON-ACTIVATED i.e., no bending VERSION
to the algebraic
of the walls takes place.
sum
A sphere
of
is an ideal
The walls of an ideal thin-walled pressure vessel act as a membrane,
shape for
If an elastic body is subjected to hydrostatic a closed pressure
pressure vessel if the contents
of uniform are of negligible weight; a cylin-
tensity p, so that cry, = cry = cr = -p,
www.avs4you.com
then from Eq. 3-21,
ends, a matter to be commented on in more detail in the next
drical vessel is also good with the exception of the junctures with the
section.
The analysi s of pressure vessels wil begin by considering a cylindrical
pressure vessel such as a boiler, as shown in Fig. 3~13(a). A segment is
e = E P or e = k - 3(1 - 2v isolated from this vessel by passing two planes perpendicular to the axis
of the cylinder and one additional longitudinal plane through the same
axis, shown in Fig. 3-13(b). The conditions of symmetry exclude the pres-
The quantity k represents the ratio of the hydrostatic compressive ence of any shear stresses in the planes of the sections, as shear stresses
to the decrease in volume and is called the modulus of compression, would cause an incompatible distortion of the tube. Therefore, the stresses
bulk modulus. that can exist on the sections of the cylinder can only be the normal
stresses, cr! and cr2, shown in Fig. 3-13(b). These stresses, multiplied by
the respective areas on which they act, maintain the element of the cyl-
inder in equilibrium against the internal pressure.
Let the internal pressure in excess of the external pressure be p psi or
Pa (gage pressure), and let the internal radius of the cylinder be ri. Then
the force on an infinitesimal area Lri dO (where dO is an infinitesimal angle)
3-9. Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessels of the cylinder caused by the internal pressure acting normal thereto is
In this section, attention is directed toward two .types of thin-walled
pLri dO; see Fig. 3-13(c). The component of this force acting in the hor-
izontal direction is (pLr dO) cos 0; hence, the total resisting force of 2P
sure vessels: cylindrical and spherical. Both of these types of vessels acting on the cylindrical segment is
very- widely used in industry; hence, this topic is of great practical im?
portance. In analyzing such vessels for elastic deformations, an 2P = 2 pLri cos dO = 2prL (3-23)
cation of the generalized Hooke's law is required.
 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick.Walled Cylinders

Again from symmetry, half of this total force is resisted at the top Etowever, ro - r = t, the thickness of the cylindrical wall, and since this
through the cylinder and the other half is resisted at the bottom. development is restricted to thin-walled vessels, ro  r - r; hence,
normal stresses 0-2 acting in a direction parallel to the axis of the c
do not enter into the above integration.
Instead of obtaining the force 2P caused by the internal pressure (a)
integration, as above, a simpler equivalent procedure is available. (3 -25)
an alternate point of view, the two forces P resist the force developed
the internal pressure p, which acts perpendicular to the projected are
A of the cylindrical segment onto the diametral plane; see Fig. 3-13( Note that for thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels, 0.2  0.#2.
This area in Fig. 3-13(b) is 2riL; hence, 2P = Ap = 2riLp. This
An analogous method of analysis can be used to derive an expression
is resisted by the forces developed in the material in the longitudinal cut
for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels. By passing a section through
and since the outside radius of the cylinder is to, the area of both
center of the sphere of Fig. 3-14(a), a hemisphere shown in Fig. 3-
gitudinal cuts is 2A = 2L(ro - ri). Moreover, if the average
is isolated. By using the same notation as before, an equation iden-
acting on the longitudinal cut is 0-2, the force resisted by the walls of t
to Eq. 3-25 can be derived. However, for a sphere, any section that
cylinder is 2L(ro - ri)0-. Equating the two forces, 2riLp = 2L(ro - ri)0.
asses through the center of the sphere yields the same result whatever
Since ro - ri is equal to t, the thickness of the cylinder wall, the the inclination of the element's side; see Fig. 3-14(c). Hence, the maxi- (b)
expression simplifies' to mum membrane stresses for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels are

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
(3-26)

ferential
The normal
cylinders,
or the hoop
as it gives
stress given
stress.
the average
by Eq.
Equation
stress
3-24
in the hoop.
www.avs4you.com
3-24 is often referred
is valid
to as the circu'
only
However,
for thin-w
as is
Infinitesimal
stresses
elements
0- and 0-2 viewed
for
from
the vessels
the outside
analyzed
are indicated
showing
in Figs. 3-13(a),
the normal

3-14(a), and 3-14(c). According to Eq. 1-10, the maximum shear stresses
in Example 3-6, the wall thickness can reach one-tenth of the inte .ociated with these normal stresses are half as large. The planes on Flg. 3-t4 Thin-walled
radius and the error in applying Eq. 3-24 wil stil be small. Since Eq. Which these shear stresses act may be identified on elements viewed to- spherical pressure vessel.
24 is used primarily for thin-walled vessels, where ri  to, the
ward a section through the wall of a vessel. Such a section is shown in -*----t
for the. radius is usually omit ed.

as shown
forces
Equation

The horizontal
3-24 can also be derived
in Fig.
P in the hoop
3-13(e).

components
must
Because
be considered
of the forces
by passing
of the assumed
acting
two longitudinal

tangential y
P maintain
membrane
to the c
the horizontal
action. Fig.3-15.Thestress0'2actsperpendicultaorlthyeplaneofthefigure. o-
ponent of the internal pressure in a state of static equilibrium. Consider a closed cylindrical steel pressure vessel, as shown in Fig. 3-13(a). The
The other normal stress 0-2 acting in a cylindrical pressure vessel radius of the cylinder is 1000 mm and its wall thickness is 10 mm. (a) Determine
longitudinally, Fig. 3-13(b), and it is determined by solving a simple the hoop and the longitudinal stresses in the cylindrical wall caused by an internal
force problem. By passing a section through the vessel peri: pressure of 0.80 MPa. (b) Calculate the change in diameter of the cylinder caused
its axis, a free-body as shown in Fig. 3-13(0 is obtained. The force by pressurization. Let E = 200 GPa, and v = 0.25. Assume that r  ro  r.
veloped by the internal pressure is prr, and the force developed by the
Planes of maximum
longitudinal stress 0-2 in the walls is 0-2(rr - rr2). Equating these Solution shear stresses
forces and solving for 0-2,
The stresses fol ow by direct application of Eqs. 3-24 and 3-25: Fig. 3-15 In yielded steel
prrT = 0-2(xPo - rrT) pressure vessels shear slip
planes at 45 � can be
prT prT
0-2 -- I
(ro + r)(ro- ri)
pr = 0.8 x 1 80MPa observed on etched
0'2 = t 10 x 10 -3 specimens.

'55
 Sec. 3.10. Remarks on Thin.Walled Pressure Vessels
Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders

pr 0.8 x 1 Hence, A = er = 0.15 x 10 -3 x 103 = 0.15 mm

and 0'2 = 2t 2 x 10 x 10 -3 = 40 MPa
The stress perpendicular to the cylinder wall, or3 = p = 0.80 MPa, on the insi.d EXA[VIF
decreases
setting cr t=o zero
cry, %.on =theor2,outandside. crBei= n0g insmalthel, firstit canexpressi
be onegln ectiend. Eq. Hence,
3-14, one  For
dimensionsan industshown
rial lainboratFig.ory 3-16. a piThelot vesselunit iswilto operat
emple oy ata pressure
an internal vessel
pressure of thofe
650 mm -----

obtains the hoop strain el: .7 MPa. If for this unit 20 bolls are to be used on a 650 mm bolt circle diameter, 600 mm-----
what is the required bolt diameter at the root of the threads? Set the allowable Bolts

0' 0'2 80 40 = 0.35 x 10 -3 mm/mm in tension for the bolts at 125 MPa; however, assume that at the root of
el =  - v - 200 x 103 4 x 200 x 103 the bolt threads the stress concentration factor is 2.
Rubber gasket
On pressurizing the cylinder, the radius r increases by an amount A. For thi ution
condition, the hoop strain el can be found by calculating the dif erence in
strained and the unstrained hoop circumferences and dividing this quantity vertical force F acting on the cover is caused by the internal pressure p of  500 mm --,

the initial h6op length. Therefore,

0.7 MPa acting on the horizontal projected area within the seif-sealhng rubber
gasket, i.e.,
2r(r + A) -- 2rr A Figure 3-t6
= -- (3-27 F = 0.7 x 106 x 'i1(600/2) 2 = 198 x 109 N
gl = 2xr r
that this force is equally distributed among the 20 bolts, the force P
By recasting this expression and substituting the numerical value for el per bolt is 198 x 109/20 = 9.90 x 109 N. Using the given stress-concentration
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
earlier, factor K = 2 and applying Eq. 2-19, the required bolt area A at the root of the
0.35 x 10 -3 x 103 = 0.35 mm

EXAMPLE 3-4
www.avs4you.com x 9.90
125 x 106
x 109
= 158 mm 2

Consider a steel spherical pressure vessel of radius 1000 mm having a wall Hence the required bolt diameter d at the root of the threads d = 2X/- = 14.2
ness of 10 mm. (a) Determine the maximum membrane stresses caused by min. Note from Example 2-22 that initial tightening of the bolts results in a rela-
internal pressure of 0.80 MPa. lb) Calculate the change in diameter in the tively small increase in total bolt stress when the vessel is pressurized.
caused by pressurization. Let E = 200 GPa, and v = 0.25. Assume that ri 

Solution Remarks on Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

The maximum membrane normal stresses fol ow directly from Eq. 3-26. is instructive to note that for comparable size and wall thickness, the
maximum normal stress in a spherical pressure vessel is only about one-
pr 0.80 x 1 = 40 MPa half as large as that in a cylindrical one. The reason for this can be clarified
0'1 = 0'2 2t 2 x 10 x 10 -3 by making reference to Figs. 3-17 and 3-18. In a cylindrical pressure ves-
the longitudinal stresses, 0'2, parallel to the vessel's axis, do not con-
The same procedure as in the previous example can be used for finding tribute to maintaining the equilibrium of the internal pressure p acting on
expansion of the sphere due to pressurization. Hence, if A is the increase in the the curved surface; whereas in a spherical vessel, a system of equal
radius r due to this cause, A = er, where el is the membrane strain on the stresses resists the applied internal pressure. These stresses, given by
circle. However, from the first expression in Eq. 314, one has Eqs. 3-24-3-26, are treated as biaxial, although the internal pressure p
acting on the wall causes local compressive stresses on the inside equal
0'1 0'2 40 40 = 0.15 x 10-3mm/mm
el=-v E-200x 103 4x200x 103 Study of this section is optional.
 Sec. 3-. Introduction
Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders

erical ends, thick end plates are used, the local bending and shear t
ses increase considerably; see Fig. 3-19(c). For this reason, the ends
(heads) of pressure vessels must be very careful y designed. 9 Flat ends
very undesirable.
A majority of pressure vessels are manufactured from curved sheets (a)

are joined together by means of welding. Examples of welds used in

pressure vessels are show.n in Fig. 3-20, with preference given to the
o 1
dif erent types of butt joints. Some additional comments on welded joints
be found in Section 1-14.
Fig. 3-t7 An element of a Fig. 3-t8 An element of
thin-walled cylindrical thin-walled spherical In conclusion, it must be emphasized that the formulas derived for thin-
pressure vessel. pressure vessel. pressure vessels in the preceding section should be used only for (b)

:ases of internal pressure. If a vessel is to be designed for external pres- Fig. 3-20 Examples o� welds
as in the case of a vacuum tank or a submarine, instability (buckling) used in pressure vessels. (a)
to this pressure. As already pointed out in Example 3-3,. such stresses Double-fil et lap joint, and
the walls may occur, and stress calculations based on the previous
small in comparison with the membrane stresses 0. and 0'2, and are (b) double-welded butt joint
ulas can be meaningless. with V-grooves.
erally ignored for thin-walled pressure vessels. A more complete
sion of this problem is given in Section 3-13 and Example 3~6. A
more important problem arises at geometrical changes in the shape of
vessel. These can cause a disturbance in the membrane action. An
tration of this condition is given in Fig. 3-19 using the numerical
found in Examples 3-3 and 3-4.

Fig.
of each
If a cylindrical
3-19(a),
other,
pressure
and' if initial y
vessel
the cylinder
under
has hemispherical
and the heads
pressufization
ends,
were
as shown
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
they would tend to expand, as
Introduction

by the dashed
by dif erent
lines.
amounts
In general,
and would
the cylinder
tend to create www.avs4you.com and the ends
a discontinuity
would
in the wall}
Analysis
discussed
pressure
of thick-walled
in this part.
vessel problem
cylinders
This problem
treated
under
is related
earlier.
internal and external
to the thin-walled
In order
pressure

to solve the posed

cylin-
as shown at A. However, physical continuity of the wall must be
tained by local bending and shear stresses in the neighborhood of problem, acharacteristic method of the mathematical theory of elasticity
juncture, as shown in Fig. 3-19(b). If instead of relatively flexible is employed. This consists of assuring equilibrium for each infinitesimal
and, through the .use of geometric relations, allowing only their
(possibl) deformations. The equilibrium conditions are re-
to those of deformation using the generalized Hooke's law. Then
the governing dif erential equation established on the preceding bases is
0.35 mm
subject to the prescribed boundary conditions. This approach dif-
Detail A
from that used in engineering mechanics of solids, where the internal
statical indeterminancy is resolved by means of a plausible kinematic
(b)
assumption in each particular case. Occasionally, in engineering me-
chanics of solids, it becomes necessary to draw upon the solutions ob-
tained using the methods of the mathematical theory of elasticity. This,
R = 1000 mm
was already resorted to in treating stress concentrations at
discontinuities in axial y loaded bars. Solutions of two- and three-dimen-
problems using the finite-element approach, philosophically, are in
Deformed
shape 9 The ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code gives practical information on the
(c) Deformation of the same of ends; the necessary theory is beyond the scope of this text. In spite of
(a)
cylindrical pressure vessel limitation, the elementary formulas for thin-walled cylinders developed here
at a flat head
suitable in the majority of cases.
Fig. 3-t9 Exaggerated deformations of pressure vessels at discontinuities. o The remainder of this chapter can be omit ed in a first course.
 Sec. 3-t2. Solution of the General Problem '16'1
t60 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders

many respects similar to the methods of the mathematical theory of zent shown. Further, the axial stresses cry, on the two faces of the element
ticity. In both cases, one seeks solutions to boundary-value problems equai and opposite normal to the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, the problem of thick-walled cylinders is rather The nature of the stresses acting on an infinitesimal element having
yet it clearly displays the characteristic method used in elasticity. formulated, a characteristic elasticity solution pr6ceeds along the
the solution is carried further by including inelastic behavior of thi, pattern of reasoning.
wailed cylinders. Both the elastic-plastic and the plastic states are
amined.
Equilibrium
The solution of the problem of thick-wailed cylinders under
pressure provides bounds on the applicability of the equations element chosen must be in static equilibrium. To express this mathe-
earlier for thin-wailed cylinders. This solution is also useful for the desi requires the evaiuation of forces acting on the element. These
of extrusion molds and. other mechanicai equipment. :es are obtained by multiplying stresses by their respective areas. The
on which err acts is 1 x r dqb; that on which err + dcrr acts is 1 x
+ dr) dqb; and each area on which crt acts is 1 x dr. The weight of the
**342. Solution of the General Problem itself is neglected. Since the angle included between the sides of
Consider a long cylinder with axial y restrained ends whose cross the element is dqb, both tangential stresses are inclined � dqb to the line
has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3-21(a).  The inside radius of this erpendicular to OA. Then, summing the forces aiong a radiai line,  Fr
inder is ri; the outside radius is ro. Let the internal presst/re in the c' 0,
be pi and the outside, or external, pressure be po. Stresses in the wall,
the cylinder caused by these pressures are sought.
This problem can be conveniently solved by using cylindrical crrr dqb + 2crt dr - crr +  dr (r + dr) dqb = 0
nates.
perpendicular
itesimai
Since the cylinder

element
is long, every
to the plane of the paper is stressed
of unit thickness is defined
ring of unit thickness

by two
alike. A typicai NON-ACTIVATED
Simplifying, and VERSION
neglecting
radii,
the infinitesimais
r and
of higher
r +
order,

and an angle

tance
If the normal
r from
dqb, as shown
radial
the center
stress
in Fig. 3-21(b).
acting
of the cylinder
on the infinitesimal
is err, this
www.avs4you.com crt -- crr -- r-F-F = 0 or d--Z- + --
variable
element
stress
at a
at
dcrr dcrr Crr-
r
Crt
= 0 (3-28)
distance r + dr wil be crr q- (do'r/dr) dr. Both normal tangential one equation has two unknown stresses, fit and cry. Intermediate
acting on the other two faces of the element are err. These stresses, are required to express this equation in terms of one unknown so
ogous to the hoop stresses in a thin cylinder, are equal. Moreover, it can be solved. This is done by introducing the geometry of defor-
from the condition of symmetry, every element at the same radi and properties of materiais into the problem.
from the center must be stressed aiike, no shear stresses act on the

 This problem was originally solved by Lamfi, a French engineer, in :tric Compatibility
is sometimes referred to as the Lamfi problem.
The deformation of an element is described by its strains in the radial and
. directions. Ifu represents the radial displacement or movement
a cylindricai surface of radius r, Fig. 3-21(a), u + (du/dr) dr is the
displacement or movement of the adjacent surface of radius r +
Hence, the strain er of an element in the radial direction is
u+du

u + rrdu dr ) - u du (3-29)
dr dr

(b) The strain et in the tangentiai direction fol ows by subtracting from the
FiG. 3-21 Thick-walled
cylinder. (a)
of the circumference of the deformed cylindrical surface of radius
62 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders Sec. 3d2. Solution of the General Problem
r + u the circumference of the unstrained cylinder of radius r and 3-36 by expressing them in terms of the displacement u, as given by
the dif erence by the lat er length. Hence, s. 3-29 and 3-30; then the radial and tangential stresses are

2x(r + u) - 2w' u
2xr r fir = (1 + v)(1 - 2v) (1 - v)r + v
(3-37)
Note that Eqs. 3-29 and 3-30 give strains expressed in terms of
unknown variable u.
(1 - v)(1 - 2v) Vrr
Properties of Material
The generalized Hooke's law relating strains to stresses is given by by substituting these values into Eq. 3-28 and simplifying, the desired
dif erential equation is obtained:
3-14, and can be restated here in the form 2
1
(3-31
;r = _(O'r -- ]JO't -- l/O'x) dr 2 + = 0 (3-38)
1
k r dr r2
1
of the Dif erential Equation

However,
deformation,
in the case of the thick-walled
the problem is one of plane
cylinder
strain,
with axial y
i.e., e, = 0. The
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION can be verified
the radial
by substitution,
displacement
the general
u of any point
solution
on the
of Eq.
cylinder,
3-38,
is
which

equation then leads to a relation for the axial stress as

O' x = V(O' r q- O't)
www.avs4you.comu= Ar+ A2/r (3-39)

Introducing this result into Eqs. 3-31 and 3-32 and solving them the constants A and A2 must be determined from the conditions
taneously gives expressions for stresses O'r and crt in terms of strains: the boundaries of the body.
Unfortunately, for the determination of the constants A and A2, the
E u is not known at either the inner or the outer boundary of
O' r - [(1 -- lJ);r q-
(1 + v)(1 - 2v) the cylinder's wall. However, the known pressures are equal to the radial
E Stresses acting on the elements at the respective radii. Hence,
(1 + v)(1 - 2v)
O'r(l'i) = --pi and err(to) = -po (3-40)
These equations bring the plane strain condition into the problem
elastic material. the minus signs are used to indicate compressive stresses. More-
)Ver, since u as given by Eq. 3-39 and du/dr = A - A2/r 2 can be sub-
into the expression for O'r given by Eq. 3-37, the boundary con-
Formation of the Dif erential Equation given by Eqs. 3-37 become
Now the equilibrium equation, Eq. 3-28, can be expressed in terms
one variable u. Thus, one eliminates the strains ;r and e, from Eqs.
fir(r/) = --pi = (1 + v)(1 - 2v) A - (1 - 2v) (3-41)
2 Since an infinitesimal cylindrical element includes an infinitesimal an
tween
coordinate
two of its
system.
sides, it can be treated as if it were an element in a
Crr(ro) = -po = (1 + v)(1E - 2v) I A - (1 - 2v)
t64 Sec. 3.13. Special Cases '165
Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders
Plane of
Solving these equations simultaneously for A and A2 yields It is these stress-strain relations that must be used in the solution process. Trnax
However, the resulting dif erential equation remains the same as Eq. 3- Po =0
38, and the radial and tangential stresses are also identical to those in the

A1=(1+v)(1-2v)pi2-por2o
ri1
.walled cylinder and are given by Eq. 3-43. The only dif erence is
that a dif erent constant A must be used in Eq. 3-39 for determining the
E r - r/2 Or = --Pi
radial displacement u. The constant A2 remains the same as in Eq. 3-42, max

A2 = 1 E+ v (Pi r2o- -po)riri22ro 2' A becomes

1 - vpri 2 - por2o
A - E r2� _ r2 (3-46)
These constants, when used in Eq. 3-39, permit the determination Fig. 3.22 An element in
which *m occurs.
radial displacement of any point on the elastic cylinder subjected to *'3-13. Special Cases
specified pressures. Thus, displacements of the inner and outer
pressure only, i.e., pt  0 and po = 0, Fig. 3-22. For this case,
aries of the cylinder can be computed.
s. 3-43 simplify to
If Eq. 3-39 and its derivative, together with the constants given by Ec
3-42, are substituted into Eqs. 3-37, and the results are simplified,
equations
cylinder are
for the radial
obtained.
and
These
tangential
are
stresses at any point of an elas O'r - r2o-Pi-- r/2r/2- (1-�) (3-47,
C2 C2
/
O'r ' Cl r2
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
and crt = C + -w F- (3-43 ro2/r 2  1, fir is ways
= r. Similarly, , is ways
a compressive
a tensile stress, and
stress
its
and
maxum
is mimum
so occurs
at r

where C - piti2ra - P�r2� --

C2 = (pl 2 - po)ri atr= ri.
rt2 and
www.avs4you.com t'7 -- r/2 For brit le
However,
adopt
mater,s,
for ductile
the criterion
the second
materies,
for the if itiation
such
Eq. 3-47 genery
as md steel,
of yielding
governs
it is more
due to shear
the design.
appropriate
rather than
Note that O' r ' fit is constant over the whole cross-sectional area
the cylinder. This means that the axial stress cry, as given by Eq. 3-34 mated's capacity for resisting normal stress. This issue does not
also constant over the entire cross-sectional area of the thick-walled ise for thin-wed cylinders. In such problems, the mimum radi
inder. stress equal to pt, i5 neglible in comparison with ,. Therefore, ac-
to Eq. 1-10, the relationship between the mimum norm and
shear stresses is simple and dkect, being *m = */2, and either the
Remarks on the Thin-Disc Problem nomal or she yield can be used as a criterion. However, for thick-
The stress-strain relations used for a thick-walled cylinder corres cylinders, the radial stress r may be of the same order of mag-
to a plane strain condition. If, on the other hand, an annular thin disc as *t. For such a case, the maximum shear stress must be found
were to be considered, the plane stress condition (i.e., cry, = 0 and e, = by supeosing the effects from both of the lge nom stresses 3 in the
-v(. + c&,)/E) governs. (See the discussion at the end of Section 3-6.' manner shown in Fig. 3-23. Both of these stresses reach their maximum
For this case, the stress-strain Eqs. 3-31 and 3-32 reduce to vues at the inner surface of the cylinder. The mimum shear stress
found in this manner should be comped with the mimum shear stress
1 1 that a material can attain. Such a vue can be taken as f yp/2, where f yp
is the no yield stress in uniial tension. On this basis,
8r = _(O'r -- l/O't) and , =  (-vcrr + err)
(fit)max -- (fir)max - --
p,r2o -- O'yp (3-48)
and by solving these equations simultaneously, Tmax = 2 r2o - r/2 2
Fig. 3.23 Stress
E E 13 The axial stress cr z given by Eq. 3-34 does not enter the problem, since for transformations for obtaining
�'r - 1 - v 2 (er q- vet) and or, - 1 - 1/2 (;t q- ]Yer) 0 <  < 0.5, this stress has an intermediate value between or, and err. maximum shear stresses.
t66 'Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders Sec. 3.t4. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-Walled Cylinders 67

0'y(ro -
and
Pi = Pyp -- 2r2o

External pressure only, i.e., pi = 0 and po  O. For this case, Eqs.

43 simplify to

O'r -- r2o--P�"--2�-
r/2 (1 -'r/) (3-5� (ar)rnin = 0
(at)av = 10pi 5
(at)av = Pi
(at)max = Pi
)max = 10.5pi ({/t)rnin = 9.5Pi
Since r/r 2 -< 1, both stresses are always compressive. The - 'Pl
compressive stress is crt and occurs at r = ri. Radial stresses Tangential stresses
Equations 3-50 must not be used for very thin-walled ylinders.
ling of the walls may occur and strength formulas give misleading (a) G = 1.1q or t=O. lq (b) q =4q�rt i=3 0 Fig. 3-24

stress is plot ed in Fig. 3-28(b). A striking variation of the tangential

EXAMPLE 3-6
can be observed from this figure. The average tangential stress given by
Make a comparison of the tangential stress distribution caused by the 3-24, using t = 3r, is
pressure pl as given by the Lam6 formula in Section 3-12 with the
given
ro = 1.1r,
by the appro_ximate
and
formula
if(b) ro = 4r4 see
for thin-walled
Fig. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
3-24.
(Crt)a v = pirit = -Pi
cylinders 5
of Section 3-9 if
= 5Pi1
Solution

(a) Using Eq. 3-47b for or,,

www.avs4you.com The
stress
radial
stresses
is nowhere
were
near
also
the true
computed
maximum
by using Eq. 3-47a for
stress.
err, and the results
shown by the shaded area in Fig. 3-24(b).
It is interesting to note that no matter how thick a cylinder is made to resist

(1.1ri)2p,,._2 r/2 [ 1 q- (1.1ri 2r,)2']

= = 10.5pi pressure, the maximum tangential stress 4 wil not be smaller than p. In
(O"t)r=r i = (O't)max this necessitates spe. cial techniques to reduce the maximum stress. For
in gun manufacture, instead of using a single cylinder, another cylinder
(0',) . . -- (O")min -- (1.lr' - F/2 1 + kl.lr, j j = 9.5p, shrunk onto the smaller
and tensile
one, which
stresses
sets up initial
in the outer
compressive
one. In operation,
stresses
the compressive
in the

inner cylinder is released first, and only then does this cylinder begin
while, since the wall thickness t = 0.1r, the average hoop stress given by act in tension. A greater range of operating pressures is obtained thereby.
3-24 is

(cr,)avg = pir_it _ O.pirlrl i -- 10pi

These results are shown in Fig. 3-24(a). Note particularly that in using Eq. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-Walled
24, no appreciable error is involved. Cylinders
(b) By using Eq. 3-47b for or,, the tangential stresses are obtained as before. These case of a thick-walled cylinder under internal pressure alone was
are
in the previous section, and Eq. 3-49 was derived for the onset
yield at the inner surface of the duecylinder to the maximum shear.
(O"t)r=ri = (O't)max -- (4ri7-piri2 r [ 1 + (4rir2)21j = -
17 pi the outer
2uent increase
surface,
in the internal
and an elastic-plastic
pressure,
state
the yielding
prevails
progresses
in the cyl-
(0',) . . = (O")min -- (4ri - ri2 k4riJ J = - p' ]4 See Problem 3-21.
68 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders Sec. 344. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-Walled Cylinders
inder with a limiting radius c beyond which the cross section
elastic. As the pressure increases, the radius c also increases until,
tually, the entire cross section becomes ful y plastic at the ultimate
In the fol owing discussion, as before, the maximum shear criterion
ideally plastic material wil be assumed as

fit -- fir fiyp

*max -- 2 - 2 (3-51

As noted earlier, this implies that fi, has an intermediate value betwei Elastic Plastic

fi, and fir. A reexamination of Eqs. 3-34 and 3-47 shows this to be (a) (b) (c) Fig. 3-25
in the elastic range, provided that 0 < v < 0.5, but in the plastic ran
this applies only if the ratio of outer to inner radius, ro/rt, is less
certain value. 5 For v = 0.3, this ratio can be established to be 5.75 fir = fiyp lB r + C (3-53)
hence, the solutions to be obtained in this section wil be valid only
long as ro < 5.75r (with v = 0.3). The task of finding the stress cylinder with inner radius a and outer radius b, the boundary con-
is more complicated when this condition is not satisfied and is be' (zero external pressure) can be expressed as
the scope of this book.
fir(b) = 0 = fiyp In b + C (3-54)
Plastic Behavior of Thick-Walled Cylinders
The
the
equations
elastic
of static
or plastic state
equilibrium
is considered.
are applicable,
Hence,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION regardless
Eq. 3-28 is
of
Hence, the integration constant

C =
C is given

--fiyp In b
as

www.avs4you.com
but must be supplemented by a yield condition.
radial and tangential stresses are then obtained, using Eqs. 3-53 and
Static equilibriu/n, Eq. 3-28:
respectively. Thus,
dfir fir -- fit
fir = fiyp0n r -- In b) = fiyp in r/b (3-55)
dr r
fit = fiyp 3c fir = fiyp(1 q- In r/b) (3-56)

Yield condition, Eq. 3-51: stress distributions given by Eqs. 3-55 and 3-56 are shown in Fig. 3-
25(c), whereas Fig. 3-25(b) shows the elastic stress distributions. Since
fit -- fir fiyp
plastic state represents the ultimate collapse of the thick-walled
the ultimate internal pressure, using Eq. 3-55, is given as
By combining these two equations, the basic dif erential equation pult = fir(a) = fiyp In a/b (3-57)
comes

Behavior of Thick-Walled Cylinders

dfdrir fiYr P = 0 or dfir = fiyr__ppdr any value of pt that is intermediate to the yield and ultimate values
given by Eq. 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, i.e., pyp < pt < pult, the
The solution of this can be writ en as cross section of the cylinder between the inner radius a and an inter-
radius c is ful y plastic, whereas that between c and the outer
b is in the elastic domain, Fig. 3-26. At the elastic-plastic interface,
5 See W. T. Koiter, "On Partial y Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," Biezeno yield condition is just satisfied, and the corresponding radial stress X
niversary Volume on Applied Mechanics (Haarlem, Holland: H. Stam, 1953), 232
251. Can be computed using Eq. 3-49 with r = c and ro = b; hence,
68 ' Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders Sec. 3-t4. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick.Walled Cylinders
inder with a limiting radius c beyond which the cross section
elastic. As the pressure increases, the radius c also increases until,
tually, the entire cross section becomes ful y plastic at the ultimate load
In the fol owing discussion, as before, the maximum shear criterion
ideally plastic material wil be assumed as

'rmax = fit --2 fir -- fiy2p (3-51)

Elastic Plastic
As noted earlier, this implies that fi has an intermediate value betwe
fi, and fir. A reexamination of Eqs. 3-34 and 3-47 shows this to be tru. (a) (b) (c) Fig. 3-25
in the elastic range, provided that 0 < v < 0.5, but in the plastic ran
this applies only if the ratio of outer to inner radius, ro/ri, is less than
certain value? For v = 0.3, this ratio can be established to be fir = fiyp In r + C (3-53)
hence, the solutions to be obtained in this section wil be valid only
long as ro < 5.75ri (with v = 0.3). The task of finding the stress a cylinder with inner radius a and outer radius b, the boundary con-
is more complicated when this condition is not satisfied and is be' (zero external pressure) can be expressed as
the scope of this book.
fir(b) = 0 = fiyp In b + C (3-54)
Plastic Behavior of Thick-Walled Cylinders
The equations
the elastic
of static equilibrium
or plastic state is considered.
are appl/cable,
Hence,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION regardless
Eq. 3-28 is
Hence, the integration constant

C =
C is given

--fiyp In b
as

www.avs4you.com
but must be supplemented by a yield condition.
radial and tangential stresses are then obtained, using Eqs. 3-53 and
Static equilibriutn, Eq. 3-28: respectively. Thus,
dfir fir -- fit
--+--=0 fir = fiyp(ln r - in b) = fiyp in db (3-55)
dr r
fit = fiyp + fir = fiyp(1 + In rib) (3-56)

Yield condition, Eq. 3-51: stress distributions given by Eqs. 3-55 and 3-56 are shown in Fig. 3-
whereas Fig. 3-25(b) shows the elastic stress distributions. Since
fit -- fir fiyp
plastic state represents the ultimate collapse of the thick-walled
2 2 cylinder, the ultimate internal pressure, using Eq. 3-55, is given as

By combining these two equations, the basic dif erential equation Pult = fir(a) = fiyp In a/b (3-57)
comes

Behavior of Thick-Walled Cylinders

dfdrir fiYrP = 0 or dfir = fiYr__2 dr any value of p that is intermediate to the yield and ultimate values
by Eq. 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, i.e., pyp < pi  pult, the
section of the cylinder between the inner radius a and an inter-
The solution of this can be writ en as
radius c is ful y plastic, whereas that between c and the outer
b is in the elastic domain, Fig. 3-26. At the elastic-plastic interface,
5 See W. T. Koiter, "On Partial y Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," Biezeno Ai yield condition is just satisfied, and the corresponding radial stress X
niversay Volume on Applied Mechanics (Haarlem, Holland: H. Stam be computed using Eq. 3-49 with r = c and ro = b; hence,
251.
70 Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders Problems

}blerns Sections 3-7 and 3-8

x
,ction 3-2 3-5. Using the values for E and G given in Table 1A
of the Appendix, calculate Poisson's ratios for 2024-
Redesign the shear mounting in Example 3-1 to T4 aluminum alloy and steel.
the same shear spring constant ks, but changing 3-6. Using Table 1A in the Appendix, calculate the
dimensions to a square pad with 10-mm-thick rub- bulk moduli for 6061-T6 alluminum alloy and steel in
U.S. customary units.

'ion 3-6
Section 3-9
Consider a 4-in square steel bar subjected to
biaxial tensile stresses of 20 ksi in the x
3-7. A stainless-steel cylindrical shell has a 36-in in-
side diameter and is 0.5 in. thick. If the tensile strength
and 10 ksi in the y direction. (a) Assuming
of the material is 80 ksi and the factor of safety is 5,
: bar to be in a state of plane stress, determine the
what is the allowable working pressure? Assume that
Fig. 3-26 in the z direction and the elongations of the plate
appropriate hemispherical ends are provided. Also es-
the x and y directions. (b) Assuming the bar to be
timate the bursting pressure.
a state of plane strain, determine the stress in the z
X- crvp2 b2 b--2 c2 and the elongations of the bar in the x and y 3-8. A "penstock," i.e., a pipe for conveying water
Let E = 30 x 103 ksi and v = 0.25. to a hydroelectric turbine, operates at a head of 90 m.
If the diameter of the penstock is 0.75 m and the al-
This stress becomes the boundary condition to be used in A piece of 50 by 250 by 10 mm steel plate is sub- lowable stress 50 MPa, what wall thickness is re-
with Eq. 3-53 for a ful y plastic segment with inner radius a and out to uniformly distributed stresses along its edges quired?
radius c. Hence,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION (see the figure).

'these
change
forces?
in
(a) IfPx
thickness
(b) To cause
= 100 kN and Py = 200 kN,
occurs due to the application
the same change in thick-
3-9.
age of gasoline
A tank of butt-welded
is to be 40 ft in diameter
construction
and
for the
16 ft high.
stor-

err(C) = -X = Cryp2 b 2 b2- c 2 -- Gyp Inc + C (a) Select the plate thickness for the bottom row of

www.avs4you.com
ness as in part (a) by P, alone, what must be its mag-
Let E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25. plates. Allow 20 ksi for steel in tension and assume
the efficiency of welds at 80%. Add approximately 
in to the computed wall thickness to compensate for
and C = O-yp2 b 2 b- 2 c 2 Crvp In c corrosion. Neglect local stresses at the juncture of the
vertical walls with the bottom. (Specific gravity of the
gasoline to be stored is 0.721.) (b) Assuming that the
By substituting this value of C into Eq. 3-55, the radial stress in the bottom of the tank does not restrain the displacement
region is obtained as of the tank walls, what increase in diameter would
occur at the bottom? E = 29 x 103 ksi and v = 0.25.
r Gyp b 2 -- c 2 3-t0. A cylindrical vessel is used for storing ammonia
O' r = O'yp In c 2 b 2 (NH3) at the maximum temperature of 50 �C. The
Fig. P3-3 vapor pressure of NH3 at 50 �C is 20 atm. The thickness
of the vessel material is limited to 20 mm with a tensile
and by using Eq. 3-51, the tangential stress in the plastic zone becomes 3-4. A rectangular steel block, such as shown in Fig. strength of 400 MPa. (a) If the factor of safety is 5,
has the foilowing dimensions: a = 50 mm, b assuming that all welds wil be inspected with X-rays,
75 mm, and c = 100 mm. The faces of this block what can be the maximum diameter of the vessel? (b)
O't = Cryp "Jc O'r = Cryp 1 + In ( O'2yp b 2
(tension)
ected to uniformly
in the x direction,
distributed
200 kN
forces
(tension)
of 180 kN
in the y
For the selected
in diameter that
wall thickness,
would
calculate
occur
the change
with ammonia at 50 �C.
and 240 kN (compression) in the z direction. 3-11. An air chamber for a pump, the sectional side
The internal pressure pi at which the plastic zone extends from a to c the magnitude of a single system of forces view of which is shown in mm on the figure, consists
be obtained, using Eq. 3-61, simply as'pi = err(a). Equations 3-47, in the y direction that would cause the same of two pieces. Compute the number of 19-mm bolts
ri = c and ro.-- b, provide the necessary relations for calculating in the y direction as the initial forces. Let (net area 195 mm 2) required to attach the chamber to
stress distributions in the elastic zone. 0.25. the cylinder at plane A-A. The allowable tensile stress
'72 � Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick.Walled Cylinders Problems '173

cylinder to be completely rigid, (a) determire the -t7. An aluminum-alloy tube is shrunk onto
a steel Sections 3-12 and 343
stress that develops in the ring upon cooling, and to form the pressure vessel il ustrated in the fig-
determine what bearing develops between the rin 3-19. Verify the solution of Eq. 3-38.
The wall thickness of each tube is 4 mm. The
the cylinder. Let a = 2 x 10-s/�C and E = 7 x 'diameter of the assembly to be used in cal- 3-20. Show that the ratio of the maximum tangential
kN/m 2. s is 400 mm. If the composite tube is pressur- stress to the average tangential stress for a thick-
3-t5. An aluminum alloy wire is stretched taut at 2 MPa, what additional hoop stress develops walled cylinder subjected only to internal pressure is
the diameter of a cylindrical pressure vessel, as the aluminum tube? Assume that the ends of (1 + [32)/(1 + [3), where [3 = roh'i.
in the figure. For the wire: A = 0.060 mm 2, E = tube can freely expand, preventing the develop- 3-2t. Show that no matter how large the outside di-
X 103 MPa, and a^t = 23.4 x 10-a/�C. The of longitudinal stresses, i.e., cry, = 0. Let E^ = ameter of a cylinder, subjected only to internal pres-
of the steel pressure vessel is 2000 mm and the x 103 MPa and Est = 200 x 103 MPa. Hint: The sure, is made, the maximum tangential stress is not
A A thickness is 10 mm. (In calculations, do not interface pressure, say , between the two materials less than p. (Hint: Let ro -->
tiate between the inside and mean diameters of to cause hoop tension in the outer tube and hoop 3-22. An alloy-steel cylinder has a 6-in ID (inside di-
cylinder.) For steel, let E = 200 x 103 MPa, ;sion in the inner tube. ameter) and a 18-in OD. If it is subjected to an internal
Fig. P34t 11.7 x 10-a/�C, and Poisson's ratio v = 0.30. Ifthi pressure ofpi = 24,000 psi (p,, = 0), (a) determine the
vessel is pressurized to 1 MPa and, at the same radial and tangential stress distributions and show the
in the bolts is 40 MPa, and the water and air pressure the temperature drops 50 �C, what stress would results on a plot. (b) Determine the maximum (prin-
is 1.5 MPa. velop in the wire? Assume that the temperature oft cipal) shear stress.-(c) Determine the change in exter-
3-t2. A water tank made of wood staves is 5 m in wire as well as that of the cylinder nal and internal diameters. E = 30 x 106 psi and v =
diameter and 4 m high. Specify the spacing of 30 by 6 comes lower and that the deformation of the 0.3.
mm stel hoops if the allowable tensile stress for steel caused by the pull of the wire can be neglected. 3-23. An alloy-steel cylinder has a 0.15-m ID and a
is set at 90 MPa. Use uniform hoop spacing within each 0.45 m OD. If it is subjected to an internal pressure of
Wire
meter of the tank's height. Fig. P347 pi = 160 MPa (po = 0), (a) determine the radial and
3-t3.
diameter,
A cylindrical

the cylindrical
used for processing
portion
pressure vessel
rubber,
of the vessel
of 120 in outside
is 36 ft long.
is made from 1-in
If NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ;-18. Exceptionally
been developed
light-weight
by employing
pressure
glass filaments
vessels
for
tangential
a plot.
stress.
stress
(b) Determine
distributions

(c) Determine
and show
the maximum
the results
(principal) shear
the changes
on

in external and in-

thick
'internal
he
steel plate
pressure,
circumference
and the vessel
determine the total
and
operates

the
at-120-psi
elongation
increase
Of
in the diameter's
www.avs4you.com Fig. P345 binder.
the
A diagram
in the figure.
tensile forces
of a filament-wound
If the winding
and

is needed
using
cylinder
to resist
is
epoxy resin as a ternal
3-24.
MPa.
diameters.
Rework Problem
E = 200 x 103 MPa and
3-23 with p = 0 and
v = 0.3.
po = 80

dimension caused by the operating pressure. E = 3-'16. A cylindrical pressure vessel shown in the fi 0nly hoop stresses, the helix angle a = 90 �. If, how- 3-25. Rework Problem 3-23 with p = 160 MPa and
29 x 106 psi and v = 0.25. is made by shrinking a brass tube over a mild the cylinder is closed, both hoop and longitudinal Po = 80 MPa.
3-t4. A thin ring is heated in oil 150 �C above room tube. Both cylinders have a wall thickness of-} 'ces develop, and the requi.red helix angle of the fil- 3-26. Isolate one-half of the cylinder of Problem 3-25
temperature. In this condition, the ring just slips on a nominal diameter of the vessel is 30 in and is to aments e  55 � (tan'- a = 2). Verify this result. (Hint: by'passing 'a plane through the axis of the cylinder.
solid cylinder, as shown in the figure: Assuming the used in all calculations involving the diameter. element of unit width and a developed length Then, by integrating the tangential stresses over the
the brass cylinder is heated 100 �F above room as in the figure. For such an element, the same respective areas, show that the isolated free body is
perature, it exactly fits over the steel cylinder, is cut by each section. Therefore, in equilibrium.
is at room temperature. What is the stress in the if F is a force in a filament and n is the number of 3-27. Design a thick-walled cylinder of a 4-in internal
cylinder when the composite vessels cool to room a section, Py = Fn sin . Force P. can be diameter for an internal pressure of 8000 psi such as
6 perature? For brass: EBr = 16 X 106 psi and y. An equation based on the known ratio to provide: (a) a factor of safety of 2 against any yield-
10.7 x 10-6/�F. For steel: Est = 30 X 106 psi and the longitudinal and the hoop stress leads to
= 6.7 x 10-6/�F. ing in the cylinder, and (b) a factor of safety of 3 against
the required result.) ultimate collapse. The yield stress of steel in tension
Brass tube is 36 ksi.
3-28. A 16-in OD steel cylinder with approximately a
10-in bore (ID) is shrunk onto another steel cylinder
x
of 10-in OD with a 6-in ID. Initial y, the internal di-
50 mm
ameter of the outer cylinder was 0.01 in smaller than
the external diameter of the inner cylinder. The as-
Filaments
Developed element sembly was accomplished by heating the larger cyl-
inder in oil. For both cylinders, E = 30 x 106 psi and
Fig. P3-t4 Fig. P346 Steel tube Fig. P348 v = 0.3. (a) Determine the pressure at the boundaries
 � Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders

between the two cylinders. (Hint: The elastic increase 3-29. Set up the dif erential equation for a thin
in the diameter of the outer cylinder with the elastic rotating with an angular velocity of to rad/s. The
decrease in the diameter of the inner cyclinder accom- weight of the material is % Hint: Consider an elem
modates the initial interference between the two cyl- as in Fig. 3-21(b) and add an inertia term.
inders.) (b) Determine the 'tangential and radial
stresses caused by the pressure found in part (a). Show Section 3-14
the results on a plot. (c) Determine the internal pres-
sure to which the composite cylinder may be subjected 3-30. For a thick-walled cylinder of inner radius a
without exceeding a tangential stress of 20,000 psi in outer radius b = 2a, (a) calculate the internal
the inner cylinder. (Hint: After assembly, the cylinders at which the elastic-plastic boundary is at r = 1.5 a
act as one unit. The initial compressive stress in the (b) determine the radial and tangential stress
inner cylinder is released first.) (d) Superpose the tan_- butions due to the internal pressure found in part
gential stresses found in part (b) with the tangential and show them on a plot, and (c) calculate the
stresses resulting from the internal pressure found in collapse load. Assume the material to be
part (c). Show the results on a plot. fectly plastic, with a yield stress of 250 MPa.

-][. Introduction
Detailed methods of analysis for determining stresses and deformations
axial y loaded bars were presented in the first two chapters. Analogous

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION re developed

tssed in the
for members subjected
in this
preceding
to torques
chapter.
chapter
The constitutive
wil be employed
about their
relations
longitudinal
for shear
for this purpose.
axes
dis-
The

www.avs4you.com a torque
simultaneously
are
causing
confined
a twist or torsion
to torque and bending,
to the effect of a single
in a member.
frequently
type
Members
occurring
of action,
subjected
in practice,
i.e.,

treated in Chapter 9.
By far, the major part of this chapter is devoted to the consideration
members having circular. cross sections, either solid or tubular. Solution
of such elastic and inelastic problems can be obtained using the proce-
dures of engineering mechanics of solids. For the solution of torsion prob-
having noncircular cross sections, methods of the mathematical the-
ory of elasticity (or finite elements) must be employed. This topic is briefly
in order to make the reader aware of the dif erences in such
from that for circular members. Further, to lend emphasis to
the dif erence in the solutions discussed, this chapter is subdivided into
parts. It should be noted, however, that in practice, members
for transmit ing torque, such as shafts for motors, torque tubes for power
equipment, etc., are predominantly circular or tubular in cross section.
Therefore, numerous applications fal within the scope of the formulas
derived in this chapter.

Application of the Method of Sections

engineering solid mechanics, in analyzing members for torque, re-
gardless of the type of cross section, the basic method of sections (Section
is employed. For the torsion problems discussed here, there is only
 'Torsion Sec. 4.3. Basic Assumptions for Circular Members

one relevant equation of statics. Thus, if the x axis is directed along It may be seen intuitively that for a member of constant cross section,
T

member, such an equation is  M, = 0. Therefore, for statically the maximum internal torque causes the maximum stress and imposes the
minate systems, there can only be one reactive torque. After host severe condition on the material. Hence, in investigating a torsion
' this torque, an analysis begins by separating a member of a section pe several sections may have to be examined to determine the Fig. 4-2 Alternative
pendicular to the axis of a member. Then either side of a member internal torque. A section where the largest internal torque is de- representations of torque.
be isolated and the internal torque found. This internal torque must :d is the critical section. In Example 4-1, the critical section is any-
ance the externally applied torques, i.e., the external and the intern between points B and C. If the torsion member varies in size, it is
torques are equal, but have opposite sense. In statically determinate' ore dif icult to decide where the material is critically stressed. Several
lems, the formal calculation of a reaction may be bypassed by isolatin may have to be investigated and stresses computed to determine
a bar segment with the unsupported end. Nevertheless, an equilibrium ;critical section. These situations are analogous to the case of an axial y
the whole system must always be assured. In statically rod, and means must be developed to determine stresses as a
problems, the reactions must always be found before one can of the internal torque and the size of the member. In the next
the internal torques. Some guidance on calculating reactions in eral sections, the necessary formulas are derived.
indeterminate problems is provided in Section 4-9 of this chapter. Instead of curved arrows as in Fig. 4-1, double-headed vectors fol owing
For simplicity, the members treated in this chapter wil be right-hand screw rule sign convention wil also be used in this text;
"weightless" or supported at frequent enough intervals to make Fig. 4-2.
of bending negligible. Axial forces that may also act simultaneously
the bars are excluded for the present.

EXAMPLE

Find the internal

4-t

trque at section K-K NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

for the shaft shown in Fig. 4-1(a)
acted upon by the three torques indicated.

Solution www.avs4you.com
4-3. Basic Assumptions for Circular
establish a relation between the internal torque
Members
and the stresses it sets
The 30 N.m torque at C is balanced by the two torques of 20 and 10 N.m at up in members with circular solid and tubular cross sections, it is nec-
and B, respectively. Therefore, the body as a whole is in equilibrium. Next, to make two assumptions, the validity of which wil be justified
in addition to the homogeneity of the material, are as fol ows:
passing a section K-K perpendicular to the axis of the rod an3
and B, a free body of a part of the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-1(b), is obtained. 1. A plane section of material perpendicular to the axis of a circular
upon, from , Mx = O, or member remains plane after the torques are applied, i.e., no warpage
or distortion of parallel planes normal to the axis of a member takes
externally applied torque = internal torque place. 
the conclusion is reached that the internal or resisting torque developed in 2. In a circular member subjected to torque, shear strains  vary fin-
shaft between A and B is 20 N.m. Similar considerations lead to the early from the central axis reaching m,, at the periphery. This as-
that the internal torque resisted by the shaft between B and C is 30 N.m. sumption is il ustrated in Fig. 4-3 and means that an imaginary plane
such as DO03C moves to D'O03C when the torque is applied.
30 N.m 30 N-m Alternatively, if an imaginary radius 03C is considered fixed in
10 N.m
10 N-m rection, similar radii initial y at 02B and OD rotate to the respective
K new positions 02B' and OLD'. These radii remain straight.
20 N-m
C
C
B
B
Actually, it is also implied that parallel planes perpendicular to the axis re- r
K
20 N.m a constant distance apart. This is not true if deformations are large. How-
internal torque since the usual deformations are very small, stresses not considered here %,x
A negligible. For details, see S. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, 3rd. ed., Fig. 4-3 Variation of strain in
Fig. 4-1 (a) (b) Advanced Theory and Problems (New York: Van Nostrand, 1956), Chap- circular member subjected to
VI. torque.
Torsion Sec. 4.4. The Torsion Formula
It must be emphasized that these assumptions hold only for Trnax

cular solid and tubular members. For this class of members,

assumptions work so well that they apply beyond the limit D' rmax

elastic behavior of a material. These assumptions wil be used r=G7 Cord

in Section 4-13, where stress distribution beyond the proF
limit is discussed.
If attention is confined to the linearly elastic material, Hooke's Hooke's law
Fig. 4-4 Shear strain
assumption leading to elastic
applies, and, it fol ows that shear stress is proportional 'to shear stress distribution in a
strain. For this case complete agreement between Shear strain Shear stress dA circular member.
variation variation
determined and computed quantities is found with the derived
and
their
deformation
validity can
formulas
be rigorously
based on
demonstrated
these assumptions.
by the methods of q-max fA p2 dA = T
c (4-1)
mathematical theory of elasticity.
However, fA p2 dA, the polar/noment of inertia of a cross-sectional area,
is also a constant for a particular cross-sectional area. It wil be designated
4-4. The Torsion Formula ! J in this text. For a circular section, dA = 2xp dp, where 2xp is the
In the elastic case, on the basis of the previous assumptio'ns, since umference of an annulus 2 with a radius p of width dp. Hence,
is proportional to strain, and the lat er varies linearly from the aid 4
stresses
stresses
vary linearly
induced
fi'om
by the assumed
the central
distortions
axis of a circular
are shear stresses
member.
and lie J = fAfo 92 dA = c 2'I103 dp= 2r [- i 'iTc4 - 2 32
(4-2)

the plane parallel to the section

NON-ACTIVATED
normal
VERSION
taken
to the axis of a rod.

-] qTC4IT4d)
variation of the-shear stress fol ows directly from the shear-strain
sumption and the use of Hooke's law for shear, Eq. 3-1. This is (4-2)
in Fig.
uniform
4-4. Unlike
intensity.
the case of an axial y
The maximum
loaded
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rod, this stress is
shear stress occurs at points most
mote from the center O and is designated q-max. These points, such
d is the diameter of a solid circular shaft. If c or d is measured in
points C and D in Figs. 4-3 and 4-4, lie at the periphery of a section J has the units of mm 4; if in inches, the units become in 4.
distance c from the center. For linear shear stress variation, at any
By using the symbol J for the polar moment of inertia of a circular area,
bitrary point at a distance p from O, the shear stress is (D/C)q-max.
The 'resisting torque can be expressed in terms of stress once the Eq. 4-1 may be writ en more compactly as
distribution at a section is established. For equilibrium this internal
sisting torque must equal the externally applied torque T. Hence,
(4-3)

fP Tmax dm p = T
,stress area, equation is the well-known torsion formula 3 for circular shafts that
,force arm, expresses the maximum shear stress in terms of the resisting torque and
to'que dimensions of a member. In applying this formula, the internal torque
be expressed 4 in newton-meters, N-m, or inch-pounds, c in/neters
where the integral sums up all torques developed on the cut by the
2 An annulus is an area contained between two concentric circles.
itesimal forces acting at a distance p from a m.ember's axis, O in Fig.
It was developed by Coulomb, a French engineer, in about 1775 in connection
4, over the whole area A of the cross section, and where T is the work on electric instruments. His name has been immortalized by its use
torque. a practical unit of quantity in electricity.
At any given section, q'max and c are constant; hence, the 1 N-m is equal to 1 joule (J). However, in this text, the symbol J is used only
relation can be writ en as the polar moment of inertia of a section.
SO Torsion Sec. 4-4. The Torsion Formula
or inches, and J in m 4 or in 4. Such usage makes the units of the tors
shear stress
?c

r=G7
or pascals (Pa) in SI units, or r = G2'7

[in-l[ibn ] 4] [in] = [lb 1 Fig.

circular
having
4-6

an
Elastic
member
inner
behavior
in
core
torsion
of a

of soft
material.
or psi in the U.S. customary units. {a) lb)

A more general relation than Eq. 4-3 for a shear stress, , at any
a distance p from the center of a section is
If a circular bar is made from two dif erent materials bonded together,
p Tp shown in Fig. 4-6(a), the same strain assumption applies as for a solid
c For such a case, through Hooke's law, the shear-stress distri-
becomes as in Fig. 4-6Co). If the shear modulus for the outer stif er
Equations 4-3 and 4-4 are applicable with equal rigor to G and that of the inner softer core is G2, the ratio of the respective
since the same assumptions as used in the previous derivation apply. shear stresses on a ring of radius OB is G/G2.
is necessary,
4-5, the limits
a circular
however,
of integration
tube,
to modify J. For a tube,
for Eq. 4-2 extend from NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
as may be seen
b to c. Hence, Summary

= fi2,lr@3dp _ 'Itcwww.avs4you.com
For the torsion problem of circular shafts the three basic concepts of
mechanics of solids as used above may be summarized in the
j = fAp2dA 4 b4 2 2 manner:

or stated otherwise: J for a circular tube equals +J for a solid 1. Equilibrium conditions are used for determining the internal resisting
the outer diameter and -J for a solid shaft using the inner diameter. torques at a section.
For. very thin tubes, ifb is nearly equal to c, and c - b = t, the 2. Geometry of deformation (kinematics) is postulated such that shear
of the tube, J reduces to a simple approximate expression: strain varies linearly from the axis of a shaft.
J  2xrR3at 3. Material properties (constitutive relations) are used to relate shear
strains to shear stregses and permit calculation of shear stresses at
a section.
where Ray = (b + c)/2, which is sufficiently accurate in some
tions.
a linear elastic case using Hooke's law is considered in the preceding
Tmin Truax discussion. This is extended to non-linear material behavior in Section 4-
13.
These basic concepts are used for determining both stresses and angles-
of circular shafts. However, similar to the case for axial y loaded
large local stresses arise at points of application of concentrated
ues or changes in cross section. According to Saint-Venant's principle
the stresses and strains are accurately described by the developed theory
only beyond a distance about equal to the diameter of a shaft from these
Fig. 4-5 Variation of stress in locations. Typically local stresses are determined by using stress con-
an elastic circular tube. factors.
 Torsion

4=5. Remarks on the Torsion Formula

So far the shear stresses as given by Eqs. 4~3 and 4-4 have been thou
of as acting only in the plane of a cut perpendicular to the axis of
shaft. There indeed they are acting to form a couple resisting the
applied torques. However, to understand the problem further, an
A B tesimal cylindrical element, 5 shown in Fig.4-7(b), is isolated.
(a)
The shear stresses acting in the planes Phrpendicular to the axis of
rod are known from Eq. 4-4. Their' directions coincide with the direct
of the internal torque. (This should be clearly visualized by the read Fig. 4-t0 Fractured cast iron
On adjoining parallel planes of a disc-like element, these stresses act specimen in torsion. The
opposite directions. However, these shear stresses acting in the plane photograph on fhe right
the cuts taken normal to the axis of a rod cannot exist alone, as shows the specimen more
widely separated. (Threaded
shown in Section 1-4. Numerically, equal shear stresses must act on 4-9 Fractured torsion ends are normally not used
axial planes (such as the planes aef and bcg in Fig. 4-7(b)) to ful al specimen of A322 steel. for such specimens).
requirements of static equilibrium for an element. 6
Shear stresses acting in the axial planes fol ow the same variation if the converse is true, i.e., ch < *, a brit le fracturo is
intensity as do the shear stresses in the planes perpendicular to the by the tensile stresses along a helix forming an angle of 45 � with
of the rod. This variation of shear stresses on the mutually pert the bar axis 7; see Fig. 4-8. A photograph of a ductile fracture of a steel
planes is shown in Fig. 4-7(c), where a portion of the shaft has is shown in Fig. 4-9, and that of a brit le fracture for cast ron
removed for the purposes of il ustration. in Fig. 4-10. Another examples of a brit le fracture for sandstone is shown

Truax
According
an equivalent
to. Section
system
3-7, such shear
of normal stresses NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
stresses
acting
can be trans
at angles of 45 � with
Fig.
The
4-11.
stress transformation brought into the previous discussion, since
does not depend on material properties, is also applicable to anisotropic
www.avs4you.com
shear stresses (see Fig. 3-11). Numerically, these stresses are related
each other in the fol owing manner: , = ch = -or2. Therefore, if For example, wood exhibits drastically dif erent properties of
shear strength of a material is less than its strength in tension, a in dif erent directions. The sheafing strength of wood on planes
failure takes place on a plane perpendicular to the axis of a bar; see to the grain is much less than on planes perpendicular to the grain.
4-8. This kind of failure occurs gradually and exhibits ductile although equal intensities of shear stress exist on mutually per-
planes, wooden shafts of inadequate size fail longitudinally
5 Two planes perpendicular to the axis of the rod, two planes through the axial planes. Such shafts are occasionally used in the process in-
(c)
and two surfaces at dif erent radii are used to isolate this element. Properties
Fig, 4-7 Existence of shear such an element are expressible mathematically in cylindrical coordinates.
stresses on mutually 6 Note that maximum shear stresses, as shown diagrammatically in Fig.
perpendicular planes in a actually act on planes perpendicular to the axis of the rod and on planes
circular shaft subjected to through the axis of the rod. The representation shown is purely schematic. 4-2
torque. free surface of a shaft is fi'ee of all stresses.
the maximum torsional shear stress in shaft AC shown in Fig. 4-1(a). Assume
shaft from A to C is 10 mm in diameter.
 Ductile material

failureplane From Example 4-1, the maximum internal torque resisted by this shaft is known
be 30 N.m. Hence, T = 30 N-m, and c = d/2 = 5 mm. From Eq. 4-2,
T T

1d 4 'i X 10 4
J = 32 32 982 mm 4 Fig. 4-tt Part of fractured
Fig. 4.8 Potential torsional sandstone core specimen in
failure surfaces in ductile Brit le material Ordinary chalk behaves similarly. This may be demonstrated in the classroom torsion. (Experiment by D.
and brit le materials. failure surface twisting a piece of chalk to failure. Pirtz).
'83
 Torsion Sec. 4.6. Design of Circular Members in Torsion
and from Eq. 4-3, Design of Circular Members in Torsion
Tc 30 x 103 x 5 designing members for strength, allowable shear stresses must be se-
Tmax --
J
--
982
-- 153 MPa These depend on the information available from experiments and
the intended application. Accurate information on the capacity of ma-
This maximum shear stress at 5 mm from the axis of the rod acts in the
; to resist shear stresses comes from tests tubes. on thin-walled
Solid
of a cut perpendicular to the axis of the rod and along the longitudinal is employed in routine tests. Moreover, members as torsion
are
passing through the axis of the rod (Fig. 4-7(c)). Just as for a Cartesian ele often used in power equipment, many fatigue experiments are done.
the shear stresses on mutually perpendicular planes for a cylindrical' the shear strength of ductile materials is only about half as
equal. It is instructive to note that the results of this solution can be as their tensile strength. The ASME (American Society of Me-
'in matrix form by two elements in a stress tensor as Engineers) code of recommended practice for transmission shaft-
ing gives an allowable value in shear stress of 8000 psi for unspecified
and 0.3 of yield, or 0.-18 of ultimate, shear strength, whichever is
� 0 = 1 3 0 MPa allertl In practical designs, suddenly applied and shock loads warrant
o o considerations. (See Section 4-11.)
fter the torque to be transmit ed by a shaft is determined and.the
This is to be contrasted with the ful y populated stress tensor given by Eq. allowable shear stress is selected, according to Eq. 4-3, the
ortions of a member are given as

EXAMPLE 4-3

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Consider a long tube of 20 mm outside diameter, do, and of 16 mm inside dia (4-8)
d, twisted about its longitudinal axis with a torque T of 40 N.m. Determine i
shear stresses at the outside and the inside of the tube; see Fig. 4-12.

Solution

From Eq. 4-5,

www.avs4you.com J/c is the parameter
For an axial y loaded
on which
rod, such
the elastic
a parameter
strength of a shaft
is the cross-sectional
de-
trea of a member. For a solid shaft, J/c = rc3/2, where c is the outside
,i .(C 4 _ b 4) ,r(d4o _ &4) ,17(204 _ 164) By using this expression and Eq. 4-8, the required radius of a shaft
J ..
2 32 32
9270 mm 4 �be determined. Any number of tubular shafts can be chosen to satisfy
Eq. 4-8 by varying the ratio of the outer radius to the inner radius, c/b,
and fi-om Eq. 4-3, provide the required value of J/c.
The reader should careful y note that large local stresses generally de-
Tmax Tc 40 x 103 x 10 at changes in cross sections and at splines and keyways, where the
- = 43.1 MPa
'rm,- j 9270 ue is actually transmit ed. These questions, of critical importance in
design of rotating shafts, are briefly discussed in the next section.
Similarly from Eq. 4-4, Members subjected to torque are very widely used as rotating shafts
for transmit ing power. For future reference, a formula is derived for the
Tp 40 x 103 x 8 conversion of horsepower, the conventional unit used in the industry, into
Tmin -- - = 34.5 MPa
J 9270 torque acting through the shaft. By definition, 1 hp does the work of 745.7
One N.m/s is conveniently referred to as a watt (W) in the SI units.
In a thin-walled tube, all of the material works at approximately the same 1 hp can be converted into 745.7 W. Likewise, it wil be recalled
level. Therefore, thin-walled tubes are more efficient in transmit ing torque dynamics that power is equal to torque multiplied by the angle,
solid shafts. Such tubes are also useful for.creating an essential y uniform
of pure shear stress needed for establishing ?-,/relationships (Section 3-2). 8 Recommendations for other materials may be found in machine design books.
Fig. 442 avoid local buckling, however, the wall thickness cannot be excessively example, see J. E. Shigley, Mechanical Engineering Design, 3rd ed. (New
McGraw-Hil , 1977) or R. C. Juvinal, Stress, Strain, and Strength (New
McGraw-Hil , 1967).
 Torsion Sec. 4-7. Stress Concentrations

measured in radians, through which the shaft rotates per unit of time. c = 7.72 mm or d = 2c = 15.4 mm.
a shaft rotating with a frequency of f Hz, 9 the angle is 2rf rad/s. ractical purposes, a 16-mm shaft would probably be selected.
if a shaft were transmit ing a constant torque T measured in N.m, it
do 2rfT N.m of work per second. Equating this to the horsepower
plied MPLE 4-5

,elect solid shafts to transmit 200 hp each without exceeding a shear stress of
hp x 745.7 = 2rfT [N.m/s]
psi. One of these shafts operates at 20 rpm and the other at 20,000 rpm.
119 x hp iution
or r = [N.m]
f
1 applies to the low-speed shaft and 2 to the high-speed shaft. From
4-11,
159 x kW
or T = [N.m]
f
T - hp x N 63,000 _ 200 x 20 63,000 = 630,000 in-lb
where � is the frequency in hertz of the shaft transmit ing the horse
hp, or kilowatts, kW. These equations convert the applied power ' T2 = 630 in-lb
applied torque.
In the U.S. customary system of units, 1 hp does work of 550 if-lb !FrOm Eq. 4-8,
second, or 550 x 12 x 60 in-lb per minute. If the shaft rotates at N
(revolutions per minute), an equation similar to those above can be J - -- T 630,000

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
= 63 in 3
tained: C Tmax 10,000
J d ( - -- or d = 63) = 321 in 3

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c 16 

63,000xhp[in_lb]l
N Hence,

This example
d = 6.85

il ustrates the reason

in and

for the modem

d2 = 0.685

tendency
in

to use high-speed
EXAMPLE 4-4 machines in mechanical equipment. The dif erence in size of the two shafts is
Further savings in-the weight of the material can be effected by using
Select a solid shaft for a 10-hp motor operating at 30 Hz. The maximum tubes.
stress is limited to 55 MPa.

Solution

From Eq. 4-9, Stress Concentrations

119 x hp 119 x 10 uations 4-3, 4-4, and 4-8 apply only to solid and tubular circular shafts
- 39.7N.m the
material behaves elastically. Moreover, the cross-sectional
f 30
along the shaft should remain reasonably constant. If a gradual
and from Eq. 4-8, Variation in the diameter takes place, the previous equations give satis-
solutions. On the other hand, for stepped shafts where the di-
J T 39.7 X 10 3 ameters of the adjoining portions change abruptly, large perturbations of
... 722 mm 3
C Tma x 55 stresses take place. High local shear stresses occur at points away
J ,'ITC 3 2 J' 2 x 722 the center of the shaft. Methods of determining these local concen-
C 2
or c 3 ... = 460 mm 3 of stress are beyond the scope of this text. However, by forming
ratio of the true maximum shear stress to the maximum stress given by
9 1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second (cps). .q. 4-3, a torsional stress-concentration factor can be obtained. An anal-
 88 Torsion Sec. 4.8. Angle.of-Twist of Circular Members
3.4
msons analogous to those pointed out in Section 2-10, the theoretical
'ss concentrations based on the behavior of linearly elastic matedhal
3.0
tend to.be somewhat high.
(a)
2.6
Angle.of-Twist of Circular Members
K 2.2
this section, attention wil be directed to a method for determining the
-of-twist for solid and tubular circular elastic shafts subjected to
I X,'2'�=7
1.8
loading. The interest in this problem is at least threefold. First,
1.4
is important to predict the twist of a shaft per se since at times it is not (b)

to design it only to be strong enough: it also must not deform Fig. 445 Circular shaft (a)
Fig. 443 Torsional stress- 1.0 I i Then, magnitudes of angular rotations of shafts are needed before and (b) after torque is
concentration factors in 0 0.08 O. 16 0.24 the torsional vibration analysis of machinery. Finally, the angular twist applied.
circular shafts of two r
members is needed in dealing with statically indeterminate torsional
diameters. d/2
problems.
ogous method was used for obtaining the stress-concentration factors
According to assumption 1 stated in Section 4-3, planes perpendicular
the axis of a circular rod do not warp. The elements of a shaft undergo
axial y loaded members (Section 2-10). These factors depend only deformation of the type shown in Fig. 4-15(b). The shaded element is
geometry of a member. Stress-concentration factors for various
in its undistorted form in Fig. 4-15(a). From such a'shaft, a typical
tions of stepped round shafts are shown in Pig. 4-13. �
To obtain the actual stress at a geometrical discontinuity of a ent of length dx is shown isolated in Fig. 4-16 similar to Fig. 4-3.
In the element shown, a line on its surface such as CD is initial y parallel
shaft,
sponding
read from
a curve for a particular
to the given
the curve.
r/(d/2)
Lastly, from
D/d is selected
ratio, NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
in Pig. 4-13.
the stress-concentration
the definition of/{, the actual
Then,
factor K
the axis of the shaft.
)osition
After
CD'. At the same time, by virtue
the torque is applied,
of assumption
it assumes
2, Section
a new
4-3,

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radius OD remains straight and rotates through a small angle dqb to a new
shear stress is obtained from the modified Eq. 4-3 osition OD'.
Denoting the small angle DCD' by /mx, from geometry, one has two
alternative expressions for the arc DD':

arc DD' = 'ymax dx or arc DD' = dqb c

where the shear stress Tc/J is determined for the smaller shaft. both angles are small and are measured in radians. Hence,
A study of stress-concentration factors shown in Pig. 4-13
the need for a generous fil et radius r at all sections where a transition /, dx = dqb c (4-13)
the shaft diameter is made.
Considerable stress increases also occur in shafts at oil holes and only in the zone of an infinitesimal "tube" of constant max-
keyways for attaching pulleys and gears to the shaft. A shaft mum shear stress *mx. Limiting attention to linearly elastic response
for a key, Fig. 4-14, is no longer a circular member. However, makes Hooke's law applicable. Therefore, according to Eq. 3-1, the angle
to the procedures suggested by the ASME, in ordinary design, /m= is proportional to *mx, i.e., /ma,, = *mx/G. Moreover, by Eq. 4-3,
tations for shafts with keyways may be made using Eq. 4-3 or 4-8 , = Tc/J. Hence, /mx = Tc/(JG).  By substituting the lat er expres-
the allowable shear stress must be reduced by 25%. This sion into Eq. 4-13 and simplifying, the governing dif erential equation for
compensates for the stress concentration and reduction in cro,. the angle-of-twist is obtained.
area.

Because of some inelastic or nonlinear response in real matedhals,

The foregoing argument can be carried out in terms of any % which pro- 'truax
0 This figure is adapted from a paper by L. S. Jacobsen, gressively becomes smaller as the axis of the rod is approached. The only dif- Fig. 446 Deformation of a
Fig. 4-14 Circular shaft with a Concentrations in Shafts of Circular and Variable Diameter," Trans. ASME ference in derivation consists in taking an arc corresponding to BD an arbitrary circular bar element due to
keyway. (1925): 632. p from the center of the shaft and using Tp/J instead of Tc/J for . torque.
 Sec. 4-8. Angle.of. Twist of Circular Members 191
Torsion

dqb T Tdx axial y loaded bars. Here qb <=> A, T <=> P, J  A, and G  E. Analogous to
- or dqb = 2-9, Eq. 4-16 can be recast to express the torsional spring constant, or tor-
dx JG JG
al stif ness, kt as

This gives the relative angle-of-twist of two adjoining sections an

tesimal distance dx apart. To find the total angle-of-twist qb between Fig. 4-t8 Schematic
two sections A and B on a shaft a finite distance apart, the rotation: (4-17) representation of _a torsion
all elements must be summed. Hence, a general expression for the spring.
of-twist between any two sections of a shaft of a linearly elastic
is

This constant represents the torque required to cause a rotation of 1 radian, i.e.,
1. It depends only on the material properties and size of the member. As

'qb:qbB-qb4= f; dqb=f; JxG

axial y loaded bars, one can visualize torsion members as springs; see Fig. 4-
reciprocal of k, defines the torsional flexibility ft. Hence, for a circular
or hollow shaft,

where qbB and qb4 are, respectively, the global shaft rotations at en&,
and A. The rotation at A may not necessarily be zero. In this e( 1 L [rad [rad]
the internal torque T, and the polar moment of inertia J, may vary ft = kt- JG Lin-lbJ or LN.m j (4-18)
the length of a shaft. The direction of the angle of twist qb coincides
the direction of the applied torque T. constant defines the rotation resulting from application of a unit torque, i.e.,

fol ows
sured
Equation
from
in radians.
thb
4-15 is valid
assumptions
Note the great
for
used in the
similarity
both solid
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
and hollow
derivation.
of this relation
The
circular
angle
shafts,
qb is
to Eq. 2-7
= 1. On multiplying
If in the analysis,
identifying
a shaft
subscripts
by the torque T, one obtains
must be subdivided
should be attached
Eq.
into
4-16.
a number
to the definitions
of regions,
given
appro-
by Eqs.
the deformation
il ustrate applications
of axial y
of these
loaded
concepts.
rods.
www.avs4you.com The fol owing three -17 and 4-18.
Gi/mi
The previous
and
For example,
(f t)i = mi/JiGi.
equations
for the ith segment

are widely used in mechanical

of a bar, one can write

vibration analyses
(kt)i =

of
nission shafts, including crank shafts. n These equations are also useful for
EXAMPLE 4-6 statically indeterminate problems, considered in the next section. These
are required in the design of members for torsional stif ness when it is
Find the relative rotation of section B-B with respect to section A-A of the sential to limit the arhount'of twist. For such applications, note that J, rather
elastic' shaft shown in Fig. 4-17 when a constant torque T is being the J/c used in strength calculations, is the governing parameter. In axial y
through it. The polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area J is problems, the cross-sectional area A serves both purposes.
Lastly, it should be noted that since in a torsion test, qb, T, L, and J can be
Solution measured or calculated from the dimensions of a specimen, the shear modulus
for a specimen can be determined from Eq. 4-16 since G ='TL/Jcb.
In this case, T. = T and Jx = J; hence, from Eq. 4-15,

JG JG JG JG 4-7

Consider the stepped shaft shown in Fig. 4-19(a) rigidly attached to a wall at E,
A B
and determine the angle-of-twist of the end A when the two torques at B and at
are applied. Assume the shear modulus G to be 80 GPa, a typical value for

12 According to S. P. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems in Engineering, 2d ed.

In applying Eq. 4-16, note particularly that the angle qb must be expressed York: Van Nostrand, 1937), in 1902, H. Frahm, a German engineer, was
Fig. radians. Also observe the great similarity of this relation to Eq. 2-9, A = Errst to recognize and study this important problem.
 Torsion Sec. 4.8. Angle.of-Twist of Circular Members 193

T o = 1000 N.m 'It 4 'It 4

25 mm
JCD = JDE = (do - &4) = -(50 - 254) = 575 x 103 mm 4
_
To fnd the angle-of-twist of the end A, Eq. 4-15 is applied for each segment
a-a b-b the results summed. The limits of integration for the segments occur at points
1250 I 200. J 300 ram_ 1. 500 mm the values of T or J change abruptly.

(a) -' qb = JxG = J + .Je JcG + --JcDG + JD�G

I
the last group of integrals, T's and J's are constant between the limits con-
1150 so each integral reverts to a known solution, Eq. 4-16. Hence,

TIN-m]
[
TecLec TczLcz Tz�Lz�
i. JiTiGiLi_ TL +_ JcG
(c) q---q---
= JG JczG Jz>�G
15o I =0+
150 x 103 x 200 150 X 103 X 300
0
Torque diagram 38.3 x 103 x 80 x 103 + 575 + 103 x 80 x 103
1150 x 103 x 500
+
575 x 1� x 80 x 103
� X 103 rad

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
= 0 + 9.8 x 10 -3 + 1.0 x 10 -3 + 12.5 x 10 -3 = 23.3 x 10 -3 rad
A B C D E
(d) 0 As can be noted from the above, the angles-of-twist for the four shaft segments
x

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starting from the left end are: 0 rad, 9.8 x 10 -3 rad, 1.0 x 10 -3 rad, and 12.5
-13.5 -12.5 10 -3 rad. Summing these quantities beginning from A, in order to obtain the
-23.3
Angle-of-twist diagram
for the angle-of-twist along the shaft, gives the broken line from A to E,
shown in Fig. 4-19(d). Since no shaft twist can occur at the built-in end, this
Fig. 4-t9 must be zero at E, as required by the boundary condition. Therefore,
to the adopted sign convention, the angle-of-twist at A is -23.3 x
Solution
0 -3 rad occurring in the direction of applied torques.
No doubt local disturbances in stresses and strains occur at the applied con-
Except for the dif erence in parameters, the
solution of this problem is
to that of Example 2-2 for an axial y loaded bar. First, the torque at E is centrated torques and the change in the shaft size, as well as at the built-in end.
these are local effects having limited influence on the overall behavior
to assure equilibrium. Then internal torques at arbitrary sections,
the shaft.
left segment of a shaft, such as shown in Fig. 4-19(b), are examined. If the
of the torque vector T coincides with that of the positive x axis, it is taken
positive, or vice versa. This leads to the conclusion that between A and B (a)
is no torque, whereas between B and D the torque is + 150 Nm. The 4-8
between D and E is + 1150 Nm. The torque diagram is drawn in Fig. 4-19(c).
internal torques, identified by subscripts' for the various shaft segments, Determine the torsional stif ness k, for the rubber bushing shown in Fig. 4-20.
that the rubber is bonded to the steel shaft and the outer steel tube, which
is attached to a machine housing. The shear modulus for the rubber is G. Neglect
TA = O, Teo = Tec = Tco = 150 N.m, and To� = 1150 N.m
in the metal parts of the assembly.
The polar moments of inertia for the two kinds of cross sections
Solution
this problem are found using Eqs. 4-2 and4-5 giving
;ymmetry of the problem, on every imaginary cylindrical surface (b)
d 4  X 254 r, the applied torque T is resisted by constant shear stresses
J = Jc - -- -- - 38.3 x 103 mm 4 Fig. 4-20
32 32 area of the imaginary surface is 2rrL. On this basis, the equilibrium equa-
 Sec. 4-9. Statically Indeterminate Problems 195
Torsion

tion for the applied torque T and the resisting torque developed by the Such problems remain simple to analyze regardless of the number and
stresses x acting at a radius r is kinds of applied torques or variations in the shaft size or material.
Torsion problems also occur with bzternal statical indeterminacy in
T = (2xrL)?r [area x stress x arm] dsite shafts built up from two or more tubes or materials, such as
;hown in Fig. 4-6. In such cases, the angle-of-twist qb is the same for each
From this relation, x = T/2rr2L. Hence, by using Hooke's law given by Ec part of the member. Therefore, the displacement (stif ness)
1, the shear strain  can be determined for an infinitesimal tube of radius particularly simple to apply to linearly elastic problems. In such
thickness dr, Fig. 4-20(a), from the fol owing relation: roblems, the torque Ti for each ith part of the shafts is Ti = (kt)iqb, Eqs. L J2
and 4-17. The total applied torque Tis then the sum of its parts, i.e.,
 T
/ - G - 2rLGr 2

This
infinitesimal
shear strain
angle
in an infinitesimal
dqb. Since in the
tube
limit
permits the shaft
r + dr is equal
to rotate
to. r, the
through T= i(kt)iO) (4-21)

this angle is
For complex externally statically indeterminate elastic problems with
kinematic degrees of freedom, the general displacement method
dqb = /dr .imilar to that given in Section 2-18 can be used. Here, however, tile
r
is limited to the case of one d.o.f. Such cases can be analyzed
the procedure described in Section 2-16. Applying this approach to
The total rotation qb of the shaft is an integral, over the rubber bushings,
infinitesimal rotations, i.e.,
shaft in Fig. 4-21, one can write the fol owing two basic equations:

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION For global equilibrium:

T + T2 + T = 0 (4-22) Fig. 4-2t

indeterminate
Externally
bar
statically
in torsion.

From which
www.avs4you.com For geometric compatibility:

qbAB = qbBc (4-23)

T rLG 
k, - qb - 1/d 2 - 1/D 2 (4-1 qbA and qbc are, r.espectively, the twists at B of the bar segments
and BC, assuming that ends A and C are fixed.
According to Eq. 4-16, for linearly elastic behavior, Eq. 4-23 becomes
TL T2L2
*4-9. Statically Indeterminate Problems -- - (4-24)
J G J2G2
The analysis of statically indeterminate members subjected to twist
allels the procedures discussed earlier in Part B of Chapter 2 in c shear moduli are given as G and G2 to provide for the possibility
with axial y loaded bars. In considering linearly elastic problems dif erent materials in the two parts of the shaft.
degree of external indeterminacy, i.e., cases where there are two Solutions for one d.o.f. statically indeterminate inelastic problems
tions, the force (flexibility) method is particularly advantageous. fol ow the procedure given in Example 2-18 for axial y loaded
problems are reduced to statical determinacy by removing one of bars.
redundant reactions and calculating the rotation qbo at the released The previous procedures can be applied to the analysis of statically
port. The required boundary conditions are then restored by bars having cross sections other than circular, such as dis-
member at the released end through an angle qb such that in Sections 4-14 and 4-16.
example of an application of the force method for a statically in-
qbo+ qb = 0 elastic problem fol ows.
 Torsion Sec. 4-40. Dif erential Equation Approach for Torsion Problems
2� mm 1000 N*m

--TiLi TAX103 '38.3x103x80x103

450 +575x103x80x800 103 )
= (147 x 10 -6 + 17 x 10-6)TA = 164 x 10-6TA rad

To
500mm �I T, has
Eq.
the
4-20
units
and
of N.m.
defining rotation in the direction of T, as positive, one has

-23.3 x 10 -3 + 164 x 10-6TA = 0

Hence, TA = 142N.m and TB = 1150 -- 142 = 1008N.m

(b}

The torque diagram for the shaft is shown in Fig. 4-22(d). As in Fig. 4-19(c) of
4-7, if the direction of the internal torque vector T on the left part of
isolated shaft segment coincides with that of the positive x axis, it is taken as
iSitive. Note that most of the applied torque is resisted at the end E. Since the
from A to C is more flexible than from C to E, only a small torque develqps
A.
Calculating the angles-of-twist for the four segments of the shafts, as in Example

TN,m.[ NON-ACTIVATED
1008 the angle-of-twist diagram along the shaft, Fig. 4-22(e), can be obtained.
of this diagram is left as an exercise for the reader.) The angle-of-
wist at A and E must be zero from the prescribed boundary conditions. As to

VERSION
(d)
expected, the shaft twists in the direction of the applied torques.
Whereas this problem is indeterminate only to the first degree, it has three
0-142 kinematic degrees of freedom. Two of these are associated with the applied
 X 103
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rad
Torque diagram torques

taneous
and one with the change
displacement
equations.
method would
in the shaft size. Therefore,
be more cumbersome, requiring
an application
three simul-
of

(e)

B C D E
0

-11,6 -11,1 -11,0 Alternative Dif erential Equation Approach for

Fig. 4-22 Angle-of-twist diagram Torsion Problems
EXAMPLE 4-9
const, ant JG, Eq. 4-14 can be recast into a second-order dif erential
Assume that the stepped shaft of Example 4-7, while loaded in the same
Preliminary to this step, consider an element, shown in .Fig. 4-
is now built-in at both ends, as shown in Fig. 4-22. Determine the end subjected to the end torques Tand T + dTand to an applied distributed
and plot the torque diagram for the shaft. Apply the force method. ue t, having the units of in-lb/in or N.m/m. By using the right-hand

Solution This and the next two sections can be omit ed.

There are two unknown reactions, T, and TE. One of them can be considered in-lb/in

redundant, and, arbitrarily, reaction T, is removed..This results in the T+ dT

diagram shown in Fig. 4-22(b). The solution.to Example 4-7 gives the end
qbo = 23.3 x 10 -3 rad.
Fi'om Example 4-7, J,c = 38.3 x 103 mm 2 and JcE= 575 x 103 mm 2. Fig. 4-23 Infinitesimal
applying
A is found
T, to the tinloaded
using Eq. 4-16.
bar, as shown in Fig. 4-22(c), end rotation qb at
x -< dx element
subjected
of a circular
to torque.
bar
 Sec. 441. Energy and Impact Loads 199
Torsion

screw rule for the torques, all these quantities are shown in d24 x
having a positive sense. For equilibrium of this infinitesimal element. JG dx - tx = -to
d4 tox 
dT J G xx = T - 2- + C 
t dx + dT = 0 or dx t TA = T(0) = 0 hence, C = 0
toL
TB = T(L) =
On dif erentiating Eq. 4-14 with respect to x, 2
toX 3
JG4 = - 6- + C2

I JGd24 dT -tx1 dx 2 dx 4B = 4(L)

JG4
= 0
= -
toZ 2
hence,
- 6-
toX 3
C2 = 6
toL 2

The constants appearing in the solution of this dif erential equation

determined from the boundary conditions at the ends of a shaft,
means that the torque vector acts in the direction oppos.ite
the rotation 4 or the torque T must be specified. The rotation that of the positive x axis.
conditions for 4 should be evident from the problem, wl-/ereas those Except for the change in the boundary conditions, the solution procedure is
the torque T fol ow from Eq. 4-14 since T = JG d4/dx. same as in part (a).
Equation 4-26 can be used for solution of statically determinate
indeterminate problems. By making use of singularity functions,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION JG d24 x

cussed in Section 5-16, this equation can be employed for problems dx 2

concentrated moments.
d4 to x2
The fol owing example il ustrates the application of Eq. 4-26 when
www.avs4you.com
=T= ---+C
J G xx 2L
applied torque is a continuous function. to x3
JG4 = --- + Cx + C2
6L
= 4(0) = 0 hence, C2 = 0
**EXAMPLE 4-t0
toL
= 0 hence, C =
Consider an elastic circular bar having a constant JG subjected to a 6
varying torque &, as shown in Fig. 4-24. Determine the rotation of the bar al �n toLx toX 3
its length and the reactions at ends A and B for two cases: (a) Assume that JG4
6 6L
A is free and that end B is built-in, (b) assume that both ends of the bar
toL
T(O) -
6
Solution toL toL toL
= T(L) +--
2 6 3
(a) By integrating Eq. 4-26 twice and determining the constants of integration
and C2 from the boundary conditions, the required solution is determined.

A
Energy and Impact Loads
concepts of elastic strain energy and impact loads discussed in Sec-
ions 2-12 and 2-13 for axial y loaded members, as well as those in Section
X  to
pure shear, transfer directly to the torsion problem'. For example,
Fig. 4-24
deflection of a member can be determined by equating the internal
 Sec. 4-t2. Shaft Couplings 20't
200 Torsion

dA = 2rp dp
p
c rma' shear strain energy U.h for a member to the external work W,. due to th -12. Shaft Couplings
applied force, Eq. 2-24. This concept can be applied to static problemi uently, situations arise where the available lengths of shafting are
Truax (Example 2-10), as well as for elementary solutions of dynamic t lon enough. Likewise, for maintenance or assembly reasons, it is
desirable to make up a long shaft from several pieces. To join the
:es of a shaft together, the so-called ranged shaft couplings of the type
EXAMPLE 4-tt
in Fig. 4-26 are used. When bolted together, such couplings are
(a) Find the energy absorbed by an elastic circular shaft subjected to a constar rigid, to dif erentiate them from another type called flexible that
torque in terms of maximum shear stress and the volume of material: see Fig. vides for misalignament of adjoining shafts. The lat er type is almost
25. (b) Find the rotation of the end of an elastic circular shaft with respect to / used to join the shaft of a motor to the driven equipment. Here
built-in end when a torque T is applied at the free end. rigid-type couplings are considered. The reader is referred to ma-
Fig. 4-5 :hine-design texts and manufacturer's catalogues for the other type.
Solution For rigid couplings, it is customary to assume that shear strains in the
(a) The shear stress in an elastic circular shaft subjected to a torque varies linearb bolts vary directly (linearly) as their distance from the axis of the shaft.
from the longitudinal axis. Hence, the shear stress acting on an element at between the flanges is neglected. Therefore, analogous to the
distance 0 from the center of the cross section is 'rmxO/c. Then, using Eq. problem of circular shafts, if the bolts are of the same mater. ial,
and integrating over the volume V of the rod L inches long, one obtains tic shear stresses in the bolts also vary linearly as their respective
from the center of a coupling. The shear stress in any one bolt
assumed to be uniform and is governed by the distance from its center
Ush = 9dV = Jv 2--c 2 2rpdpL to the center of the coupling. Then, if the shear stress in a bolt is multiplied
its cross-sectional area, the force in a bolt is found. On this basis, for
= c 2 o NON-ACTIVATED
,2Gax 2rL/ p3 dp = ,72G,x 2rL
c 2 c4
4 VERSION bolts of equalfor size in two "bolt circles," the forces on the
n'Tnax
located by the respective radii a and b are as shown in Fig. 4-26(c).

www.avs4you.com
= vol The moment of the forces developed by the bolt3 around the axis of a
2G
shaft gives the torque capacity of a coupling.
If there were uniform shear stress throughout the member, a more efficient
The previous reasoning is the same as that used in deriving the torsion
formula for circular shafts, except that, instead of a continuous cross
rangement for absorbing energy would be obtained. Rubber bushings
4-8) with their small G values provide an excellent device for absorbing a discrete number of points is considered. This analysis is crude,
torques from a shaft.
since stress concentrations are undoubtedly present at the points of con-
(b) If t. orque T is gradually applied to the shaft, the external work We = of the bolts with the fl&nges of a coupling.
where (b is the angular rotation of the free end in radians. The expression for The outlined method of analysis is valid only for the case of a coupling
internal train energy Ush, which was found in part (a), may be writ en in a which the bolts act primarily in shear. However, in some couplings,
convenient form by noting that rm, = Tc/J, the volume of the rod rc2L, and the bolts are tightened so much that the coupling acts in a dif erent fashion.
= 'rrC4/2. Thus, initial tension in the bolts is great enough to cause the entire coupling
act in friction. Under these circumstances, the suggested analysis is

Ush = 'r2Gx (1vol) - 2J2GT2c212 'trc2L = ZIT2LG Bolts

Then, from We = Ush

Tqb T2 L TL
2 ZIG and qb JG
which is the same as Eq. 4-16. (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4-26 Flanged shaft coupling.

202 Torsion Sec. 4-t3. Shear Stresses and Deformations in Circular Shafts 203

Eight 30-mm bolts not valid, or is valid only as a measure of the ultimate strength
coupling should the stresses in the bolts be reduced. However, if
tensile strength bolts are used, there is lit le danger of this hap
and the strength of the coupling may be greater than it would be if i
bolts had to act in shear. 14

 (e)
EXAMPLE 4-t2 (b)

Estimate the torque-carrying capacity of a steel coupling forged integrally

the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-27, as controlled by an allowable shear stress
MPa in the eight bolts. The bolt circle is diameter 240 mm.

Solution

Area of one bolt:

Assumed strain (f)
variation
A = (1/4)r(30) 2 = 706 mm 2 (c)
Fig. 4-27
Allowable force for one bolt:

Pano, = A%no, = 706 x 40 = 28.2 x 103N

Since eight bolt are available at a distance NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

of 120 mm from the central axis

rnow = 28.2 x 103 x 120 x 8 = 27.1

www.avs4you.com x 106N.mm = 27.1 x 103
(d) Stress-strain relations
(g) Corresponding
stress distribution
Fig.
members
4-28 Stresses
due
in circular
to torque.

section through a shaft is shown in Fig. 4-28(a). The linear strain

is shown schematically in the same figure. Some possible me-
properties of materials in shear, obtained, for example, in ex-
periments with thin tubes in torsion, are as shown in Figs. 4-28(b), (c),
(d). The corresponding shear-stress distribution is shown to the fight
case. The stresses ate determined from the strain. For example,
443. Shear Stresses and Deformations in Circular shear strain is a at an interior annulus, Fig. 4-28(a), the correspond-
in the Inelastic Range stress is found from the stress-strain diagram. This procedure is ap-
as well as to integral shafts made of concentric tubes
The torsion formula for circular sections previously derived is ba matedhals, provided the corresponding stress-strain diagrams
Hooke's law. Therefore, it applies 0nly up to the point where the The derivation for a linearly elastic matedhal is simply a special
portional limit of a matedhal in shear is reached in the outer annulus of this approach.
shaft. Now the solution wil be extended to include inelastic
After the stress distribution is known, torque T cardhed by these stresses
a matedhal. As before, the equilibrium requirements at a section as before, i.e.,
met. The deformation assumption of linear strain variation from the
remains applicable. Only the dif erence in matedhal properties affects
solution.
T = fA ('r dA)p (4-27)
4 See "Symposium on High-Strength Bolts," Part I, by L. T. Wyly, and
I by E. J. Ruble, Proc. AISC (1950). Also see Section 1-13. integral must be evaluated over the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
 Torsion Sec. 4.'13. Shear Stresses and Deformations in Circular Shafts 205
Elastic stress distribution
Although the shear-stress distribution after the elastic limit is ex(
Inelasticstressdistribution is nonlinear
sometimes
and the elastic
used to calculate
torsion
a fictitious
formula,
stress
Eq. 4-3, does
for the ultimate
not apply,
torque. r MPat
computed stress is called the modulus of rupture; see the largest 160 [- ,
7,/,'
of the dashed lines on Figs. 4-28(0 and (g). It serves as a rough
the ultimate strength of a material in torsion..For a thin-walled tube,
stress distribution is very nearly the same regardless of the mec
2 d �7X 10 3
properties of the material; see Fig. 4-29. For this reason, (b)
with thin-walled tubes are widely used in establishing the shear
(a)
strain ?-/diagrams. MPa

If a shaft is strained into the inelastic range and the applied 51 MPa

then removed, every "imaginary" annulus rebounds elastically.

Fig. 4-29 For thin-walled
tubes the dif erence between of the dif erences in the strain paths, which cause permanent set i n 89.7 MPa

elastic and inelastic stresses material, residual stresses develop. This process wil be il ustrated /
fs small. of the examples that fol ow. 3 MPa
For determining the rate of twist of a circular shaft or tube, Eq.
can be used in the fol owing form:

89.7 MPa ' 51 MPa

dx c Elastoplastic stress '(d) Elastic rebound (e) Residual stresses

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
'ibution stresses Fig. 4-30
Here either the maximum shear strain at c or the strain at pa
from the stre�s-strain diagram must be used. the small contribution to the total of the first integral.

EXAMPLE 4-13 www.avs4you.com ?max --

Tc
J
--
574
(r/32)
~
x 103 x 12
X 244
= 211 MPa

A solid steel shaft of 24-mm diameter is so severely twisted that only an

At p = 12 ram, 7'residual = 211 - 160 = 51 MPa.
diameter elastic core remains on the inside, Fig. 4-30(a). If the material
can be idealized, as shown in Fig. 4-30(b), what residual stresses and Two alternative residual stress diagrams are shown in Fig. 4-30(e). For clarity,
rotation wil remain upon release of the applied torque? Let G = 80 GPa. results are replot ed from the vertical line. In the entire shaded portion
the residual torque is clockwise; an exactly equal residual torque
in the opposite direction in the inner portion of the shaft. : '
Solution
The initial rotation is best determined by calculating the twist of the elastic
To begin, the magnitude of the initial y applied torque and At 9 = 4 mm,  = 2 x t0 -3. The' elastic rebound of the shaft is given by
of twist must be determined. The stress distribution corresponding to the 4-16. The dif erence between the inelastic and the elastic twists gives the
condition is shown in Fig. 4-30(c). The stresses vary linearly from 0 to 160 rotation per unit length of shaft. If the initial torque is reapplied in the
when 0 -< 9 -< 4 ram; the stress is a conskant 160 MPa for 9 > 4 ram. Ec Same direction, the shaft responds elastically.
4-27 can be used to determine the applied torque T. The release of torque
elastic stresses, and Eq. 4-3 applies; see Fig. 4-30(d). The dif erence 1: hzelastic:
two stress distributions, corresponding to no external torque, gives the
stresses. dqb % 2 X 10 -3
- 0.50 rad/m
dx p, 4 x 10 -3
Elastic:

+ (160)2*rp 2 dp T 574 x 103 X 103

= 0.22 rad/m
= (16 + 558) x 103 N.mm = 574 x 103 N.mm - JG (r/32) x 244 X 80 X 103
2O6 Torsion
Sec. 4.t4. Solid Bars of any Cross Section 207

Residual:
found in the preceding example, line AB is the elastic rebound, and point
i is the residual 0 for the same problem.
dOdx = 0.50 - 0.22 = 0.28 rad/m It should be noted that in machine members, because of the fatigue properties
� matrials, the ultimate static capacity of the shafts as evaluated here is often
' minor importance.

EXAMPLE 4-t4

Determine the ultimate torque carried by a solid circular shaft of mild steel
shear stresses above the proportional limit are reached essential y
For mild steel, the shear stress-strain diagram can be idealized to that shown
Fig. 4-31(a). The shear yield-point stress, Typ, is to be taken as being the
as the proportional'limit in shear, %.
Solution

If a very large torque is imposed on a member, large strains take 44. Solid Bars of Any Cross Section
except near the center. Corresponding to the large strains for the idealized
treatment of solid noncircular members in torsion is beyond
considered, the yield-point shear stress wil be reached everywhere except
the center. However, the resistance to the applied torque offered by the
scope of this book. Mathematically, the problem is complex. s The
located near the center of the shaft is negligible as the corresponding p's first two assumptions stated in Section 4-3 do not apply for noncircular
Fig. 4-31(b). (See the contribution to torque T by the elastic action in bers. Sections perpendicular to the axis of a member warp when a
torque is applied. The nature of the distortions that take place in a rec-
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
4-13.) Hence, it can be assumed with a sufficient degree of accuracy that a cons
shear stress Typ i_s acting everywhere on the section considered. The torque section can be surmised from Fig. 4-32. 6 For a rectangular mem-
responding to this condition may be considered the ultimate limit torque. ber, the comer elements do not distort shear at all.
stresses at Therefore
4-31(c) gives a firmer basis for this statement.) Thus, the corners are zero; they are maximum at the
of the long sides. midpoints
www.avs4you.com Figure 4-33 shows the shear-stress distribution along three radial lines

Tult = f ('rypdA)p = fo c 2'Irp2'ryp 2C3

do = --Typ
emanating
distribution
from
compared
the center.
with
Note particularly
that of a circular
the dif erence
section.
in this stress
For the lat er, the
4 Typ TfC 4 4 TypJ is a maximum at the most remote point, but for the former, the
3 c 2 3 c is zero at the most remote point. This situation can be clarified by
problem remained unsolved until the famous French elastician B. de
Since ihe maximum elastic torque capacity of a solid shaft is Typ = TypJ/c, Venant developed a solution for such problems in 1853. The general torsion
4-3, and Tuft is  times this value, the remaining torque capacity after yield is sometimes referred to as the St. Venant problem.
of that at yield. A plot of torque T vs. 0, the angle of twist per unit distance, 6 An experiment with a rubber eraser on which a rectangular grating is ruled
ful plasticity develops is shown in Figure 4-31(c). Point A corresponds to this type of distortion.

T Asymptote 4
Tui t =  Tvp

/
T�.-- /

Typ  Tpl / ResidualO

do/dx

(a) (b) (c) Fig. 4-32 Rectangular bar (a)

before and (b) after a torque
Fig. 4-3t (a) (b) is applied.
208 Torsion Sec. 4-t4. Solid Bars of any Cross Section 209
t is useful to recast the second Eq. 4-30 to express the torsional stif ness
for a rectangular section, giving

k, - 4)T - [3bt3 (4-31)

Formulas such as these-are available for many other types of cross-
areas in more advanced books.S
For cases that cannot be conveniently solved mathematically, a re-
Fig. 4-33 Shear stress Fig. 4-34 The shear stress
shown cannot exist. tble method has been devised.9 It happens that the solution of the
distribution in a rectangular
shaft subjected to a torque. tif erential equation that must be solved in the elastic torsion prob-
lem is mathematically identical to that for a thin membrane, such as a
considering a comer element, as shown in Fig. 4-34. If a shear stres film, lightly stretched over a hole. This hole must be geometrically
existed at the corner, it could be resolved into two components similar to the cross section of the shaft being studied. Light air pressure
to the edges of the bar. However, as shears always occur in pairs must be kept on one side of the membrane. Then the fol owing can be
on mutually perpendicular planes, these components would have to to be true:
met by shears lying in the planes of the outside surfaces. The lat er
1. The shear stress at any point is proportional to the slope of the
uation is impossible as outside surfaces are free of all stresses.
must be zero. Similar considerations can be applied to other points stretched membrane at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a).
the boundary. All shear stresses in the plane of a cut near 2. The direction of a particular shear stress at a point is at right angles

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
act parallel to them. to the slope of the membrane at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a).
Analytical solutions for torsion of rectangular, elastic members 3. Twice the volume enclosed by the membrane is proportional to the
been obtained? The methods used are beyond the scope of this torque carried by the section.
The
imum
be put
final results
shear
into
stress
the
of such analysis,

fol owing
(see Fig.
form:
4-33) and
however,
www.avs4you.com
the angle-of-twist,
are of interest.
these
For the
results s R. J. Roark
McGraw-Hil ,
section
and W. C. Young,
1975).
are also available.
Finite-element
Formulas

See, for
for Stress
analyses
example,
and Strain,
for solid
L. R. Herrmann,
bars
5th ed. (New
of arbitrary
"Elastic
Torsional Analysis of Irregular Shapes," J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE (December

9 This analogy was introduced by the German engineering scientist L. Prandtl

*max -- cT and 4) - [3
in 1903.

where T as before is the applied torque, b is the length of the long

and t is the thickness or width of the short side of a rectangular
The values of parameters c and [3 depend upon the ratio b/t. A few
these values are recorded in the fol owing table. For thin sections,
b is much greater than t, the values of c and [3 approach �.

Table of Coefficients for Rectangular Bars x7 Weightless

cap
b/t 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 6.00 10.0 m
 0.208 0.231 0.246 '0.267 0.299 0.312
. 0.141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.299 0.312 0.333 ,<['   ''d'x Fig. 4-35 Membrane analogy:
Stretched Membrane (a) simply connected region,
membrane
7 S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New and (b) multiply connected
McGraw-Hil , 1970), 312. The table is adapted from this source. (a) lb) (tubular) region.
 Torsion Sec. 4-15. Warp of Thin-Walled Open Sections

-t ,k- t
' a Y Maximum
Membran,_.x ' slope
ized box (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 4-37 Members of equal cross-sectional areas of the same thickness carrying the same torque.
t -----t
Section indeterminate bars having any cross section are susceptible
(a) (b) (c) )the analysis procedures discussed in Section 4-9.
Fig. 4-36 Il ustration of the membrane analogy for a rectangular bar in torsion.
MPLE 4-t5
The foregoing analogy is called the membrane analogy. In addition
its value in experimental applications, it is a very useful mental aid using the membrane analogy, determine an approximate value for the torsion
visualizing stresses and torque capacities of members. For example, Jquiv for a W12 x 65 steel beam; see Fig. 4-38. Compare the calcula{ed
sider a narrow rectangular bar subjected to torque T, as shown in with the 2.18 in 4 given in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction.
36. A stretched membrane for this member is shown in Fig. 4-36(a).
Jtion
such a membrane is lightly stretched by internal pressure, a
through
maximum
Fig. 4-36(c).
the membrane
slop6, hence
No shear'
is a parabola,

stress
maximum
develops along
4-36(b).
stress, NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
shear
occurs
a line bisecting
Fig.
For this
along
surface

the bat'
the
comparing
?oP a rectangular
W12 x 65
the

section
bar,
equations
Eq.
can
4-30,
be
given
it can
approximated,
for 4 for
be concluded
a circular

as implied
section,
that Jquv
in Fig.
Eq. 4-16,
= f3bt 3. Further,
4-37(e),
with

by
that

three I
0.605"

'

hess
volume
t. The

the member
enclosed
maximum shear
by the membrane
can carry at a given
stresses along
is directly
maximum
the short
www.avs4you.com
proportional
stress.
sides

For this
are small.
to the
reason,
separate
�. Hence,
and
narrow
that
bars:
for the
two
web
flanges
is 10.91/0.390
and a web.
= 28.0,
Since
from
b/t for the flanges
the table for
is 12/0.605
both cases,
--0.390" 10.91"
sections shown in Fig. 4-37 can carry approximately the same torque
the same
since
the same
maximum
the volume
in all cases.
shear
enclosed
(For
stress

all these
(same
by the membranes
shapes,
maximum slope
would
b = L and the t's are e�
of the
be
value
Jequiv
given
= �(2 x 12 x 0.6053
in the .AISC Manual is larger
+ 10.91
(2.18
x 0.3903)
in4). The
= 1.99
discrepancy
in 4
can be
, J

However,
contour lines
use of a litfie imagination
of a soap film wil "pile
wil
up" at points
convince the reader
a of re-entrant
that
numerical
problem
to neglecting

work
can
is identical.
the f ilets
be solved from
at the four
a dif erent
inside
point
corners.
of view using Eq. 4-21. The 2.00"  O.E!5"
Fig. 4-38
Hence, high local stresses wil occur at those points.
Another analogy, the sand-heap analogy, has been developed for
tic torsion? Dry sand is poured onto a raised flat surface having
shape of the cross section of the member. The surface of the sand
so formed assumes a constant slope. For example, a cone is formed Warpage of Thin.Walled Open Sections
a circular disc, or a pyramid on a square base. The constant solution of the general elastic torsion problem discussed in the pre-
slope of the sand corresponds to the limiting surface of the membrane section is associated with the name of Saint-Venant. Solutions
the previous analogy. The volume of the sand heap, hence its weight, this rigorous approach (which includes membrane analogy,) for
proportional to the ful y plastic torque carried by a section. The thin-walled open sections 22 may result in significant inaccuracies in some
items in connection with the sand surface have the same
applications. As pointed out in connection with the twist of
as those in the membrane analogy.
This section presents only a qualitative discussion of this important topic.
2o A. Nadai, Theory of Flow andFracture of Solids, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. In mathematics, the boundaries of such sections are referred to as simply
McGraw-Hil , 1950). i.e., such sections are neither tubular nor hollow.
 Sec, 4-t6. Thin-Walled Hollow Members 2t3

c T
oA

-16. Thin-Walled Hollow Members

Fig. 4-39 Cross-sectional
warpage due to applied
solid noncircular members, thin-walled tubes of any shape can be
torque. (a) (b) simply analyzed for the magnitude of the shear stresses and the
-of-twist caused by a torque applied to the tube. Thus, consider a
a narrow rectangular bar,Fig. 4-36, no shear stresses develop along ube of an arbitrary shape with varying wall thickness, such as shovn in
line bisecting thickness t. This means that no in-plane deformation Fig. 4-40(a), subjected to torque T. Isolate an element from this tube, as
take place along the entire width and length of the bar' s middle smfacei shown enlarged in Fig. 4-40(b). This element must be in equilibrium under
The same holds true for middle surfaces of curved bars/as well as for: action of forces Fz, F2, F3, and F4. These forces are equal to the
assembly of bars. In this sense, an I section, shown in Fig. 4-39, hear stresses acting on the cut planes multiplied by the respective areas.
of three flat bars, and, during twisting, the three middle surfaces of thes From  F, = 0, F = F3, but F = 1'2t2 dx, and F3 = t dx, where
bars do not develop in-plane deformations. � 2 and  are shear stresses acting on the respective areas t2 dx and t.dx.
By virtue of symmetry, this I section twists around its centroidal axis: Hence, x2t2 dx = ? t dx, or t = 1'2t2. However, since the longitudinal
which in this case is also the center of twist. During twisting, as the sections were taken an arbitrary distance apart, it fol ows from the pre-
flanges displace laterally, the undeformed middle surface abcd rotate vious relations that the product of the shear stress and the wall thickness

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
about point A, Fig. 4-39(a). Similar behavior is exhibited by the is the same, i.e., constant, on any such planes. This constant wil be
surface of the other flange. In this manner, plane sections of an I denoted by q, which is measured in the units of force per unit distance
warp, i.e., cease to be plane, during twisting. By contrast, for along the perimeter. Therefore, its units are either N/m or lb/in.

warpage www.avs4you.com
members, the sections perpendicular to the axis remain In
Section 1-4, Eq. 1-2, it was established that shear stresses on mu-
ing (See Section 4-3, assumption 1). Although of the cross tually perpendicular planes are equal at a corner of an element. Hence,
does take place for other thick sections, including rectangular bars, at a corner such as A in Fig. 4-40(b), 'r2 = '3; similarly, z = 4. Therefore,
effect is negligible. On the other hand, for thin-walled torsion memben 'r4tl = w3t2, or, in general, q is constant in the plane of a section perpen-
commonly employed in aircraft, automobiles, ships, bridges, etc., dicular to the axis of a member. On this basis, an analogy can be for-
cross-sectional warpage, or its restraint, may have an important effect 23 mulated. The inner and outer boundaries of the wall can be thought of as
on member strength, and, particularly on its stif ness. being the boundaries of a hannel. Then one can imagine a constant quan-
Warpage of cross sections in torsion is restrained in many engineering tity of water steadily circulating in this channel. In this arrangement, the
applications. For example, by welding an end of a steel I beam to a rigid
support, the attached cross section cannot warp. To maintain required
t1
compatibility of deformations, in-plane flange moments M,'shown in Fig.
4-39(b), TM must develop. Such an enforced restraint effectively stif ens a F3
beam and reduces its twist. This effect is local in character and, at some
distance from the support, becomes unimportant. Nevertheless, for short:
beams, cutouts, etc., the warpage:restraint effect is dominant. This ' 2
portant topic is beyond the scope of this text?

23 V. Z. Vlasov in a series of 1940 papers made basic contributions to

subject. See his book, Thin-walled Elastic Beams, 2nd ed. (Washington,
Israel Translations, Office of Technical Services, 1961).
24 Shears that occur in the flanges and efficiently carry part of the applied torque
are not shown in the diagram. (c)
(a)
25 For details, see, for example, J. T. Oden and E. A. Ripperget, Mechanics of
Elastic Structures, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1981). Fig. 4-40 Thin-wall tubular member of variable thickness.

2t2
2t4 Torsion Sec. 446. Thin.Walled Hollow Members

quantity of water flowing through a plane across the channel is const In the elastic range, Eqs. 4-34 and 4-35 are applicable to any shape of
Because of this analogy, the quantity q has been termed the shear For inelastic behavior, Eq. 4-35 applies only if thickness t is con-
Next consider the cross section of the tube as shown in Fig. 4-40 analysis of tubes of more than one cell is beyond the scope of
The force per unit distance of the perimeter of this tube, by virtue of book. 27
previous argument, is constant and is the shear flow q. This shear For linearly elastic materials, the angle of twist for a hollow tube can
multiplied by the length ds of the perimeter gives a force q ds per found by applying the principle of conservation of energy, Eq. 2-24.
ential length. The product of this infinitesimal force q ds and r this derivation, it is convenient to introduce the angle-of-twist per unit
some convenient point such as O, Fig. 4~40(c), gives the contribution of the tube defined as 0 = dqb/dx. The elastic shear strain energy
an element to the resistance of applied torque T. Adding or the tube should also be per unit length of the tube. Hence, Eq. 3-5
this, the elastic strain energy here reduces to Ush = J'vo (,2/2G) dV, where
= 1 x t ds. By substituting Eq. 4-35 and then Eq. 4-34 into this relation
simplifying,
T =  rq ds -- T 2 T 2 ds
where the
line of the
integration
perimeter.
process
Since
is carried
for a tube,
around the
q is a constant,
tube
this
along
equation
the
Usa '  8Q2G-----'
 -ds- - 8(2  5- (4-36)
be writ en as
in the last expression, the constants are taken outside the integral.
Equating this relation to the external work per unit length of member
T= qfrds as We = TO/2, the governing dif erential equation becomes:

twice
Instead
of the integral
the value
of carrying
is available.
out the actual

of the shaded
It can be seen
integration,

area of an infinitesimal
from Fig. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
a simple
4~40(c)
triangle
0 = dqb
dx - 4(2GT
inter
that
of altit
r ds
 -'ds (4-37)

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Here again it is useful to recast Eq. 4-37 to express the torsional stif ness
r and base ds. Hence, the complete integral is twice the whole for a thin-walled hollow tube. Since for a prismatic tube subjected to
bounded by the center line of the perimeter of the tube. Defining this a constant torque, 4> = 0L,
by a special symbol (), one obtains

T (4-38)
T = 2()q or q - 2() kt - qb-  ds/t
This equation 26 applies only to thin-walled tubes. The area () is
proximately an average of the two areas enclosed by the inside and cross-sectional warpage discussed in Section 4-15 is not very im-
outside surfaces of a tube, or, as noted, it is an area enclosed by the portant for tubular members. Analysis of statically indeterminate tubular
line of the wall's contour. Equation 4-34 is not applicable at all if the members fol ows the procedures discussed earlier.
is slit, when Eqs. 4-30 should be used.
Since for any tube, the shear flow q given by Eq. 4-34 is constant,
the definition of shear flow, the shear stress at any point of a tube F.XAMPLE 4-t6
the wall thickness is t is
Example 4-3 using Eqs. 4-34 and 4-35. The tube has outside and inside
of 10 and 8 ram, respectively, and the applied torque is 40 N.m.

The mean radius of the tube is 9 mm and the wall thickness is 2 mm. Hence,

26 Equation 4-34 is sometimes called Bredt's formula in honor of the 27 j. T. Oden, and E. A. Ripperger, Mechanics of Elastic Structures, 2nd ed.
engineer who developed it. York: McGraw-Hil , 1981).
 *Torsion Problems
Tc 50.4 X 103 X 10
q _ T 40 X 103 -- 39.3 MPa

t
X-max .. 32.1 MPa
x- t 2()t- 2,r x 92 x 2 J  X 104/2
12.7 mm T 25.3 x 103
= 31.6 MPa
*2-m = ebt 5 = 0.267 x 30 x 102

20mmJ
Note that by using Eqs. 4-34 and 4-35, only one shear stress is obtained and t
it is just about the average of the two stresses computed in Example 4-3. T 224 x 103
= 46.7 MPa
thinner the walls, the more accurate the answer, .or vice versa. *3-m - 2()t 2 x 40 x 20 x 3
It is interesting to note that a rectangular tube, shown in Fig. 4-41, with a
Fig. 4-t thickness of 2 mm, for the same torque wil have nearly the same shear stress Stress Tl-max Occurs along the perimeter of the knob, T2.ma x at the midheight of
that of the circular tube. This is so because its enclosed area is about the
and 'r3.max in the 3-mm walls of the tube. Due to the approximations m?de,
as the ( of the circular tube. However, some local stress concentrations stresses cannot be considered precise. In mechanical applications, stress
be present at the inside (reentrant) corners of a square tube. concentrations may be particularly important. Membrane analogy can be used to
great advantage to determine the location of stress concentrations. Generous fil-
lets at reentrant comers can be a remedy.
Member torsional stif ness found in this manner, such as needed for vibration
EXAMPLE 4-t7 tsis and for the solution of statically indeterminate elastic problems, would
An aluminum extrusion has the cross section shown in Fig. 4-42� If torque
sufficiently accurate since local effects such as stress concentrations play a
� or role.
300 N.m is applied, (a) determine the maximum shear stresses that would de,
in the three dif erent parts of the member, and (b) find the torsional stif ness
the member. Neglect stress concentrations.

Probeores
Solution

The cross section consists essential y of three parts: a circular knob (), a 
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 4-4 ond 4.5 4-2.
from
A 6-in
a 9-in
diameter
diameter
core
solid
of 3 in
circular
radius
shaft.
is bored
What
out
per-

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tangular bar (), and a rectangular hollow box with variable wall-thickness, The solid cylindrical shaft of variable size, as centage of the torsional strength is lost by this oper-
During application of torque T, each one of these elements rotates through ;hown in mm on the figure, is acted upon by the tor- ation?
same angle qb, and therefore each element resists a torque (kt)iqb. Hence, ques indicated. What is the maximum torsional stress
to Eq. 4-21, the total torque resisted by the member is the sum of these quantitiei the shaft, and between what two pulleys does it
for the three parts. The expressions for (kt)[s for the parts are
by Eqs. 4-17, 4-31, and 4-38. These constants are 55 N'm

 - 880 N-m

(kt) = J GL _ 'rr x 2 104 LG _ 1.57 x 104 GL

3G G G
(k,)2 = [3bt  = 0.263 x 30 x 103 = 0.789 x 104
(kt)3 = 4Q2 G_ 4 x (40 x 20) 2 G 6.98 x 104 G
4
ds/t L (40 + 2 x 20)/3 + 40/4  =  ' 2000
Fig. P44
where all numerical values are in mm. In evaluating the integral in
tion, it is assumed that the 4 mm thickness of the box extends for 40 mm. 4-6 4-4. A 120-ram-diameter solid-steel sht ansmits
By adding the stif nesses for the parts, the member torsional stif ness  400 kW at 2 Hz. (a) Detemine the maximum shear
= 9.34 x 104G/L. 4-3. A solid circular shaft of 2-in diameter is to be stress. ) What would be the requked sh diameter
The applied torque is distributed among the three parts in a ratio by a hollow circular tube. If the outside di-
to operate at 4 Hz at the same mimum sess?
(kt)i/ (kt)i. On this basis, the torques are 300 x (1.57 x 104G/L)/(9.34 mbe is limited to 3 in, what must be the
104G/L) = 50.4 N.m for the knob, 25.3 N-m for the bar, and 224 N.m for of the tube for the same linearly elastic ma- 4-5. A motor, through a set of ges, drives a line
box. The maximum stresses in each of the parts are determined using, terial working at the same maximum stress? Determine sht, as shown in the figure, at 630 m. Thiy hp e
tively, Eqs. 4-3, 4-30, and 4-34. the ratio of weights for the two shafts. delivered to a machine on the right; 90 hp on the left.
 � Torsion Problems

Section 4-8 200-ram pitch diameter; the gear at C, a 400-mm pitch

h
90 M�t �3r h
0 p
Through what angle wil end A turn if at A
4-10. What must be the length ofa 5-mm diaineter
minum wire so that it could be twisted through a torqu.e of 560 N.m is applied and end D of the second
complete revolution without exceeding a shear
is prevented from rotating? G = 84 GPa.
of 42 MPa? G = 27 GPa. -15. A circular steel shaft of the dimensions shown
the figure is subjected to three torques: T] = 28 k-
30' >1 4-1t.
in the
Find
The

the
figure
solid

maximum
is driven
50-mm-diameter

torsional
by a 30-hp
stresses
steel
motor
line

in
shaft
at 3 Hz.
sections
s

AB
T2 = -8 k-in, and
of twist of the right
T3 = 10 k-in. (a) What is the
end due to the applied tor- Fig. P447
Fig. P4-5 ues. (b) Plot the angle-of-twist diagram along the
BC, CD, and DE of the shaft. (b)
Let G = 12 x 106 psi. rotation of the free end if d] = 6 in, d2 = 2 in, L =
angle of twist between A and E. Let G = 84 GPa.
Select a solid round shaft of the same size throughout. 20 in, and T = 27,000 in-lb. Assume that the usual
The allowable shear stress is 5750 psi. 30 hp 1" diam. assumptions of strain in prismatic circular shafts sub-
bore
4-6. (a) Design a hollow steel shaft to transmit 300 hp Bearing  jected to torque apply, and let G = 12 x 106 psi. (b)
at 75 rpm without exceeding a shear stress of 6000 psi. 5hpoff N  15hpoff 10hpoff Determine the torsional flexibility of the shaft.
Use- 1.2:1 as the ratio of the outside diameter to the 4-18. A thin-walled elastic frustum of a cone has the
inside diameter. (b) What solid shaft could be used dimensions shown in the figure. (a) Determine the tor-
instead? sional stif ness of this member, i.e., the magnitude of
4-7. A 100-hp motor is driving a line shaft through gear torque per unit angle of twist. The shearing modulus
A at 26.3 rpm. Bevel gears at B and C drive rubber- Fig. P4-tt for the material is G. (b) What is the torsional flexibility
cement mixers. If the power requirement of the mixer Fig. P445 of this member?
4-12. A hollow steel rod 6 in long is used as
driven by gear B is 25 hp and that of C is 75 hp, what
spring. The ratio of inside to outside diameters is

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
are the required shaft diameters? The allowable shear A dynamometer is employed to calibrate the re- 1/2r"Wall
stress in the shaft is 6000 psi. A sufficient number of The required stif ness for this spring is  of a de thickness
an exhaust fan at 20 Hz.
bearing is provided to avoid bending. per 1 in-lb of torque. (a) Determine the outside 1" diam.
ameier of this rod. G = 12 x 106 psi. (b) What is dynamometer consists of a 12-mm-diameter solid

d. A [] d:z C
torsional
4-t3.
and
spring
A solid
1000 mm
constant
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for this rod?
aluminum-alloy
long is to be
shaft
replaced
50 mm
by a
in
shaft
as shown
tube
and
in the figure.
at the input
two

end;
disks attached

the
One
other
disk
to the
is fastened through
is near the output
shaft

end.
a
300 mm apart, diam.

shaft of the same outer diameter such that the The relative displacement of these two disks as viewed
shaft would neither exceed twice the maximum stroboscopic light was found to be 6 � 0'. Compute Fig. P448
stress nor the angle of twist of the aluminum shaft. (a) power input in hp required to operate the fan at
the given speed. Let G = 84 GPa.
 20  - 10'-:- What
shaft?
should
Let GAI
be
= 28 GPa
the inner
and
radius
Gst
of
= 84 GPa.
the tubular
(b)
449. The loading
eron of an airplane
on a control torque
may be idealized
tube for an ail-
by a uniformly
Fig. P4-7 of the two criteria governs?
varying torque t = kx in-lb/in, where k is a constant
4-14. Two gears are attached to two (see the figure). Determine the angle of twist of the
steel shafts, as shown jn the figure. The gear at B 300 mm free end. Assume JG to be constant.

Section 4-7
4-8.
chined
A
down
solid circular
to a diameter
shaft of
of 75
150 mm
mm
diameter
along a part
is ma-
of
/ 3000mm
the shaft. If, at the transition point of the two diam-
eters, the fil et radius is 12 mm, what maximum shear 12 mm

stress is developed when a torque of 2700 N.m is ap- Motor

Dynamometer Fan
plied to the shaft? What wil the maximum shear stress
be if the fil et radius is reduced to 3 mm? Fig, P446
Fig. P449
4-.9. Find the required fil et radius for the juncture of
a 6-iri diameter shaft with a 4-in diameter segment if A solid tapered steel shaft is rigidly fastened to
the shaft transmits 110 hp at 100 rpm and the maximum 6000 mm support at one end and is subjected to a torque *4-20. A torque applied to a circular shaft is idealized
shear stress is limited to 8000 psi. Fig. P444 at the other end (see the figure). Find the angular as uniformly varying from the built-in end, see the fig-
")20 Torsion Problems 221

bution on a graph. (b) Determine the torsional the application of a unit torque at b, and show that
A and flexibility of the shaft. it is equal to qbba, the angle-of-twist at b due to the
4-23. A tube of 50-ram outside diameter and of a unit torque at a. Let J = 3J2. (See
thickness is attached at the ends by means of 2-:8.)
'N.m/m flanges to a solid shaft of 25-mm diameter, as show (a) Using the force method, determine the re- Fig. P4-32
in the figure. If both the tube and the shaft are :tions for the circular stepped shaft shown in the fig-
of the same linearly elastic material, what part The applied torques are T = 600 lb-in, T2 = 500 of torque T ;. see the figure. Plot the torque T(x) and
applied torque T is carried by the tube? and T3 = 200 lb-in. Th shaft diameters are d the angle-of-twist q>(x) diagrams.
2.83 in and d2 = 2.38 in. (b) Plot the angle-of-twist *4-33. Using Eq. 4-26 and continuity conditions (see
Fig. P4-20 25 2  for the shaft along its length. Let E = 10 x Section 2-19) or singularity functions, determine the
103 ksi. reactions caused by a uniformly distributed torque to
ure. Determine the angle of twist of the right end. The along one-half of the shaft length, as shown in the fig-
dl d2
torsional rigidity JG of the shaft is constant. ure for Problem 4-28. Sketch the angle-of-twist dia-
'4-21. A 2000-mm long circular shaft attached at one-
  I T' T2 , , T3
end_and free at the other is subjected to a linearly vary- T I 500 . " gram along the shaft length.

ing distributed torque along its length, as shown in the Fig. P4-23 Section 4-'i'i
figure. The torsional rigidity JG of the shaft is con-
stant. Determine the angle of twist at the free end 4-34. A circular stepped shaft has the dimensions
4-24. Assume that in Problem 4-23, prior to Fig. P4-27
caused by the applied torque. shown in the figure. (a) Using an energy method, de-
the rigid end plates, the shaft is subjected to termine the angle of twist at the loaded end. G is given.
of 200 N-m and maintained in this condition An elastic circular shaft attached at both ends (b) Check the result using Eq. 4-16.

2000--
welding process. What residual torque wil remain is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque to per
the
4-25.
reactions
shaft
Using
upon
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
the displacement
for the shaft
release

shown
method,
in Fig.
of the
determine
4-21 for the
applied torque? length
figure.
along
(a) Using
(b) Determine
one-half
the force
of its length,

the angle of maximum

method,
as shown
find the reac-
twist and
in --3 d

lowing
= .2r
103 ksi.
data:

Also
T = 40 k-in,
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plot
L = 15 in, L2 = 10 in,
in 4, J2 = ,r/2 in 4, and G = G2 = G = 12
the angle-of-twist diagram for
the angle-of-twist
torsional
diagram
rigidity
along the shaft length.
JG of the shaft is constant.

shaft along its length. to . Fig. P4-34

4-26. Consider the same elastic stepped circular
shown in the two alternative figures. Using the
Section 4-'i2
Fig. P4-2t method, determine the angle of twist qb,b at a
4-35. A coupling is made with eight -in-diameter
T N Fig. P4-28 high-strength bolts located on a 10-in-diameter bolt cir-
Section 4-9 cle. (a) Calculate the torque that can be transmit ed by
4-22. An aluminum-alloy tube is shrunk onto a steel this coupling if the allowable shear stress in the bolts
rod, forming a shaft that acts as a unit. This shaft is
Assume that the shaft in Problem 4-20 is at- is 10,500 psi. (b) Find the hp that can be transmit ed
tached at both ends. (a) Using the force method, de- when the shaft and couplings are rotating at 250 rpm.
40 in long and has the cross section shown in the figure.
Assume elastic behavior and let Est = 3E, u = 30 x
the reactions. (b) Find the angle of maximum 4-36. A flange coupling has six bolts having a cross-
103 ksi. (a) What stresses would be caused by applying
(a) and plot the angle-of-twist diagram along the sectional area of 0.2 in 2 each in a 8-in-diameter bolt
a torque T = 200 k-in? Show the shear stress distri- shaft length. circle, and six bolts having a cross sectional area of
0.5 in 2 each in a'5-in-diameter bolt circle. If the allow-
4.t0 able shear stress in the bolt is 16 ksi, what is the torque
capacity of this coupling?
Rework Problem 4-20 using Eq. 4-26.
Rework Problem 4-21 using Eq. 4-26. Section 443
Using Eq. 4-26 and continuity conditions (see
Steel (b)
2-19) or singularity functions, determine the 4-37. A specimen of an SAE 1060 steel bar of 20-mm
Fig. P4-22 Fig. P4-26 at the built-in ends caused by the application diameter and 450-mm length failed at a torque of 900
 Torsion Problems 223
9ram
N-m. What is the modulus of rupture of this steel in elastic into the 600-MPa range. Idealized x-- dia
torsion? for the two materials are il ustrated in the figure:
4-38. A solid steel shaft of 20-ram diameter and 1000 4-4t. If in Problem 4-40 the applied torque is relea
mm
remains
que applied
long
elastic;
is twisted
see
to cause
such
the
the
figure.
that. a 16-mm-diameter

yield
(a) Determine
state. (b) Find
the tor-
core

the re-
(a) what
results
wil be
with the
the residual
critical values.
stress
(b)
pattern?
Determine
Draw
the i< 120mm-- 8
sidual angle of twist per unit length of shaft. Fig. P4-45
sidual stress distribution that would occur on removing
the torque. Draw the residual-stress pattern with the
Section 4-14 Using the sand-heap an.logy, determine the ul-
critical values. Assume the idealized mechanical prop- ,torsional moment of resistance for a rectangular - , 100 mm 
erties for the material given in Fig. 4-30(b) of Example 4-42. Compare the maximum shear stress and an of a by 2a. (Hint: First, using the analogy,
4-13. of twist for members of equal length and cross- Eq. 4-29 for a solid circular shaft, where the
tional areas for a square section, a of the heap is CXyp. Twice the volume included Fig. P4-48
Elastic and a circular section. All members are the heap yields the required results.)
core
the same torque. The circular section is 100 mm MPa. Neglect the effect of stress concentrations. Is
diameter and the rectangular section is 25 mm there any advantage to thicken the inclined plates? Use
2O on 4-16 centerline dimensions. -
T 4-43. Compare the torsional strength and stif ne
thin-wailed tubes of circular cross section of lira For a member having the cross section shown 4-49. A shaft having the cross section shown in the
elastic material with and without a longitudinal figure, find the maximum shear stresses and an- figure is subjected to a torque T = 150 N.m. (a) Es-
(see the figure). of twist per unit length due to an applied torque timate the percentage of torque carried by each of the
1000 in-lb. Neglect stress concentrations. Comment two cross-sectional components, and calculate the
the advantage gained by the increase in the wall maximum shear stresses in each part, neglecting stress
thickness over part of the cross section. concentrations. (b) Find the angle-of-twist per unit

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Fig. P4-38
length caused by the applied torque. Let G = 25 x
103 GPa.
4-39. If the shaft in Problem 4-38 is twisted at the free
'3 mm
end
'what
shear
through
wil be the residual
stresses. Draw
an angle qb = 0.25

the
angle qb? Also
residual-stress
rad and
find
then released,
the residual
pattern with
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the critical values.
Fig. P4-43
4-40. A thin tube of nickel-alloy steel is shrunk onto 100 mm 30 mm
a solid circular rod of mild streel. The cross-sectional
4-44. An agitator shaft acting as a torsional 0.20"
dimensions of the composite shaft are shown in mm is made by welding four rectangular bars to a :ram
on the figure. Determine the torque deYeloped by this pipe, as shown in the figure. The pipe is of 4 in Fig. P4-47
shaft if the maximum shear stress measured on the
diameter and is � in thick; each of the rectangular
surface is 480 MPa. For either steel, G = 120 GPa. A thin-walled cross section in the form of a sim-
is { by 2 in. If the maximum elastic shear stress,
However, the mild steel yields in shear at 120 MPa, glecting the stress concentrations, is'limited to 8 airfoil is shown in the figure. Determine the
whereas the alloy steel remains essential y linearly torque it would carry at a maximum shear stress of 20 Fig. P4-49
what torque T can be applied to this member?

Alstloeyel
Mild steel

120 MPa Fig. P4-44

o
4-45. A torsion member has the cross section
Fig. P4-40 in the figure. Estimate the torsion constant Jequiv.
 Sec. 5-2. Diagrammatic Conventions for Supports

?chapter �ems wil be ful y analyzed

developed
in.statically
in subsequent
indeterminate
for these
chapters
problems
quantities.
are required
for complete
Special
for determining
procedures

solutions.
reac-
Exten-
to

ion to members in three-dimensional systems, where there are six pos-

internal force components, wil be introduced in later chapters as
and wil rely on the reader's knowledge of statics. In such prob-
at a section of a member there can be: an axial force, two shear
two bending moment components, and a torque.

;.2. Diagrammatic Conventions for Supports

planar structures it is essential to adopt diagrammatic con-
5=][. Introduction for their supports and loadings inasmuch as several kinds of
and a great variety of loads are possible. An adherence to such
The effect of axial forces and torsion on straight members was treated inventions avoids much confusion and minimizes the chances of making
the preceding
may be subjected.
members
chapters.

must
There
In many
resist forces applied
are other
instances NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
laterally
types
in structural
of forces

or transversely
to which
and machine
to
desi
These
types
by the kind
conventions
of supports
form
are recognized
of resistance
the pictorial

they
for planar
offer
language

to the forces.
structures.
of engineers.
These
One type
are
of
(a)

Such members
buildings
machinery
are
act
are called
beams,
simultaneously
just.as
beams. The
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main
an axle of a car is a beam.
as torsion members
members
Many
and as beams.
shafts
supporting

can resist
physically
in only one specific
a force only
realized

in the direction
by a roller
line of action.
or a link. It is capable
The link shown
of line AB. The roller
of resisting
in Fig. 5-1(a)
in Fig. 5-
modern materials, the beam is a dominant member of construction. can resist only a vertical force, whereas the rollers in Fig. 5-1(c) can
Roller
determination of the system of internal forces necessary for eq only a force that acts perpendicular to the plane CD. This type of
IRA
of any beam segment wil be the main objective of this chapter. ort wil be usually represented in this text by rollers as shown in Figs.
For. the axial y or torsionally loaded members previously and (c), and it wil be understood that a roller support is capable
only one internal force was required at an arbitrary section to satisfy a force in either direction 2 along the line of action of the
conditions of equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces i To avoid this ambiguity, a schematic link wil be occasionally
the same plane, i.e., a planar beam problem, a system of three to indicate that the reactive force may act in either direction
force components can develop at a section. These are the axial force, Fig. 5-4). A reaction of this type. corresponds to a single unknown
shear, and the bending moment. Determining these quantities is equations of statics are applied. For inclined reactions, the ratio
of this chapter. the two components is fixed (see Example 1-3).
The chapter is divided into three parts. In Part A, methods for type of support that may be used is a pin. In construction,
lating reactions are reviewed; in Parts B and C, two dif erent  a support is realized by using a detail shown in Fig. 5-2(a). In this
for calculating the internal shear and bending moment and their such supports wil be represented diagrammatically, as shown in
representations along a beam are discussed. At the end of Part C,
This and the next three sections are an informal review of statics.
optional topic on singularity functions for solving such problems is (c)
dueed. 2 This imples that in the actual design, a link must be provided if the reaction
y from the beam; in other words, the beam is not allowed to lift off from Fig, 5-1 Link and roller types
Attention wil be largely confined to consideration of single support at A in Fig. 5-1(b). In this figure, it may be helpful to show the roller of supports. (']'he only
which, for convenience, wil be shown in the horizontal position. top ' the beam in the case of a downward reaction in order to make it clear possible lines of action of the
discussion of related problems of planar frames resisting axial constrained against moving vertically at the support. This practice reactions are shown by the
shears, and bending moments is also given. Only statically wil be fol owed in the text. dashed lines.)
 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-3. Diagrammatic Conventions for Loading 227

L Beam
A B
Rcx P
I I;, / / j/ /Pi/ n/ /"' P R
(a)
RAx

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5-4 Three basic types of idealized supports for planar structural
b) Simple supports: (a) a pinned support resists two force components, and lb) (a) (b)
roller or a link resists only one directed force. Fixed support: (c) a fixed
Fig. 5-2 Pinned support: (a) Fig. 5-5 Concentrated loading on a beam, (a) actual, and lb) idealized.
actual, and (b) diagrammatic. support resists two force components and a moment.
Fig. 5~2(b). A pinned support is capable of resisting a force acting in types of distributed loads occur. Among these, two kinds are
direction of the plane. Hence, in general, the reaction at such a important: the uniformly distributed loads and the uniformly
may have two components, one in the horizontal and one in the loads. The first could easily be an idealization of the warehouse
direction. Unlike the ratio applying to the roller or link support, just mentioned, where the same kind of goods are piled up to the
between the reaction components for the pinned support is not along the beam. Likewise the beam itself, if of constant cross-
determine these two components, two equations of statics must be u. area, is an excellent il ustration of the same kind of loading. A
Thethird type of support is able to resist a force in any istic situation and a diagrammatic idealization are shown in Fig. 5-6.
and is also capable of resisting a moment or a couple. Physically, load is usually expressed as force per unit length of the beam, unless
Fig. 5-3 Fixed support.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
a support is obtained by building a beam into a wall, casting it into noted otherwise. In SI units, it may be given as newtons per
crete, or welding the end of a member to the main structure. A s (N/m); in the U.S. customary units, as pounds per inch (lb/in), as
of three forces can exist at such a support, two components of force per foot (lb/ft), or as kilopounds per foot (k/ft).
a
is
it
moment.
fixed
is shown
Such
or prevented
in Fig.
a support

5-3.
from
is called
rotating. The
afixed
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support, i.e., the built-in Uniformly
Containing
vertical
varying
liquid.
beam
loads act on the vertical
This is il ustrated
is one meter
and inclined
in Fig. 5-7, where
wide and /(N/m
walls
it is assumed
3) is the unit weight
of a vessel
that
of
To dif erentiate fixed supports from the roller and pin supports, liquid. For this type of loading, it should be careful y noted that the
are not capable of resisting moment, the lat er two are termed intensity of the load of qo N/m is applicable only to an infini-
supports. Figure 5-4 summarizes the foregoing distinctions between length of the beam. It is twice as large as the average intensity
three types of supports and the kind of resistance offered by each Hence, the total force exerted by such a loading on a beam
In practice, engineers usually assume the supports to be of one of (qoh/2) N, and its resultant acts at a distance h/3 above the vessel's
three types by "judgment," although in actual construction, supports bottom. Horizontal bottoms of vessels containing liquid are loaded uni-
beams do not always clearly fal into these classifications. formly. Various aerodynamic loadings are of distributed type.
Finally, it is conceivable to load a beam with a concentrated moment
to the beam essential y at a point. One of the possible arrange-
'5-3. Diagrammatic Conventions for Loading for applying a concentrated moment is shown in Fig. 5-8(a), and
Uniformly
varying
load
Structural members are called upon to support a variety of loads.
example, frequently a force is applied to a beam through a post, a
or a bolted detail, as shown in Fig. 5~5(a). Such arrangements apply
force over a very limited portion of the beam and are idealized for
purposes of beam analysis as concentrated forces. These are shown
grammatically in Fig. 5~5(b). On the other hand, in many instances
forces are applied over a considerable portion of the beam. In a
house, for example, goods may be piled up along the length of a qo N/m (max) = 3,'h '1
(a} (b)
Such distributed loads are defined by their load intensity at any point i Fig. 5-7 Hydrostatic loading
Fig. 5-6 Distributed loading on a beam, (a) actual, and lb) idealized. on a vertical wall.
force per unit length.
 Sec. 5-4. Classification of Beams 229
228 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment

1,1/

(a) (b)

Fig. 5-8
applying
A method
a concentrated
for ;Pulley 1,1/

moment to a beam. (b) (c)

its diagrammatic representation to be used in this text is shown in

5-8(c).
A less artificial example of the application of a concentrated (c) (f)

to a member, frequently occurring in the design of machine and

elements, is il ustrated in Fig. 5-9. In order to maintain the applied
P in equilibrium at joint C, a shear P and a moment Pd mt
at the support, Fig. 5-9(c). These forces apply a concentrated
and an axial force, as shown in Fig. 5-9(b).
The necessity for a complete understanding of the foregoing
(d) (g) Fig. 540 Types of beams.
representation supports for and forces cannot be overemphasized.
particularly the kind of resistance offered by the dif erent types of

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
ports and the manner of representation of the forces at such i0(c), if the ends have fixed supports. Likewise, fol owing the same
These notations wil be used to construct free-body diagrams Scheme of nomenclature, the beam shown in Fig. 5-10(d) is a beam fixed
one end and simply supported at the other. Such beams are also called
*54.
Beams
Classification
are classified into
of
Several
Beams
groups, depending
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primarily on
at one end
ted beams,

Fig.
and
5-10(e).
as one end is "restrained"
completely free
from rotation.
at the other
A beam
has a special name, a cantilever
fixed

of supports used. Thus, if the supports are at the ends and are either the beam projects beyond a support, the beam is said to have an
or rollers, the beams are simply supported, or simple beams, Figs. Thus, the beam shown in Fig. 5-10(f) is an overhanging beam.
and (b). The beam becomes a fixed beam, or fixed-ended beam, Fig. If intermediate supports are. provided for a physically continuous member
as a beam, Fig. 5-10(g), the beam is termed a continuous beam.
A A
For all beams, the distance � between supports is called a span. In a
there are several spans that may be of varying lengths.
In addition to classifying beams on the basis of supports, descriptive
pertaining to the loading are often used. Thus, the beam shown
Fig. 5-10(a) is a simple beam with a concentrated load, whereas the
in Fig. 5-10(b) is a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load.
types of beams are similarly described.
For most of the work in engineering solid mechanics, it is also mean-
(c) to further classify beams into statically determinate and statically
ate beams. If for a planar beam or a frame, the number of
B
reaction components, including a bending moment, does not
exceed three, such a structural system is externally statically determinate.
unknowns can always be found from the equations of static equi-
{a) {b) librium. The next section wil briefly review the methods of statics for
:omputing reactions for statically determinate beams. A procedure for
Fig. 5-9 Loaded horizontal member applies an axial force and a concentrated
moment to the vertical member. mg reactions in indeterminate beams is given in Chapter 10.
230 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5.5. Calculation of Beam Reactions

160 N
*5-5. Calculation of Beam Reactions 200 N.m
200N.m I100N ] 16�N
All subsequent work with beams in this chapter wil begin with de
mination of the reactions. When all of the forces are applied in one
three equations of static equilibrium are available for the analysis.
are  Fx = 0,  Fy = 0, and  Mz = 0, and have already been discus,. RA 1- 0.4 m > I RB
in Chapter 1. For straight beams in the horizontal position, the x axis  (a) (b)
be taken in a horizontal direction, the y axis in the upward vertical
Fig. 5-tt
rection, and the z axis normal to the plane of the paper. The
of these equations to several beam problems is il ustrated in the
examples and is intended to serve as a i If more unknown reaction components or moments exist at the support, the prob-
The deformation'of beams, being small, is neglected when the becomes statically indeterminate.
of statics are applied. For stable beams, the small amount .Xlote that the concentrated moment applied at C enters only into the expressions
that does take place changes the points of application of the forces the summation of moments. The positive sign of Rs indicates that its direction
perceptibly. been correctly assumed in Fig. 5-11(b). The opposite is the case of R.4y, and
vertical reaction at A acts downward. A check on the arithmetical work is
if the calculations are made as shown.
EXAMPLE 5-'1
Solution
Find the reactions at the supports for a simple beam loaded as shown in Fi
11(a). Neglect the weight of the beam. computing reactions, some engineers prefer to make calculations in the manner

Solution
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION a time.
the
in Fig.
details
The total
5-12.
are
reaction
Fundamental y,
dif erent.
is obtained by summing
The
these
reactions
reactions.
this

This
involves

pro-
for every
the use of the
force are
same
determined
principles.
one

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permits a running check of the computations as they are performed. For
The leading of the beam is already given in diagrammatic form. The nature of t force, the sum of its reactions is equal to the force itself. For example, for
supports is examined next, and the unknown components of these reactior 160-N force, it is easy to see that the upward forces of 40 N and 120 N total
clearly indicated on the diagram. The beam, with the unknown reaction N. On the other hand, the concentrated moment at C, being a couple, is
ponents and all the applied forces, is redrawn in Fig. 5-11(b) to emphasize by a couple. It causes an upward force of 500 N at the fight reaction and
important step in constructing a free-body diagram. In order to of 500 N at the left reaction.
the applied forces and reactions, fol owing the suggestion made in Section
slashes are drawn across the reaction force vectors.
At A, two unknown reaction components may exist, since the end is
The
The
reaction
points
at B can
of application
act only in a vertical
of all forces are
direction
careful y
since
noted.
the
After
end is on a
200N.m IlOON 1180N c
gram of the beam is made, the equations of statics are applied to
solution.
R} i 'R
Fx = 0 RL
MA = 0� + 200 + 100 x 0.2 + 160 x 0.3 --RB x 0.4 0.4 m t MA=0
RB = + 670 00 x 1/(0.4) == 500 N 500 N = 200 X 1/(0.4) (moment)

 M = 0� + R^y x 0.4 + 200 - 100 x 0.2 - 160 x 0.1 100

i60
x (0.2)/(0.4)
x (0.1)/(0.4) =
50 N
50 N = 100 X (0.2)/(0.4) (100 N force)
{ 160 N force)
RAy = --410
40 N
120 N = 160 X (0.3)/(0.41
500 N g0 N
R=670N
Check: F:, = 0' + -410- 100 - 160 + 670
R 410N 
Fig. 5-t2
Note that  F. = 0 uses one of the three independent equations of
thus, only two additional reaction-components can be determined from
232 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5.5. Calculation of Beam Reactions
_ 1
P-sX3X 10=15kN
q. = 10 kN/m

_,-crlqT
RAx

(a)

R''f -X3=2 m 4k

Fig. 5-t3
5m

(b)
/3k5k B Rax

RAy
EXAMPLE 5-2

Find the reactions for the partial y loaded beam with a uniformly varying
shown in Fig. 5-13(a). Neglect the weight of the beam. (b) Fig. 5-t4

Iution

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Solution

An examination-of the supporting conditions indicates that there are y diagram is shown in Fig. 5-14(b). At A, there are two unknown re-
known reaction components; hence, the beam is statically determinate. components, RA and R,.. At B, the reaction RB acts normal to the sup-
and the applied
figuration
shaped outline,
load are shown
of the member
bearing
in Fig. 5-13Co).
is not important
no i-esemblance
for computing
to the actual
Note particularly
beam,
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the reactions.
is indicated
that the
to
10rting
by
plane
the
and constitutes
two components
equal. Similarly,
a single
R.,. and
unknown.
RB., which
it is best to replace
It is expedient
in this particular
the inclined force
to replace
problem
with the
this

two
are

phasize this point. However, this new body is supported at points A and components shown. These steps reduce the problem to one where all forces are
same manner as the original beam. cal. This is of great convenience in applying the equations
For calculating the reactions, the distributed load is replaced by an tuilibrium.
concentrated force P. It acts through the centroid of the distributed forces.
pertinent quantities are marked on the working sketch, Fig. 5-13Co). After MA=0G+ 4x3-R m. x12=O R,= lkt = I g. I
body diagram is prepared, the solution fol ows by applying the equations iM=0G + RAy X 12 - 4 x 9 = 0 RAy = 3 k 1
equilibrium.
,F = 0-- + RAx -- 3 - 1 = 0 R ,. = 4 k--*
F. = 0 R/ = 0 R, = X,/42 + 32 = 5 k
M/ = 07+ + 15 x 2 - RB x 5 = 0 RB = 6 R = Vff7+ 12 = /k
 M = OG+ - RAy x 5 + 15 x 3 = 0 R/y = 9
+3-4+1=0

-9+ 15-6
h#ges or p#medjoints are introduced into beams and frames.
is capable of transmit ing only horizontal and vertical forces. No moment
be transmit ed at a hingedjoht. Therefore, the point where a hinge occurs
EXAMPLE 5-3
a particularly convenient location for "separation" of the structure into parts
oses of computing the reactions. This process is il ustrated in Fig. 5-15.
Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam shown in Fig. 5-14(a) part of the beam so separated is treated independently. Each hinge provides
applied force. axis around which moments may be taken to determine reactions. The
234 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-7. Axial Force in Beams 235
considered earlier in Section 5-5. The externally applied forces
the reactions at the support keep the whole body in equilibrium. Now
ider an imaginary cut X-X normal to the axis of the beam, which
the beam into two segments, as shown in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c).
particularly that the imaginary section goes through the distributed
( L 1 - -a . 2 and separates it too. Each of these beam segments is a free-body
must be in equilibrium: These conditions of equilibrium require the
stence of a system of internal forces at the cut section of the beam.
B In general, at a section of such a member, a vertical force, a horizontal
and a moment are necessary to maintain the isolated part in equi-
[m. These quantities take on a special significance in beams and there-
Fig. 545 Structures
"separated"
determine the
at hinges
reactions
to
by
 (c) wil be discussed separately.

statics. (b)
Axial Force in Beams
introduction of a hinge or hinges into a continuous beam in many cases
horizontal force such as P, shown in Fig. 5-16(b) or (c), may be nec-
the system statically determinate. The introduction of a hinge into a deterr
beam results in a beam that is not stable. Note that the reaction at the hit ;sary at a section of a beam to satisfy the conditions of equilibrium. The
one beam acts in an opposite dh'ection on the other beam. and sense of this force fol ows from a particular solution of
equation  Fx = 0. If the horizontal force P acts toward the section,
called a thrust; if away, it is called axial tension. In referring to either

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
these forces, the term axial force is used. The effect of an axial force
a section of a member has already been discussed in Chapters 1 and
was shown that it is imperative to apply this force through the centroid

www.avs4you.com W (total
varying
uniformly
load)

5-{. Application of the Method of Sections ' /P2(t�ta'�ad)

The main objective of this chapter is to establish means for dete (a)
the forces that exist at a section of a beam or a frame. To obtain
forces, the method of sections, the basic approach of solid
wil be applied. This procedure is referred to here as a direct
The analysis of any beam or frame for determining the internal
begins with thd preparation of a free-body diagram showing both the
plied and the reactive forces. The reactions can aiwa3 M
P2 P
the equations of equilibrium provided the system is staticall3 (b)
If the system is statically
indeterminate, the reactions are
labeled and shown on
free-body. the
In this manner, for either case,
complete force system is identified. In the subsequent steps P
no distinction has to be made between the applied and reactive

W2
The method of sections can then be applied at any section of a
by employing the previously used concept that if a whole body is in
librium, any part of it is likewise in equilibrium. (c) B
To be specific, consider a beam, such as shown in Fig. 5-16(a),
certain concentrated and distributed forces acting on it. The the method of sections to a

also presumed to be known, since they may be computed as in the lR,v /RB statically determinate'beam.
236 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment 237
Resultant of all forces
of the cross-sectional area of a member to avoid bending. Similarly, (including reactions)
the line of action of the axial force wil always be directed throu
centroid
Any section
of the
along a beam
beam's
may
cross-sectional
be examined
area.
for the magnitude of
," to theleftofsection
+V

axial force in the previous manner. The tensile force at a section is

tomarily taken positive. The axial force (thrust) at section X-X in Fi
5-16(b) and (c) is equal to the horizontal force P2. Beam
element

(c)
5-8. Shear in Beams
In general, to maintain a segment of a beam, such as that shown in Arbitrary
5-16(b), in equilibrium, there must be an internal vertical force � at section + V
cut to satisfy the equation  Fy = 0. This internal force �,
angles to the axis of the beam, is called the shear, or shear force.
shear is numerically equal to the algebraic sum of all the vertical
ponents of the external forces acting on the isolated segment,
opposite in direction. Given the qualitative data shownin Fig. 5-16(b) Fig.
positive
5-t7 Definition
shear.
of
is opposite in direction to the downward load to the left of the sec
This shear may also be computed by considering the right-hand se section X-X of Fig. 5-16(a) is a negative shear. Note that in addition
shown in Fig. 5-16(c). It is then equal numerically and is i specifying the direction of a shear V, it is essential to associate it with

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
direction to the sum of all the vertical forces, including the vertic side of a section, Fig. 5-17(c). This is also true with stresses.
action components, to the right of the section. Whether the ri discussion in Sections 1-3 and 1-4.) +v

segment or the left is used to determine the shear at a section is ' selected sign convention for shear in this book is the one generally

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terial--arithmetical simplicity governs. Shears at any other section Historically, it appears tO be based on directing the coordinate axes
be computed similarly. shown in Fig. 5-18(a). A few books 3 reverse the direction of positive
At this time, a significant observation must be made. The same to be consistent with the direction �f axes in Fig. 5-18(b).
shown in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c) at the section X-X is opposite in
in the two diagrams. For that part of the downward load W to the Bending Moment in Beams
of section X-X, the beam at the section provides an upward (a)
maintain vertical forces in equilibrium. Conversely, the loaded [ shear and axial forces at a section of a beam satisfy only two
the beam exerts a downward force on the beam, as shown in Fig. 5-16{ uations of equilibrium:  Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0. The remaining con-
At a section, "two directions" of shear must be dif erentiated, de of static equilibrium for a planar problem is  M = 0. This, in
upon which segment of the beam is considered. This fol ows from can be satisfied only by developing a couple or an internal re- y

familiar action-reaction concept of statics and has occurred earlier moment within the cross-sectional area of the cut to counteract
case of an axial y loaded rod, and again in the torsion problem. moment caused by the external forces. The internal resisting moment
The direction of the shear at section X-X would be reversed in act in a direction opposite to the external moment to satisfy the
diagrams if the distributed load W were acting upward. Fret governing equation  M = 0. It fol ows from the same equation that
similar reversal in the direction of shear takes place at one section magnitude of the internal resisting moment equals the external mo-
another along a beam. Therefore, the adoption of a sign These moments tend to bend a beam in the plane of the loads and
necessary to dif erentiate between the two possible directions of usually referred as bending moments.
The definition of positive shear is il ustrated in Fig. 5-17. A To determine an internal bending moment maintaining a beam segment
(b)
internal force V acting at a section on an isolated left segment of . equilibrium, either the left- or the right-hand part of a beam free-body
Fig. 548 Positive sense of
beam, as in Fig. 5-17(a), or an upward force V acting at the same S. H. Crandall, N. C. Dahl, and T. J. Lardner, An Introduction to the Me- shear and bending moment
on the right segment of the beam, as in Fig. 5-17(b), corresponds tSolids, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1978). J. L. Merriam, Stat- defined in (a) is used in this
itive shear. Positive shears are shown in Fig. 5-17(c) for an element 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1971). E. P. Popov, Introduction to Mechanics text with coordinates shown

lated from a beam by two sections, and again in Fig. 5-17(d). The Solids, (Englewood Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968). in (b). 
238 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-9. Bending Moment in Beams 23 {)

can be used, as shown in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c). The magnitude of

Yll 3m -
--i3
bending moment is found by the summation of the moments caused )' 10 kN/m
all forces multiplied
P, as well as the applied
by their respective
couples,
arms.
must be included
The internal forces
in the sum. In
V
15kkN/m
to exclude the moments caused by V and P, it is advantageous to x

the point of intersection of these two internal forces as the point arot
which the moments are summed. This point lies on the centroidal
the beam cross section. In Figs. 5~16(b) and (c), the internal
moment may be physically interpreted as a pull on the top fibers of A
9 kN 9 kN
beam and a push on the lower ones.
If the load Win Fig.
5-16(a) were acting in the opposite direction, - 2 m--  2 - < 2

resisting moments in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c) would reverse. This and
(a) (c)
situations require the adoption of a sign convention for the bending
merits. This convention is associated with a definite physical
the beam. For example, in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c), the internal
shown cause tension in the upper part of the beam and com
lower. This tends to increase the length of the top surface of the
and to contract the lower surface. A continuous occurrence of such
ments along the beam makes the beam deform convex upwards,
"shed water." Such bending moments are assigned a negative sign.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
versely, a positive moment is defined as one that produces compre.,
in the top part and tension in the lower part of a beam's cross
Under such circumstances, the beam assumes a shape that
water." For example, a simple beam
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supporting a group of (b) Fig. 5.20
forces deflects down as shown in exaggerated form in Fig. 5-19(a),
suggested by physical intuition. De�mitions for positive and ne EXAMPLE 5-4
bending moments are shown in Figs. 5-19(b) and (c). Note that, ast
shears V, in addition to the sense of M, it is also essential to ;ider earlier Example 5-2 and determine the internal system of forces at sec-
a-a and b-b; see Fig. 5-20(a).
the moment for a particular side of a section.
SOlution
+M +M
free-body for the member, including reactions, is shown in Fig. 5-20(a). A free-
to the left of section a-a in Fig. 5-20(b) shows the maximum ordinate for
Fibers in Fibers in
tension compression isolated part of the applied load. Using this information,
+M +M
+M
1 2
v, = -9 +  x 2 x  x 10 = -2.33kN
{b)
1 2 1
M, = -9 x 2 + x 2 x  x 10 x  x 2 = -13.6kN.m
-M

forces are shown with correct sense in the figure.

Jy to the left of section b-b is shown in Fig. 5-20(c), and to the right,
{a) Fig. 5-20(d). It is evident that the second free-body is simpler for calculations,
Fig. 549 Definition of bending moment signs. directly
240 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5.t0. Axial. Force, Shear, and Bending.Moment Diagrams
P=Sk
Vb = +6kN

and Mb = -6 x 1 = -6kN.m
-[
I
{a)
The same procedure can be used for frames consisting of several memb 3k
I 2X8-4X3=
4 k-ft
rigidly joined together as well as for curved bars. In all such cases, the secti6fi (g)
must be perpendicular to the axis of a member. 2k,J' I

J I
I
I
3k I I I
o
5-10. Axial-Force, Shear, and Bending-Moment I i,  I t' (h)
Diagrams
.[2k
i 113k I '2k -3 k I
Axial force
By the methods discussed before, the magnitude and sense of axial fo I
shears, and bending moments may be obtained at many sections of +2 k I

beam. Moreover, with the sign conventions adopted for these 4 k-ft 4 k-ft
3k 2k
a plot of their values may be made on separate diagrams.. On such (d) (i)
grams, ordinates may be laid off equal to the computed qantities
2 k T.2, Jr--  2
2k
a base line representing the length of a beam. When these ordinate Shear

are plot ed and interconnected by lines, graphical representations of t

I
functions are obtained. These diagrams, corresponding to the kind I

quantities they depict, are called,. respectively, the axial-force 3k Ii 2 kj-O k-ft +10 k-ft

the shear
diagrams,
immediately
diagram,
the magnitudes
apparent.
or the bending-moment
and locations
It is convenient
of the various
to make
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
diagram.

these
With

plots
quantities
the aid of

directly
becor
,-';-- -J

J 5-
(j) +4 k-ft

Bending moment
+4 k-ft

the free-body
the length
is usually
diagram
of the beam.
unnecessary,
of the beam,
Draftsmanlike
although
using
precision
the significant
the same
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in making
ordinates
horizontal
such
are
scale I
I
i 4 kl
(k)
marked with their numerical value.
Deflected shape
The axial-force diagrams are not as commonly used as the shear
the bending-moment diagrams. This is so because the majority Fig. 5-21
investigated in practice are loaded by forces that act perpendicular to
axis of the beam. For such loadings of a beam, there are no axial Solution
at any section.
Shear and moment diagrams are exceedingly important. From them, A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 5-21(b). Reactions fol ow from
designer sees at a glance the kind of performance that is desired from inspection after the applied force is resolved into the two components. Then
beam at every section. The procedure of sectioning a beam or a several sections through the beam are investigated, as shown in Figs. 5-21(c)-
and finding the system of forces at the section is the most (g). In every case, the same question is posed: What are the necessary internal
approach. It wil be used in the fol owing il ustrative examples. In
forces to keep the segment of the beam in equilibrium? The corresponding quan-
tifies are recorded on the respective free-body diagrams of the beam segment.
of these examples, algebraic expressions for these functions along a The ordinates for these quantifies are indicated by heavy dots in Figs. 5-21(h)-
wil be given. (j), with due attention paid to their signs.
A systematic method for rapidly constructing shear and moment Note that the free bodies shown in Figs. 5-21(d) and (g) are alternates, as they
grams wil be discussed in the next part of this chapter. furnish the same information, and normally both would not be made. Note that
a section just to the left of the applied force has one sign of shear, Fig. 5-21(e),
EXAMPLE 5-5 whereas just to the right, Fig. 5-21(f), it has another. This indicates the importance
of determining shears on either side of a concentrated force. For the condition
Construct axial-force, shear, and bending-moment diagrams for the beam shown, the beam does not resist a shear that is equal to the whole force. The
in Fig. 5-21(a) due to the inclined force P = 5 k. bending moment in both cases is the same.
:242 � Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 540. Axial. Force, Shear, and Bending-Moment Diagrams 243

In this particular case, after a few individual points have been J

the three diagrams in Figs. 5-21(h)-(j), the behavior of the respective
across the whole length of the beam may be reasoned out. Thus, although
(a) *
segment of the beam shown in Fig. 5-21(c) is 2 ft long, it may vary in len
anywhere from zero to first to the left of the applied force, and no change in (d)
shear and the axial force occurs. Hence, the ordinates in Figs. 5-21(h) and H L >1 0 Axial force
remain constant for this segment of the beam. On the other hand, the
moment depends directly on the distance from the support; hence, it varies
early, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j). Similar reasoning applies to the segment
in Fig. 5-21(d), enabling one to complete the three diagrams on the ri
side. The use of the free-body of Fig. 5-21(g) for completing the diagram to Shear

fight of center yields. the same result.

The sign of a bending moment, per Figs. 5-19(b) and (c), defines the sense
which a beam bends. Since, in this problem, throughout the beam length, (f)
moments are positive, the beam curves to "retain water." In order to
this physical behavior some analysts find it advantageous to draw a short p PLf P I \PL - Px -PL Moment

line directly on the moment diagram, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j), to ifidicate

manner in which a beam or a beam segment curves.
Sometimes, in addition to or instead of the shear or moment dia
expressions for these functions are necessary. For the origin of x at the left
of the beam, the fol owing relations apply:
Deflected shape Fig. 5-22

M=
V=
V=
+2k
-2k
+2x k-ft
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION for0<x<5
for5<x<
for0-<x-< 5
10
EXAMPLE 5-7

These expressions
M = +2x-

can
4(x-

be easily
5) =

established
+20-
www.avs4you.com
2xk-ft

by mental y
for5-<x-<

replacing the
10 Construct
forces shown
shear and
in Fig.
bending-moment
5-23(a).
diagrams for the beam loaded with the

of 2 ft and 8 ft, respectively, in Figs. 5-21(c) and (g) by an x. Solution

An arbitrary section at a distance x from the left support isolates the beam segment
EXAMPLE 5-6 shown in Fig. 5-23(b). This section is applicable for any value of x just to the left

Determine axial-force, shear, and bending-moment diagrams for the {-,+---a >l
loaded with an inclined force at the end; see Fig. 5-22(a).

, ,
Solution
(a)
First, the inclined force is replaced by the two components shown in Fig.
and the reactions are determined. The three unknowns at the support fol ow
the familiar equations of statics. This completes the free-body diagram shown  p,[
Fig. 5-22(b). Completeness in indicating all of these forces is of the utmost
(d)
portance.
A segment of the beam is shown in Fig. 5~22(c); from this segment, it may Shear
seen that the axial force and the shear force remain the same regardless (b)
distance x. On the other hand, the bending moment is a variable quantity.
summation of moments around C gives PL - Px acting in the direction
This represents a negative moment. The moment at the support is (e)
negative bending moment as it tends to pull on the upper fibers of the beam.
o
three diagrams are plot ed in Figs. $-22(d)-(f). Fig. 5-23 Moment
244 ' Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-10. Axial-Force, Shear, and Bending-Moment Diagrams
of the applied force P. The shear, regardless of the distance from the su customary to isolate the left-hand segment, similar expressions may
remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies linearly from the obtained by considering the right-hand segment of the beam, with due attention
port, reaching a maximum of +Pa. sign conventions. The plot of the V and M functions is shown in Figs. 5-
An arbitrary section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces and (d).
shown in Fig. 5-23(c). No shear force is necessary to maintain equilibrium
segment in this part of the beam. Only a constant bending moment of + Pa mu
be resisted by the beam in this zone. Such a state of bending or flexure is MPLE 5-9
pure bending.
Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown �the beam in Example 5-4, shown in Fig. 5-25(a), express the shear V and the
Figs. 5-23(d) and (e). No axial-force diagram is necessary, as there is no moment M as a function of x along the horizontal member.
force at any section of the beam.
Solution
EXAMPLE 5-8
Unlike the preceding example, in this case, a load discontinuity occurs at x = 3
Therefore, the solution is determined in two parts for each of which the func-
Plot shear and a bending-moment diagrams for a simple beam with a V and M are continuous. A free-body diagram for the beam segment under
distributed load; see Fig. 5-24. load is shown in Fig. 5-25(b), and for the remainder, in Fig. 5-25(c). The
required expressions for 0 < x < 3 are
Solution

The best way of solving this problem is to write algebraic expressions for V(x) = -9 + x 10 = -9 + x kN
quantities sought. For this purpose, an arbitrary section taken at a distance

NON-ACTIVATEDM(x)VERSION
= -9x + x 10 = -9x + x kN.m
the left support is used to isolate the segment shown in Fig. 5-24(b). Since
applied load is continuously distributed along the beam, this section is
and applies to any section along the length of the beam.

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The shear V is equal to the left upward reaction less the load to the left of th For 3 < x < 5,
section. The internal bending moment M resists the moment caused by the
action on the left less the moment caused by the forces to the left of the V(x) = -9 + 15 = +6kN
section. The summation of moments is performed around an axis at the M(x) = -9x + 15(x - 2) = 6x - 30 kN.m

w o N/m To obtain the last expression, it would have been a lit le simpler to use a free-
body diagram similar to Fig. 5-20(d).
This problem can also be solved using the singularity functions discussed in
Section 5-16.
} woL
oF>---.. Y--3 m 10kN/m
' L  -�%L k.1 ..M(x)
6kN' V(x)

I kN 90 N

- 5m  < 2 --J-
Moment
r,, -
I v= Wo. - WoX (d)
(b) (c)
Fig. 5.25
(b)
Fig. 5-24
246 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5.10. Axial-Force, Shear, and Bending.Moment Diagrams 2,47

X 1

B ' &

P(x) Pla x3)

D ('M(x,)
V,. I V(x) V.''

V(xa)pl'xa
Fig, 5-26

y2Pa
EXAMPLE 5-t0
2Pa
Write analytic expressions for V and M for the beam shown in Fig. 5-26.
Solution

Unlike the preceding cases, this is a statically indeterminate proble m to the (a) (b)
degree having one redundant reaction. There is no horizontal reaction at A.
cept for careful y identifying the unknown reactions as VA, VB, and MA, Fig. 5-:27
procedure is the same as before, although numerical results cannot be obtai
until the reactions are determined. On this basis, at a distance x away from
origin, These forces are constant throughout the length of the vertical bar and become

V(x) = V. - NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

wox
the reactions
force
known,
in member
at B for the beam
AB acts as shear
the usual procedure
segment
in BC.
gives the fol owing
BC. It is important
After the reactions
internal forces:
to note that the axial
at B for BC are

and M(x) = MA
- Mn
+
+
VAx
Vx
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-
-
(WoX)X/2
WoX2/2
P(x2) = 0, V(x2) = -P and M(X2) = +2Pa - PlX2

For member CD, except for the need for resolving the force P at C, the pro-
Sometimes, it wil be necessary to use such expressions in the process of solvin g cedure for determining the internal forces is the same as before, giving
for unknown reactions in Chapters 10 and 12.
P(x3) = -P/V, V(x3) = -P/V and M(x3) = + Pa - Px3/V
EXAMPLE 54
By substituting x3 = X/a into the last expression, it can be verified that the
bending moment at D is zero, as it should be.
Consider a structural system of three interconnected straight bars, as shown Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this structural system can be plot ed
Fig. 5-27(a). At arbitrary sections, determine the internal forces P, V, and M directly on the outline of the frame.
the members caused by the application of a vertical force P at D.

Solution
EXAMPLE 542
The frame is conveniently analyzed by isolating the three straight members, Consider a curved beam whose centroidal axis is bent into a semicircle of 0.2 m
shown in Fig. 5-27(b). For each case, a dif erent coordinate system is indicated,
radius, as shown in Fig. 5-28(a). If this member is being pulled by the 1000-N
and sections through the members are shown at arbitrary distances from the
origin. forces shown, find the axial force, the shear, and the bending moment at section
The solution begins by calculating the reaction at A, which is then shown on A-A, ct = 45 �. The centroidal axis and the applied forces all lie in the same plane.
beam segment AB. At an arbitrary section through this beam, the internal forces
are seen to be Solution

There is no essential dif erence in the method of attack in this problem compared
P(x) = +P, V(x) = 0 and M(x) = +2Pa with that in a straight-beam problem. The body as a whole is examined for con-
248 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-tt. Equations of Equilibrium for a Beam Element
derived. These can be used for the construction of shear and moment
as well as for the calculation of reactions.

P=I
Consider a beam element Ax long, isolated by two adjoining sections
perpendicular to its axis, Fig. 5-29(b). Such an element is shown
a free-body in Fig. 5-29(c). All the forces shown acting on this element
have positive sense. The positive sense of the distributed external force
c = 45 �
is taken to coincide with the direction of the positive y axis. As the
ar and the moment may each change from one section to the next,
that on the right side of the element, these quantities are, respec-
(a)
designated V + A V and M + AM.
Eig. 5-28 From the condition for equilibrium of vertical forces, one obtains 4
ditions of equilibrium. From the conditions of the problem here, such is
the case. Next, a segment of the beam is isolated; see Fig. 5-28(b). Section T + V+ qAx- (V+ AV) = 0
A is taken perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Before determining the AV
wanted at the cut, the applied force P is resolved into components parallel (5-1)
perpendicular to the cut. These directions are taken respectively as the y and
Ax = q
axes. This resolution replaces P by the components shown in Fig. 5-28(b).
 Fx = 0, the axial force at the cut is +707 N. From  Fy = 0, the shear L, For equilibrium, the summation of moments around A also must be zero.
707 N in the direction shown. The bending moment at the cut can So, upon noting that from point A the arm of the distributed force is
in several dif erent ways. For example, if  Mo = 0 is used, note that the line one has
of action of the applied force P and the shear at the section pass through
Therefore,
be considered,
in the direction
only the axial
and the resisting
shown. An alternative
bending
force

solution
moment
at the
is 707(0.2)
may be obtained
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
centroid of the cut times
= 141.4 N.m,
by applying
the radius


has 4 No variation
O, the change
Proximation.
of q(x) within
in q becomes
Ax need
negligibly
be considered,
small. This
since,
simplification
in the limit
is not
as Ax
an ap-

= 0. At
The bending
m arm. In both
C, a point
moment
of these
is then the
methods
lying on the centroid,
product of the
of determining
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the axial
Y +q(x)
applied
force

bending
force
and
P and
moment,
the shear intersectl
the 0.141
use of
components of the force P is avoided as this is more involved
It is suggested that the reader complete this problem in terms of a general
a. Several interesting observations may be made from such a general solution.
 +'" y +q(x)
The moments
shear vanishes
at the ends wil vanish
and the axial force becomes
for a = 0 � and a = 180 �. For a = 90 �,
equal to the applied force P. Likewise
+M "+v +�
the maximum bending moment is associated with a = 90 �.

(a) Beam sign convention

5=]]� Dif erential

Element
Equations of Equilibrium for a Beam
Y (qx)loadperuni (c)

Instead of the direct approach of cutting a beam and determining shear

(b)
and moment at a section by statics, an efficient alternative procedure
be used. For this purpose, certain fundamental dif erential Flg. 5-29 Beam and beam elements between adjoining sections.
250 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment . Sec. 542. Shear Diagrams by Integration of the Load
q = +q2
=o�+ (M + AM) - VAx - M - (q Ax)(Ax/2) =
AM q Ax
=V+
Ax 2
-dx
Equations 5-1 and 5-2 in the limit as Ax --> 0 yield the fol owing dV = -wodx
basic dif erential equations:

I dv Slope = d__V=-wo
dx

(a)
dV
xx = +ql dV
dx - +q2

I )
and (b) Fig. 5-30 Shear diagrams for
(a) a uniformly distributed
Slope of shear diagram:
load intensity, and (b) a
dV Slope uniformly increasing load
dx - q ""---...Slope intensity.
By substituting Eq. 5-4 into Eq. 5-3, another useful relation is

dx NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
dx 2
=q
"jump,"
cess
in the value
remains
of as being
valid
of the shear
nevertheless,
a distributed force
occurs.
since
extending
The
a concentrated
continuous
for an infinitesimal
force
summation
may be
dis-

conditions,www.avs4you.com
This dif erential equation can be used for determining reactions of tance along the beam.
On the basis of the above reasoning, a shear diagram can be established
ically determinate beams from the boundary whereas Eqs.
3 and 5-4 are very convenient for construction by the summation
of shearprocess. For this purpose,
and moment the reactions must always
grams. These applications wil be discussed next. be determined first. Then the vertical components of forces and reactions
are successively summed from the left end of the beam to preserve the
mathematical sign convention for shear adopted in Fig. 5-17. The shear
5-12. Shear Diagrams by Integration of the Load at a section is simply equal to the sum of all vertical forces to the left of
the section.
By transposing and integrating Eq. 5-3 gives the shear V: When the shear diagram is constructed from the load diagram by the
summation process, two important observations can be made regarding
its shape. First, the sense of the applied load determines the sign of the
slope of the shear diagram. If the applied load acts upward, the slope of
the shear diagram is positive, and vice versa. Second, this slope is equal
to the corresponding applied load intensity. For example, consider a seg-
ment of a beam with a uniformly distributed downward load Wo and known
By assigning definite limits to this integral, it is seen that the shear at shears at both ends, as shown in Fig. 5-30(a). Since here the applied load
section is simply an integral (i.e., a sum) of the vertical forces along intensity Wo is negative and uniformly distributed, i.e., q = -Wo = con-
beam from the left end of the beam to the section in question plus stant, the slope of the shear diagram exhibits the same characteristics.
constant of integration C. This constant is equal to the shear on the Alternatively, the linearly varying load intensity acting upward on a beam
hand end. Between any two def'mite seciions of a beam, the shear segment with known shears at the ends, shown in Fig. 5-30(b), gives rise
by the amount of the vertical force included between these sections. to a dif erently shaped shear diagram. Near the left end of this segment,
no force occurs between any two sections, no change in shear takes' the locally applied upward load q is smaller than the corresponding one
If a concentrated force comes into the summation, a discontinuity, or q2 near the fight end. Therefore, the positive slope of the shear diagram
 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 543. Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear 253

on the left is smaller than it is on the right, and the shear dia
concave upward.
Do not fail to note that a mere systematic consecutive summa
the vertical components of the forces is all that is necessary to
the shear diagram. When the consecutive summation process is
diagram must end up with the previously calculated shear
the right end of a beam. No shear acts through the beam just
last vertical force or reaction. The fact that the diagram closes in
manner offers an important check on the arithmetical calculations.
check should never be ignored. It permits one to obtain solutions
pendently with al. most complete assurance of being correct. The dMIdx = -V
graphical procedure of integration outlined before is very
practical problems. It is the basis for sketching qualitative shear,
rapidly.  -M B
From the physical point of view, the shear sign convention- is not
plotely
from
consistent. Whenever
one side of the beam
beams
is opposite
are analyzed, a shear
in sign to a diagram
dia dM= - V1dx MB

by looking at the same beam from the other side. The reader should  (a)
dM. = V dx
this statement on some simple cases, such as a cantilever with a
trated force at the end and a simply supported beam with a

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dM_ V /+Slope

Slope of moment diagram:
force in the middle. For design purposes, the sign of the shear is
unimportant.
dx '"'-----Slope

5-13.
Transposing
Moment
and integrating
Diagrams
Eq.
by Integration www.avs4you.com
5-4 gives the bending
of the Shear
moment
Fig. 541 Shear and moment diagrams for (a) a uniformly
increasing load intensity.
distributed load intensity, and (b) a uniformly

By proceeding continuously along the beam from the left-hand end and
the areas of the shear diagram with due regard to their sign,
moment diagram is obtained. This process of obfaining the moment
from the shear difigram by summation is exactly the same as that
earlier to go from loading to shear diagrams. The change in
moment in a given segment of a beam is equal to the area of the cor-
where C2 is a constant of integration corresponding to boundary onding shear diagram. Qualitatively, the shape of a moment diagram
tions at x = 0. This equation is analogous to Eq. 5-6 developed for be easily established from the slopes at some selected points along
construction of shear diagrams. The meaning of the term V dx is beam. These slopes have the same sign and magnitude as the cor-
graphically by the hatched areas of the shear diagrams in Fig. 5-31. shears on the shear diagram, since according to Eq. 5-4, dM/
summation of these areas between definite sections through a beam = V. Alternatively, the change of moment dM = V dx can be studied
responds to an evaluation of the definite integral. If the ends of a the beam. Examples are shown in Fig. 5-31. According to these
variable shears cause nonlinear variation of the moment. A
are on rollers, pin-ended, or free, the starting and the terminal
are zero. If the end is built-in (fixed against rotation), in statically constant shear produces a uniform change in the bending moment, re-
minate beams, the end moment is known from the reaction sulting in a straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear occurs along
If the fixed end of a beam is on the left, this moment with the portion of a beam, no change in moment takes place.
sign is the initial constant of integration C2. Since dM/dx = V, according to the fundamental theorem of calculus,
the maximum or minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
5 Bending moments carry signs according to the convention adopted In a bending-moment diagram obtained by summation, at the right-hand
19. Moments that cause compression in the top fibers of the beam are end of the beam, an invaluable check on the work is available again. The
:254 Sec. 5.13. Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear 255
Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment

The sum of the positive portion of the shear diagram increases at a constant
along the beam until the quarter point, where the moment reaches a mag-
: of +PL/4. This moment remains constant in the middle half of the beam.
L cha)Ige in the moment can be made in this zone as there is no corresponding
P' --2-- area.
the second force, the moment decreases by -P dx in eve3' dr. Hence,
(a)
diagram in this zone has a constant, negative slope. Since the positive
areas of the shear diagram are equal, at the right end, the moment
zero. This is as it should be, since the right end is on a roller. Thus, a check
the work is obtained. This moment diagram is symmetrical.
-p

MPLE 5-t4
I
{
I a simple beam with a uniformly increasing load intensity from an end,
shown in Fig. 5-33(a). The total applied load is W. (a) Construct shear and
PL
diagrams with the aid of the integration process. (b) Derive expressions
V and M using Eq. 5-5.
o
(c)
Solution
Since the total load W = kL2/2, k = 2W/L 2. For the given load distribution,
the downward reactions are W/3 and 2W/3, as shown in Fig. 5-33(a). Therefore,

Fig. 5-32 (d)

Elastic curve
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION shear diagram
load
upward.
given
is smaller
The
in Fig.

point
on the
of zero
5-33(b)
left end
shear
begins
than
occurs
and
on the
ends

where
right,
as shown.

the reaction
the shear
Since the rate
diagram
on the left
is

terminal
or pinned,
conditions
the computed
for the
sum
moment
must
must
equal zero.
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be satisfied.
If the
If the end is
end is built-in,
is balanced by the applied

W
load,

1 2W
i.e.,

L
end moment computed by summation equals the one calculated init:
for the reaction. These are the boundary conditions and must - = x-7x hence, x - V
be satisfied.
the bending moment is maximum; therefore,
EXAMPLE 5-t3

1 L 2WL  -L ( L) _ 2WL

W L

Construct shear and moment diagrams for the symmetrically loaded 35 + 2v' 9V'
in Fig. 5-32(a) by the integration process. +2W/3

Solution

The reactions are each equal to P. To obtain the shear diagram, Fig. 5-32(b), (b) o
summation of forces is started from the left end. The left reaction acts up, so
-W/3
ordinate on the shear diagram at this force equal to P is plot ed up. Since
are no other forces until the quarter point, no change in the magnitude of t
shear ordinate is made until that point. Then a downward force P brings
ordinate back to the base line, and this zero ordinate remains until the next (c)
ward force P is reached where the shear changes to -P. At the right end, kx = (2W/L)x
2W/3
upward reaction closes the diagram and provides a check on the work. This 2WL
diagram is antisymmetrical. 9v'
The moment diagram, Fig. 5-32(c), is obtained by summing up the area
shear diagram. As the beam is simply supported, the moment at the left Fig. 5-33
256 ' Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-t3. Moment Diagrams by Integration of the Shear 257
By fol owing the rules given in Fig. 5-31, the moment diagram has the shape 50 k
40 k
in Fig. 5-33(c).
Although the shear and bending moment diagrams could be sketched 30k
1 k/ft

tively, it was necessary to supplement the results analytically for

critical values.
C D G
-15'-- Xl-'-
t27.5k
 37.k/5ft IF
(b) Applying Eq. 5-5 and integrating it twice, one has 30 k

d2M
dx 2 - q= +kx= +'-x
2W
37.5 k
o
dM kx 2 kx 3
+ C and M = + Cx + C2 -150 k/f  I
6
(a)  Moment
However,
L be zero,
the
i.e.,
boundary
M(0) =
conditions
0 and

M(0)
M(L)

=
require
= 0. Therefore,

0
that

C2 =
the

0
moments
since
at x = 0 and x

-30 k
(d) 
Axial force
(b)
and, similarly, since M(L) = 0, B
+12.5 k +10 k

kZ 3 kZ 2 12'
-- + CL = 0 or C =

With these constants,

6
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 6

-151
 16.36'

Deflected shape

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(e)
-27.5 k
dM. kx 2 kL 2 Wx 2 W Shear

dx 2 6 L 2 3 (c)
Fig. 5-34
kx 2 kL 2x Wx 3 Wx
and M = sum of the vertical reaction components is 65 kips and equals the sum of the
6 6 3L 2 3 forces.
diagram for the axial force is shown in Fig. 5-34(b). This compresslye force
These results agree with those found earlier. acts in the segment AD of the beam.
The attractive features of the boundary-value approach used in this known, the summation of forces is begun from the left end of
for solving dif erential equations can be extended to situations the beam to obtain the shear diagram, Fig. 5-34(c). At ftrst, the downward dis-
loads using the singularity functions discussed in Section 5-16. load accumulates at a rapid rate. Then, as the load intensity decreases,
an equal increment of distance along the beam, a smaller change in shear
the shear diagram in the zone CA is a curved line, which is concave
EXAMPLE 5-t5 . This is in accord with Eq. 5-3, il ustrated in Fig. 5-30. Since dV/dx = q =
Wo, the negative slope of this shear diagram is large on the left, and gradually
Construct shear and bending-moment diagrams for loaded beam shown in Fig. to zero at A. The total downward force from C to A is 15 kips, and
34(a) with the aid of the integration process. this is the negative ordinate of the shear diagram, just to the left of the support
the upward reaction of 27.5 kips moves the ordinate of the shear diagram
Solution + 12.5 kips. This value of the shear applies to a section through the beam just
right of the support A. The abrupt change in the shear at A is equal to the
Reactions must be calculated first, and, before proceeding further, the but this total does not represent the shear through the beam.
force is resolved into its horizontal and vertical components. The are applied to the beam between A and D; hence, there is no change
action at A is 30 kips and acts to the right. From  M, = 0, the the value of the shear. At D, the 40-kip downward component of the concen-
at B is found to be 37.5 kips (check this). Similarly, the reaction at A is 27.5 kip :rated force drops the value of the shear to -27.5 kips. Similarly, the value of
258 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5.t4. Concentrated Moment on Moment Diagrams 259

the shear is raised to + 10 kips at B. Since between E and F, the counterclockwise moment on the right must be Mo + MA. At
tributed load acts downward, according to Eq. 5-3, and shown in Fig. point of the externally applied moment, a discontinuity, or a "jump,"
decrease in shear takes place at a constant rate of 1 kip/foot. Thus, to the concentrated moment appears in the moment diagram.
is zero, which serves as the final check. in applying the summation process, due regard must be given the
To construct the moment diagram shown in Fig. 5-34(d) by the their effect is not apparent in the shear diagram.
method, areas of the shear diagram in Fig. 5-34(c) must be continuously conventional summation process may be applied up to the point of
from the left end. In the segment CA, at ftrst, less area is contributed to the
of a concentrated moment. At this point, a vertical "jump"
in a distance dx than a lit le farther along,
down so a line that is concave
to the external moment must be made in the diagram. The direction
in the moment diagram. is in accordThis with Eq. 5-4, dM/dx = V,
in Fig. 5-31. Here V, defining the slope of the moment diagram is negative this vertical "jump" in the diagram depends upon the sense of the
progressively becomes larger to the fight. The moment at A is equal to the Oncentrated moment and is best determined with the aid of a sketch
of the shear diagram in the segment CA. This area is enclosed by a curved to Fig. 5-35. After the discontinuity in the moment diagram is
and it may be determined by integration, 6 since the shear along this the summation process of the shear-diagram areas may be con-
be expressed analytically. This procedure often is cumbersome, and over the remainder of the beam.
bending moment at A may be obtained from the fundamental definition of a
ment at a section. By passing a section through A and isolating the segment
the moment at A is found. The other areas of the shear d!agram in this :EXAMPLE 546
are easily determined. Due attention must be paid to the signs of these area
is convenient to arrange the work in tabular form. At the right end of the bending-moment diagram for the horizontal beam loaded as shown
the customary check is obtained.  Fig. 5-36(a).

ution
MA --�(15)2(10) = --150.0 k-ft (moment around A)

MD
+ 12.5(15) = + 187.5
+ NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
37.5 k-ft
(shear area A to D) ! taking
be P/6.
moments
At A, the
about
reaction
either
acts
end
down;
of the beam,
at C, it acts
the vertical
up. From
reactions
 Fx = 0, it is
are found

-27.5(5) = - 137.5 (shear area D to B) that at A, a horizontal reaction equal to P acts to the left. The shear diagram
MB
+ 10(5) =
- 100.0
+ 50.0
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k-ft
(shear area B to E)
drawn
of
shown
next;
the
see Fig. 5-36(b).
beam.
in Fig. 5-36(c) is constructed.
It has a constant
After
negative
this, by using the summation
The
moment
ordinate
process,
at the left
for the whole
the
end
moment
of the
ME - 50.0 k-ft
+�(10)10 = + 50.0 (shear area E to F) is zero, since the support is pinned. The total change in moment from A
is given by the area of the shear diagram between these sections and equals
MF 0.0 k-ft (check)
2Pa/3. The moment diagram in zone AB has a constant negative slope. For
further analysis, an element is isolated from the beam, as shown in Fig. 5-36(d).
The moment on the left-hand side of this element is known to be -2Pa/3, and
concentrated moment caused by the applied force P about the neutral axis
5-]4. Effect of Concentrated Moment on Moment
Diagrams
In the derivation for moment diagrams by summation of
areas, no external concentrated moment acting on the infinitesimal A B C
ment was included, yet such a moment may actually be applied.
the summation process derived applies only up to the (c)
.p
of an external moment. At a section just beyond an externally
P
moment, a dif erent bending moment is required to maintain the
(a)
of a beam in equilibrium. For example, in Fig. 5-35 an external
=?
moment MA is acting on the element of the beam at A. Then, if the
clockwise moment on the left is Mo, for equilibrium of the element,
_ 2Pa
FIG.'5-35 An external 6 In this case, the shear curve is a second-degree parabola whose 3
(b)
concentrated moment acting a vertical line through A. For areas enclosed by various curves, see Table
on an element of a beam. the Appendix. (d) Fig. 5-36
 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Sec. 5-t5. Moment Diagram and the Elastic Curve

of the beam is Pa; hence, for equilibrium, the moment on the rigfit side beam at this end. Hence, the plot of the moment diagram must start with
element must be +Pal3. AtB, an upward "jump" of +Pa is made in the of +48 N.m. The other point on the beam where a concentrated
diagram, and just to the right of B, the ordinate is +Pa/3. Beyond point o. ccurs is C. Here the horizontal component of the applied force induces
summation of the shear diagram area is continued. The area between B moment of 0.6 x. 120 = 72 N.m around the neutral axis. Just to the
equal to -Pa/3. This value closes the moment diagram at the right end i0f C, this moment must be resisted by an additional positive moment. This
beam, and thus the boundary conditions are satisfied. Note that the lines a discontinuity in the moment diagram. The summation process of the
moment diagram that are inclined downward to the right are parallel. This areas applies for the segments of the beam where no external mo-
because the shear everywhere along the beam is negative and constant. are applied. The necessai'y calculations are carried out in tabular form.
+0.6x80 = + 48N.m
EXAMPLE 5- 7 +0.4x400 = +160 (shear area A to C)
ust to left of C = + 208 N-m
Construct shear ar/d moment diagrams for the member shown in Fig.
dimensions are shown in mm. Neglect the weight of the beam. +0.6 x 120 = + 72 (external moment at C)
ust to right of C = +280 kN.m
Solution -0.4 x 700 = - 280 (shear area C to B)
= 0 (check)
In this case, unlike all cases considered so far, definite dimensions are ass
for the depth of the beam. The beam, for simplicity, is assumed to be Note that in solving this problem, the forces were considered wherever they
in its cross-sectional area; consequently, the centroidal axis lies 80 mm act on the beam. The investigation for shear and moments at a section
the top of the beam. Note careful y that this beam is not supported at the a beam determines what the beam is actually experiencing. At times, this dif ers
axis. the procedure of determining reactions, where the actual framing or con-
A free-body diagram of the beam with the applied force resolved int of a member is not important.
ponents
Moreover,
is easily
is shown in Fig. 5-37(b).
since'the
constructed
shear
and
diagram
is shown
Reactions
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is concerned
in Fig.
are computed

5-37(c).
only with
in the usual
the vertical
; used.
it must
section
For
be emphasized
through any
inclined members,
member,
that

the shear
if a moment
the basic
acts normal
or a shear
method
is needed
of sections
to the
at a par-
may ahvays
axis of the beatn.
In constructing
be exercised.
determined by considering
As
a segment
the moment
was emphasized
of a beam,
diagram
earlier, www.avs4you.com
shown in Fig.
the bending
and they
5-37(d),

are most
moments
particular
may
care
always

computed by taking moments of external forces around a point on the cem

axis of the beam. Thus, by passing a section just to the right of A and Moment Diagram and the Elastic Curve
the left-hand segment, it can be seen that a positive moment of 48 N.m defined in Section 5-9, .a positive moment causes a beam to deform
upwards or to "retain water," and vice versa. Hence, the shape
�7/'/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 20 deflected axis of a beam can be definitely established from the sign
moment diagram. The trace of this axis of a loaded elastic beam
a deflected position is known as the elastic curve. It is customary to
the elastic curve on a sketch, where the actual small deflections
practice are greatly exaggerated. A sketch of the elastic curve
the physical action of a beam. It also provides a useful basis for
calculations of beam deflections to be discussed in Sections
(a) [0-13 and 10-14. Some of the preceding examples for which bending-
diagrams were constructed wil be used to il ustrate the physical
280 N 'm
of a beam.

48N.m
g. 5-32(c) shows that the bending moment throughout
length of the beam is positive. Accordingly, the elastic curve shown
o
Fig. 5-32(d) is concave up at every point. Correct representation of
0.6 kN 1 or concavity of the elastic curve is important. In this case, the
� 0.8 kN
of the beam rest on supports.
Fig. 5-37 (b) (d) a more complex moment diagram, Fig. 5~34(d), zones of positive
 Sec. 5-t6. Singularity Functions 263
262 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment

of the shear-diagram area from A to H equals this moment, i.e., - 150 +

and negative moment occur. Corresponding to the zones of negative 12.5x = 0. Hence, distance AH = 150/12.5 = 12 ft as before.
ment, a definite curvature of the elastic curve that is concave down Similarly, by beginning with a known positive moment of + 37.5 kip-ft at D,
place; see Fig. 5-34(e). On the other hand, for the zone HJ, secofid inflection point is known to occur when a portion of the negative
positive moment occurs, the concavity of the elastic curve is r-cliagram area between D and J reduces this value to zero. Hence, distance
Where curves join, as at H and J, there are lines that are tangent -- 37.5/27.5 = 1.36 ft, or distance AJ = 15 + 1.36 = 16.36 ft, Fig. 5-34(e),
two joining curves since the beam is physically continuous. Also before.
that the free end FG of the beam is tangent to the elastic curve as any infinitesimal beam element must be in equilibrium, so must also
There is no curvature in FG, since the moment is zero in that , comer element in a continuous frame with rigid joints. Therefore, the bending
(a)
of the beam. at a comer can act only either as shown in Fig. 5-38(a) or 5-38(b). The
If the suggestion made in Example 5-5, indicating the curvature of l parts of elastic curves are shown in these figures.
segments by means of short curved lines on the moment diagram
lowed, as in Fig. 5-34(d), the elastic curve is simply an assembly
curves drawn to a proper scale.
The point of transition on the elastic curve into reverse curvature g-16. Singularity Functions
called the point of inflection or contraflexure. At this point, the was pointed out earlier, analytical expressions for the shear V(x) and
changes its sign, and the beam is not called upon to resist any moment M(x) of a given beam may be needed in an analysis. If the
This fact often makes these points a deskable place for a field connect (b)
q(x) is a continuous function between the supports, solution of
of large members, and their location is calculated. A procedure dif erential equation d2m/dx 2 = q(x) is a convenient approach for Fig. 5.38 Elastic curves at
termining points of inflection wil be il ustrated in the next V(x) and M(x) (see Example 5-14). Here this wil be extended
comers of planar rigid
frames.
situations in which the loading function is discontinuous. For this
EXAMPLE

Find the location

5-t8

of the inflection points

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
for the beam analyzed in Example 5-1
considered
the notation
here
of operational
are polynomials
calculus
with integral
wil be used.
powers
The functions
ofx. The treat-

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of other functions is beyond the scope of this text. For the functions
see Fig. 5-34(a)
however, the method is perfectly general. Further applica-
Solution of this approach wil be given in Chapter 10 for calculating deflec-
i ons of beams.
By definition, an inflection point corresponds to a point on a beam Consider a beam loaded as in Fig. 5-39. Since the applied loads are
bending moment is zero. Hence, an inflection point can be located by 3int (concentrated) forces, four distinct regions exist to which dif erent
an algebraic expression for the moment in a beam for the segment where moment expression apply. These are
point. is anticipated, and solving this relation equated to zero. By
from end C of the beam, Fig. 5-34(e), the bending moment for segment
M = RlX when 0 -< x -< d
the beam is M = -�(15)(2)(x - 5) + (27.5)(x - 15). By simplifying and
M =Rlx-P(x- d) when d -< x < b
this expression equal to zero, a solution for x is obtained.
M = Rx-P(x- d) + Mo when b < x < c
M = 12.5x - 337.5 = 0 x = 27 ft M = Rx - P(x - d) + Mo + P2(x - c) when c -< x -< L

Therefore, the inflection point occurring in segment AD of the beam is 27 7 This Section can be omit ed.
= 12 ft from support A.
Similarly, by writing an algebraic expression for the bending moment for , P2
ment DB and setting it equal to zero, the location of inflection point J is

M = -�(15)(2)(x - 5) + 27.5(x - 15) - 40(x - 30) = 0

where x = 31.36 ft; hence, the distance AJ = 16.36 ft.

Often a more convenient method for finding the inflection points
utilizing the known relations between the shear and moment diagrams. Thus Fig. 5-39 A loaded beam.
the moment at A is - 150 kip-ft, the point of zero moment occurs when the
 Sec. 5.t6. Singularity Functions 265

this expression is dimensionally correct, although (x - a) - at x

All four equations can be writ en as one, providing one de�mes becomes infinite and by definition is zero everywhere else. Thus, it
lowing symbolic function:
sin. guIarfunction. In Eq. 5-10, the asterisk subscript of the bracket
P (total) a reminder that according to Eq. 5-9, the integral of this expression
(x- a)= {0 (x- a)  ffoora<x<rO<x<a point
over
force
the
itself.
range e remains
Therefore,
bounded
a special
and upon
symbolic
integration,
rule of integration
yields

be adopted:
wheren->0(n = 0,1,2 .. ).
x

I P<x- a)"dx=P(x- a)�1

The expression enclosed by the pointed brackets does not exist
(a)
reaches a. For x beyond a, the expression becomes an ordinary (5-11)
For n = 0 and-for x > a, the function is unity. On this basis,
separate functions for M(x) given for the beam of Fig. 5-39 can bel
bined into one expression that is appliable across the whold
coefficient P in the previous functions is known as the strength of
M = R(x - O? - P(x - d)  + Mb(X -- b) � + P2(x -- C)! t. For P equal to unity, the unit point load fimction (x -
m a is also called the Dirac delta or the unit impulse fimction.
- Ma (total) Here the values of a are 0, d, b, and c, respectively. analogous reasoning, see Fig. 5-40(b), the loading function q for
To work with this function further, it is convenient to recentrated moment at x = a is
additional symbolic functions. One is for the concentrated force,
it as a degenerate case of a distributed load. The other is for the
trated moment, treating
tions must b also established.
it similarly. Rules for integrating
In this discussion, NON-ACTIVATED
all
the heuristic I VERSION (5-12)

rigorous) approach wil be fol owed.

strong
A concentrated
distributed
(point) force may be considered
load acting
as an
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over a small interval e, Fig.
function
The
in being
second
integrated
integral,
twice
except
defines
for the
two
exchange
symbolic rules of in-
of P by M, has
treating e as a constant, the fol owing is true been stated as Eq. 5-11.

(b)
e--O .Ja-2 
'M,(x - a)-2 dx = M,(x - a)  (5-13)

+P(x -

Here it can be noted that P/ has the dimensions of force per
fi M,(x - a) dx = M,(x - a) � (5-14)

such as lb/in, and corresponds to the distributed load q(x) in the Eq. 5-12, the expression is correct dimensionally since q has the units
treatment. Therefore, as (x - a)  -> 0, by an analogy of (x - For M, equal to unity, one obtains the unit point moment function,
for a concentrated force at x = a, -- a) 2, which is also called the doublet or dipole. This function is
so being infinite at x = a and zero elsewhere. However, after
twice, a bounded result is obtained. Equations 5-10, 5-12, and
0 x
q = P(x - a)) are symbolic
loads
The integral
is clearly
in character.

of binomial
evident
functions
The relation
from Eqs.
in pointed
5-11,
of these
and 5-14.
brackets
equations

for n -> 0 is
to the given

given
(c) 8 This approach was first introduced by A. Clebsch in 1862. O. the fol owing rule:
Fig. 5-40 Concentrated force his Electromagnetic Theory initiated and greatly extended the methods of
P and moment Ma: (a) and ational calculus. In 1919, W. H. Macaulay specifically suggested the use of s
brackets for beam problems. The reader interested in further and/or
(b) considered
load,
notation
and
for
(c)
P and
as distributed
symbolic
M at a.
development
transforms.
of this topic should consult texts on mathematics treating (x - a)n dx = �(x n- +a)n+
1 for n > 0 (5-15)

264
266 Sec. 5-16. Singularity Functions 267
Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment

+y 

+q
q = -w o lb/in

+w
o
x

L/24
(a) i

- L/2  -'
qo

(a) (b)

Fig. 5-42

M

(b)
dx 2 - q = -wo(x - O) � + wo( x - LI2) �
dM
--= V= -wo(x- O)  + wo(x - LI2) 1 + C1
dx

ql=:qod[
1 ' (x - a) 1 m(x) = - Wo(X - 0) 2 + � Wo(X - L/2) 2 + Cx + C2
M(O) = C2 = 0
M(L) = -� woZ 2 + � wo(L/2) 2 + CiL = 0
o- }-'" x

(c)
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Hence,

V(x) = -Wo(X - O)  + Wo(X - L/2)  + as woL

Ci = +as poL

 -(x -
www.avs4you.com the
M(x)

solution
= -� Wo(X - 0) 2 + � Wo(X - L/2) 2 + as woLx

is obtained, these relations are more easily read by rewriting

in conventional form:

Fig. 5.4'1 Typical integrations. (d)

This integration process is shown in Fig. 5-41. If the distance a is

MV = +-woL
+- woLx - - Wo.
� woxX 2 } when 0 < x < LI2
equal to zero, one obtains conventional integrals. MV = +aswoL-
+ woL 2 - �woL
 woLx = -woL} when L/2 <- x < L
reactions can be checked by conventional statics. By setting V = 0, the
EXAMPLE 5-t9
of maximum moment can be found. A plot of these functions is left for
Using symbolic functional notation, determine V(x) and M(x) caused by the to complete.
ing in Fig. 5-42(a).

Solution EXAMPLE 5-20

To solve this problem, Eq. 5-5 can be used. The applied load q(x) acts V(x) and M(x) for a beam loaded as shown in Fig. 5-43. Use singularity
and begins at x = 0. Therefore, a term q = -wo or wo(x - 0) �, which functions and treat it as a boundary-value problem.
the same, must exist. This function, however, propagates across the whole
see Fig. 5-42(b). To terminate the distributed load at x = L/2 as required in
problem, another function +wo(x - L/2) � must be added. The two
together represent correctly the applied load. making direct use of Eqs. 5-10 and 5-12, the function q(x) can be writ en in
For this simply supported beam, the known boundary conditions are M(0) form. From the conditions M(0) = 0 and M(L) = 0, with L = 3a, the
0 and M(L) = 0. These are used to determine the reactions: of integration can be found:
268 Problems 269

-q ,

(a)
Fig. 5-43

a  C
-=-%
aeM/dx 2 = q = -P(x - a);  + Pa(x - 2a) 2 b

dM/dx = V = -P(x - a} � + Pa(x - 2a)  + C

(c)
M = -P(x - a)  + Pa(x - 2a} � + Cx + :C2
M(O) = C2 = 0
and
M(3a) = -2Pa + Pa + 3Ca = 0 (b)

Hence, Fig. 5-44 Il ustration for formulating signularity functions for reactions.
C,= �
and

V(_x)
M(x)
= +-aP(x-
= +P(x
0} �-
- O)  - P(x
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
P(x - a} � + Pa(x
- a}  + Pa(x
- 2a};
- 2a} �
 grams are essential
5-1: The effect
parts
on a structure
of solutions.
of two cable
(Hint
forces
for Prob.
acting

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through 5-4. Determine the reaction components over a frictionless pulley is the same as that of the same
by the applied loads for the planar framing two forces applied at the center of the axle. Prove be-
In the final expression for y(x), the last term has no value if the in the figures. Correctly draw}z' fke-body dia- fore using.)
writ en in conventional form. Such terms. are used only as tracers during
integration process. Cable
3 k/f[ / 12 k
It is suggested that the reader check the reactions by conventional statics.
out V(x) and M(x) for the three ranges of the beam within which these
are continuous, and compare these with a plot of the shear and moment
constructed by the summation procedure.
A suggestion of the manner of representing a uniformly varying load, Fig
44(a), acting on a part of a beam is indicated in Fig. 5-44(b). Three
Fig, P5-3
functions are needed to define the given load completely. Fig. P54
In the previous discussion, it has been tacitly assumed that the

6k/f[ C 4k'1
at the ends of the beams. If such is not the case, the unknown constants
C2 must be introduced into Eq. 5-5 as point loads, i.e., as _ 2 N/mm

C(x - a) 1 and C2(x - b) - 'x3 { 150 N'm

,
This
are
is the condition
necessary
Singularity functions
shown
in a solution
can
in Fig. 5-44(c).
obtained
be used
No additional
in this manner.
to advantage in statically
constants

indeterminate
L300. 600ram[ 300 300J
I- rl- =1 rl
lems for axial y loaded bars, as well as for torsion members and Fig. P5-2
the solutions
the length
are limited
of a member,
to
the
prismatic
procedure
members.
for using
If the cross
singularity functions {-<--10' -- -<-- 10' 10'-- -<-- 10"' O,---
impractical. Fig. P5-4
 125 kN
270 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment

Sections 5.6 through 5-9 as specified.

tides should
Magnitude
be shown
and
on separate
sense
free-body
of calculated
2
/Rod
2"
'---1800mm 1200mm>
5-5 through 549. For the planar structures shown in For simplicity, assume that members can be /Pin 2  900 mm

the figures, find the reactions and determine the axial sented by lines. When sections such as a-a and
forces P, the shears V, and the bending moments M are shown close together, one section is just to
caused by the applied loads at sections a-a, b-b, etc. of a given dimension and the other is just to the

mm
1500 mm
-- -- 6 k/ft

Fig. P5-16

a 3

Fig. P5-5 P543 

4 kN/m 20 kN
Fig. P5*9 ---4'-'' 4'--- 25 kN

Smooth wall

] 5 m-
I
3m
[ Hinge

4m4 m--
I
-
NON-ACTIVATED
Barmass x VERSION Fig. P5-t7 T 9 k

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15kg/2
Fig. P5-6 8 N/mm

Fig. P5.14
C
4k

lk �2k 5  12k 
2000
mm

Fig. P5-t0 F1000 mm--

A

g. P5-15 1500 mm-*'

Fig. P5-t8 ' mm
P
Fig. P5-7 8 kN/m--
6 kN/m

a t
C
4kN-
/.F G H
- t 500 m
H s

2000mm 2000mm I
Hin

Fig. P5-8 Fig. P

Fig. P5d9 I lm Ilm  3m 
272 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment
Problems 27:
Section 5-10 5-26 through 5-28. For the beams loaded as y
in the figures, write explicit expressions for
5-20 through 5-24. ?lot shear and moment diagrams along the spans. Assume the origins of x at A.
for the beams shown in the figures. the applied loads are discontinuous.
� L

apply for regions AC and CB. z

Fig. P530

Fig. P5-35
(a) (b)

Fig. P5-20 - 3' >  3'----- general expressions for V, M, and T (torque) caused
Fig. P5-26 by the application of a force F normal to the plane of
the bent bar. Plot the results. (b) If in addition to the
applied force F, the
weight of the bar w lb per unit
length is also to be considered, what system of internal
Fig. P5-31
force components develops at the fixed end?

Fig. P5-2t Establish general expressions for the axial force

shear V(0), and moment M(0) for the curved bar

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Section 541
a Example 5-12, Fig. 5-28. Angle 0 is measured coun-
t p [P Fig. P5-27
the positive x axis. 5-36.
mine
Using
V(x) and
the
M(x)
dif erential
for the
equation,
beam loaded
Eq.
as
5-5,
shown
deter-
in

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Establish general expressions for the axial force
shear V(0), and moment M(0) for the ring with Prob. 5-24. Verify the reactions using conventional

 3@L/3  hinges of Prob.

from
5-11.
the positive
Angle 0 is measured
x axis.
coun- statics.
found from
(Hint: The
the boundary
constants
conditions
of integration
V(L) =
can
0 and
be

Fig. P5-22
A M(L) = 0.)
A rectangular bar bent into a semicircle is built
one end
and is subjected to a radial pressure of 5-37 through 5-39. Using Eq. 5-5 for the statically
3m, per unit
length (see figure). Write the general determinate beams shown in the figures, find V(x) and
w o N/m /, for P(0), V(0), and M(0), and plot the re- M(x) and the reactions at the supports. Plot the shear
Fig. P5-28 on a polar diagram. Show positive directions as- and moment diagrams. (Hint: The constants of inte-
P, V, and M on a free-body diagram. gration are found from the boundary conditions for V
and M. This approach cannot be extended to statically
5-29 through 5-3t. Write explicit indeterminate beams, which require the use of a
M(x) along the spans for the statically p lb/in higher-order dif erential equation, discussed in Chap-
Fig. P5-23
beams loaded as shown in the figures. ter 10.)
origins ofx at A. Consider the reactions on the
unknowns. Take advantage of symmetry in
29.

------ L . x w o Ib/ft

Bar radius = R
Fig. P5-24
Fig. P5-34

5-25. Plot shear and moment diagrams for the beam

A bar in the shape of a right angle, as shown in
shown in Fig. 5-15. Fig 5-29
figure, is fixed at one of its ends. (a) Write the Fig. P5-37
 274 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment
Problems 275

4k
M1

Fig. P5-42
. m_ - 2m 1
Fig. P5-53
Fig. P5-48
Fig. P5-38
2 k/ft /8 k
k sin 2rx/L -----a > -- bJ
Fig. P5-43-
> - 8' > 2'
Fig. P5-54

Fig. P5-49
5 k/ft

Fig. P5-39

NON-ACTIVATED k/VERSION
ig.

I/
 6
P5-4

,
Sections 5-12 and 543

www.avs4you.com k/ 6kf f'"

-Problems
signed
oped
for
in these
5-20
solution
two
through
using
sections.
5-3t
the
can
methods
also be
devel-
as-
8k 112k 18k ---3' --'- 3' Fig. P5-55

Fig. P5-50
5-40 through 5-66. Plot shear and moment diagrams
for the beams shown in the figures using the methods 4@4'= 16'
of Sections 5-12 and 5-13. It is also suggested to draw
Fig. P5-45 300 Ib/ft
the deflected shapes of the beams using the criteria
given in Fig. 5-19. (A more detailed discussion for
drawing such shapes is given in Section 5-15.)
50 k 2 k/ft
Distribreact
. ion 200Ib/ft 4@3 "= 12"
Fig. P5-56

Fig. P5-51
Fig. P5-46
Fig. P5-40
2.5 N/mm 2.5 N/mm

!;m._m,<40ram r,2-0m!'
Fig. P5-52 Fig. P5-57
Fig. P5-41 Fig. P5-47
276 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Problems 277

2qo 200 Ib/ft

300 lb The load distribution for a small single-engine 5-7t through 5-73. For the structural systems shown
may be idealized as shown in the fig- in the figures, plot the axial force P, shear V, and mo-
In this diagram, vector A represents the weight ment M diagrams. Note that the axial force and shear
the 'engine; B, the uniformly distributed cabin contribute to the equilibrium of forces at a joint in bent
C, the weight of the aft fuselage; and D, the members (see Fig. 5-27).
from the tail control surfaces. The upward
;E are developed by the two longerons from the
Using this data, constrLtct plausible, qualitative
Fig. P5-58
Fig. P5-63  and moment diagrams for the fuselage.

.1. 400 Ib/ft

qo qo

,200mm 200mm ! 200mm

Fig. P5-7t
2q�1/
Fig. P5-64
Fig. P5-59

20kN 5kN/m The moment diagram

Fig. P5-68

for a beam supported at Cables

10 kN/m
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION and
loaded?
B is shown in the figure. How is the beam

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+55 k-ft / +65 k-h:
Fig. P5-72
Fig, P5-65 A B
Fig. P5-60
160kN
qo
Hinge 3 wall

Fig. P5-69

Fig. P5-66 The

shown
redundant
in the figure
moment
can
over
be
support
shown to be -400
B for the
-
Fig. P5-61
5-67, A sm by the methods discussed in Chapter 10. Plot Fig. P5-73
Qgue. lot she and momeQt diaams and moment diagrams for this beam.

100 k N/m 5-74. For member DF of the frame in Prob. 1-44, plot
the axial force, shear, and moment diagrams caused
I, ,
20 kN/m 15k
Water level 1.5 k/ft
by the applied force.

! 8m----8 m 
Sections 5-14 and 5-15
� 3m3m 5-75 through 5-8t. For the structural systems shown
Fig. P5-70 in the figures, plot the axial force P, shear V, and mo-
Fig. P5-62 Fig. P5-67
278 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment Problems 279

ment M diagrams due to the applied loads. These dia-

Cable
grams are to be contimed only to the main horizontal
members. Note that the beams in the last four prob-
lems have finite depth.

3o" " Fig. P5-85

Fig. P5-83

Fig. P5-79
-- 9 lb/in --

900
Fig. P5-75

600
Fig. P5-84 Fig. P5-86
M o = 4 Pa '
1200

Cables
900

' 35 kN

Fig. P5-76
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Fig. P5-80

Fig. P5-87

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2 N/mm
4 N/mm

80kN Cable

A
B

2--m'Hinge Fig. P5-8t

Section 5-16
Fig. P5-77
5-82 through 5-87. For the beams loaded as
50 k
in the figures, using singularity functions and Eq.
(a) find V(x) and M(x). Check reactions by
tional statics. (b) Plot shear and moment
3

qo N/m

Fig. P5-78 Fig. P5-82

 Sec. 6-2. The Basic Kinematic Assumption

_ chapter e of this
result after
chapter.
the
A better
study of column
appreciation
buckling
of the instability
in Chapter 11.
phenomenon

The Basic Kinematic Assumption

the simplified engineering theory of bending, to establish the relation
the applied bending moment, the cross-sectional properties of a
and the internal stresses and deformations, the approach applied
in the torsion problem is again employed. This requires, first, that
a plausible deformation assumption reduce the internally statically in-
problem to a determinate one; second, that the deformations
6-1o Introduction strains be related to stresses through the appropriate stress-strain
; and, finally, that the equilibrium requirements of external and
In the previous chapter, it was shown that a system of internal forces be met. The key kinematic assumption for the deformation

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
consisting of an axial force, a shear force, and a bending moment a beam as used in the simplified theory is discussed in this section. A
develop in planar frames and beams. The stresses caused b of this assumption forms the basis for the theories of plates
were already discussed in Chapter 1. The stresses due to bending md shells.
considered
the chapter
cross sections
in this chapter.
into two parts.
and subjected
For this treatment,
In Part
to bending
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A, only
For present purposes,
members
in the plane
it is convenient
consider a horizontal
having
of symmetry
to

line through
section with
the centroid
avertical
of the
axis of symmetry;
cross section
see Fig.
prismatic
wil
6-1(a).
be referred
beam having
A horizontal
to as the
a

considered. Both elastic and inelastic stress distributions caused by txis of a beam. Next, consider a typical element of the beam between
ing are discussed. Stress distribution in curved bars is also included. two planes perpendicularto the beam axis. In side view, such an element
Part B, the problem is generalized to include unsymmetric bending identified in the figure
as abcd. When such a beam is subjected to equal
members with symmetric cross sections as well as bending of end moments Mz acting around the z axis, Fig. 6-1(b), this beam bends
of arbitrary cross section. Consideration is also given to problems in the plane of symmetry, and the planes initial y perpendicular to the
bending occurs in the presence of axial forces. For completeness, a beam axis slightly tilt. Nevertheless, the lines such as ad and bc becoming
cussion on area moments of inertia for arbitrary cross and b' c' remain straight.  This observation forms the basis for the
in Part C.
fundamental hypothesis 2 of the flexure theory. It may be stated thus: plane
Forsimplicity, members wil generally be shown as beams in a sections through a beam taken normal to its axis remain plane after the
zontal position. When a segment of a beam is in equilibrium under beam is subjected to bending.
action of bending moments alone, such a condition is referred to as
bending, orfiexure. A cantilever loaded with a concentrated  This can be demonstrated by using a rubber model with a ruled grating drawn
the end, or a segment of a beam between the concentrated forces
it. Alternatively, thin vertical rods passing through the rubber block can be
In the immediate vicinity of the applied moments, the deformation is more
shown in Fig. 5-23, are examples of pure bending. Studies in subset However, in accord with the St. Venant's principle (Section 2-10), this
chapters wil show that usually the bending stresses in slender beams is only a local phenomenon that rapidly dissipates.
dominant. Therefore, the formulas derived in this chapter for 2 This hypothesis with an inaccuracy was first introduced by Jacob Bernoulli
are directly applicable in numerous design situations. 1645-1705), a Swiss mathematician. At a later date a great Swiss mathematician,
It is important to note that some beams by virtue of their
Euler (1707-1783), who largely worked in Russia and Germany, made
tmportant use of this concept. This assumption is often referred to as the Ber-
or lack of lateral support may become unstable under an applied load noulli-Euler hypothesis. In the correct final form, it dates back to the writings of
may buckle laterally and collapse. Such beams do not come within French engineering educator M. Navier (1785-1836).

28O
282 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-3. The Elastic Flexure Formula 283

The fiber length gh located on a radius p - y can be found similarly.

b,d�
thedif erence between fiber lengths gh and ef identified here
p p-y dfi can be expressed as fol ows

dfi = (p- y) d0- pd0 = -yd0 (6-2)

t dividing by ds and using Eq. 6-1, the last term becomes K. Moreover,
-- Beamaxis Bent axis
d t

:osines
the
of the angles
deflection
involved
and rotations
in making
of the beam
the projections
axis are very
of dfi and ds onto
small, the
(a) (b)
the horizontal axis are very nearly unity. Therefore, in the development
the simplified beam theory, it is possible to replace dfi by du, the axial
iber deformation, and ds by dx. 4 Hence, by dividing Eq. 6-2 by ds and
dds by du/dx, which according to Eq. 2-6 is the normal
Plane of
Omax e,, one has
M z
I Y Imax = C
(6-3)
a= EEl_

This equation establishes the expression for the basic kinematic hy-
.nit lengt
(c) (d) NON-ACTIVATED VERSION (e)
train
nation is lacking
for the flexure
in a bent beam varies
theory.
along
However,
the beam
for locating the origin
although
depth
of the y axis.
linearly
it is clear
with
With the aid
that the
y, infor-
of

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Fig. 6-1 Assumed behavior of elastic beam in bending. oke's law and an equation of equilibrium, this problem is resolved in
next section.
As demonstrated in texts on the theory of elasticity, this
is completely true for elastic, rectangular members in pure bending;
shears also exist, a small error is introduced. 3 Practically, however, The Elastic Flexure Formula
assumption is generally applicable with a high degree of
the material behaves elastically or plastically, providing the depth of using Hooke's law, th.e expression for the normal strain given by Eq.
can be recast into a relation for the normal longitudinal stress or.,.'
beam. is small in relation to its span. In this chapter, the stress anal'
of all beams is based on this assumption.
In pure bending of a prismatic beam, the beam axis deforms into a
(6-4)
of a circle of radius p, (rho) as shown in Fig. 6-1(b). For an
by an infinitesimal angle d0, the fiber length ef of the beam axis is
as ds = 0 dO. Hence,
this equation, the variable y can assume both positive and negative
Two nontrivial equations of equilibrium are available to solve the beam
problem. One of these determines the origin for y: the second
completes the solution for the flexure formula. Using the first one of these
equations, requiring that in pure bending, the sum of all forces at a section
the x direction must vanish, one has
where the reciprocal of p defines the axis curvature K (kappa). In
bending of prismatic beams, both p and K are constant. 4 A further discussion of the approximations involved may be found in Section
3 See the discussion in Section 7-5.
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-3. The Elastic Flexure Formula 285

Omax

, F. = 0 /AO-dA = 0 a =-Et<y

where the subscript A indicates that the summation of the infinites
(a)
forces must be carded out over the entire cross-sectional area A of I Ymax I = c
beam. This equation with the aid of Eq. 6-4 can be rewrit en as
X z

/A -E Ky dA = -E K fA Y dA = 0
where the constants E and  are taken outside the second integral. (a) (b) (c)
definition, this integral .fy dA = yA, where y is the distance fro m
(b) Fig. 6.4 Segment of a beam in pure flexure.
origin to the centreid of an area A. Since here this integral equals
and area A is not zero, distance y must be set .equal to
M
the z axis must pass through the centreid of a section'. According to Mz = E fA y2 dA (6-8)
6-3 and 6-4, this means that along the z axis so chosen, both the
In mechanics, the last integral, depending only on the geometrical prop-
strain e, and the normal stress cry, are zero. In bending theory, this of a cross-sectional area, is called the rectangular moment of inertia
is referred to as the neutral axis of a beam. The neutral axis for any or second moment of the area A and wil be designated in this text by I.
beam of homogeneous material can be easily determined by finding must be found with respect to the cross section's neutral (centroidal)
Neutral centreid of a cross-sectional area.
axis Since I must always be determined with respect to a particular axis,
Based on this result, linear variation in strain is schematically is often meaningful to identify it with a subscript corresponding to such
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
(c)
in Fig. 6-1(c). The corresponding elastic stress distribution in accord
axis. For the case considered, this subscript is z, i.e.,
with Eq. 6-4 is shown in Fig. 6-1(d). Both the absolute maximum
e, and the absolute maximum stress Crmx occur at the largest value of;

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Iz=/Ay2dA1 (6-9)
Alternative representations of the elastic bending stress distribution
a beam are il ustrated in Fig. 6-2. Note the need for awareness that
problem is three-dimensional, although for simplicity, two-dimensi
representations are generally used. The locus of a neutral axis
length of a beam defines the neutral surface, as noted in Fig. 6-3.
(d) To complete thederivation of the elastic flexure formula, the this notation, Eq. 6-8 yields the fol owing result:
Fig. 6-2 Alternative relevant equation of equilibrium must be brought in: the sum of the
representations of bending ternally applied and the internal resisting moments must vanish, i.e.,
moment.
in equilibrium. For the beam segment in Fig. 6-4(a), this yields (6-10)

Neutral
surface
 Mo = OG + Mz - fAErYstress dA 
area
y=0
rhis is the basic relation giving the curvature of an elastic beam subjected
a specified moment.
A negative sign in front of the integral is necessary because the By substituting Eq. 6-10 into Eq. 6-4, the elastic flexure formula 5 for
pressive stresses cry, develop a counterclockwise moment around is obtained:
axis. The tensile stresses below the neutral axis, where y's have a ne
sign, contribute to this moment in the same manner. This 5 It took nearly two centuries to develop this seemingly simple expression. The
directly from Eq. 6-4. From a slightly dif erent point of view, Eq. Errst attempts to solve the flexure problem were made by Galileo in the seven-
century. In the form in which it is used today, the problem was solved in
Neutral states that the clockwise external moment Mz is balanced bythe early part of the nineteenth century. Generally, Navier is credited for this
axis
terclockwise moment developed by the internal stresses at a section. . some maintain that credit should go to Coulomb, who
Fig. 6-3 casting Eq. 6-7 into this form, and recognizing that E and  are c derived the torsion formula.
286 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-3. The Elastic Flexure Formula 287

that results from pure bending of a beam. Therefore, in the matrix

of the stress tensor, one has
(6:1
Crx = -zy

The derivation of this formula was carried out with the coordinate
shown in Fig. 6-5(a). If the derivation for a member having a
symmetric cross section were done with the coordinates shown in wil be pointed out in Chapter 8, this stress may be transformed or Beam
axis
(a) 6-5(b), the expression for the longitudinal stress crx would read solved into stresses acting along dif erent sets of coordinate axes.
In concluding this discussion, it is interesting to note that due to Pois-
ratio, the compressed zone of a beam expands laterally; 6 the tensile

O'=x MZl
contracts. The strains in the y and z directions are ey = e = -vex,
Neutral
ex = x/E, and crx is given by Eq. 6-11. This is in complete agree- surface
with the rigorous solution. Poisson's effect, as may be shown by
methods of elasticity, deforms the neutral axis into a curve of large
The sign reversal in relation to Eq. 6-11 is necessary because a and the neutral surface becomes curved in two opposite directions;
My causes tensile stresses for positive z's. Fig. 6-6. In the previous treatment, the neutral surface was assumed
Application of these equations to biaxial bending as well as an be curved in one direction only. These interesting details are not sig-
of the bending theory for beams with unsymmetric cross sections is in most practical problems.
sidered in Sections 6-11 and 6-14. In this part of the chapter,

Fig. 6 -5 Definitions
(b)

of
confined
symmetry.
formula
to beams
For such
having

to give the maximum

applications,
symmetric

normal
cross
it is customary
stress
sections

Crmx directly
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
bent
to recast
in the

and to desi
the
wedure
same three
Summary
basic concepts
and
of engineering
Extensions
mechanics of solids that

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positive moments.
the value of l y Im,, by c. It is also common practice to dispense with used in developing the theories for axial y loaded bars and circular
sign as in Eq. 6-11 as well as with subscripts onM and I. Since s in torsion are used in the preceding derivation of flexure formulas.
stresses must develop a couple statically equivalent to the may be summarized as fol ows:
moment, their sense can be determined by inspection. On this basis,
flexure formula becomes 1. Equilibrium conditions (statics) are used for determining the internal
resisting bending moment at a section. Fig. 6.6 Segment of a bent
beam.
2. Geometry ofdeformition (kinematics) is used by assuming that plane
sections through a beam remain plane after deformation. This leads
(6-1! to the conclusion that normal strains along a beam section vary lin-
early from the neutral axis.
3. Properties of materials (constitutive relations) in the form of
In conformity with the above practice, in dealing with Hooke's law are assumed to apply to the longitudinal normal strains.
metric beam sections, the simplified notation of leaving out Poisson effect of transverse contraction and expansion is neglected.
in Eq. 6-11 on M and I wil be employed often in this text.
The flexure formula and its variations discussed before are In extending this approach to bending of beams of two and more ma-
(Section 6-8), as well as to inelastic bending of beams (Section 6-
great importance in applications to structural and machine design. In the first two of the enumerated concepts remain ful y applicable. Only
plying these formulas, the internal bending moment can be expressed the third, dealing with the mechanical properties of materials must be
newton-meters IN.m] or inch-pounds [in-lb], c in meters [m] or
[in], and I in m 4 or in 4. The use of consistent units as indicated
As an example of a change necessary for such cases consider
the beam having the cross section shown in Fig. 6-7(a). This beam is made
the units of or: [N.m][m]/[m 4] = N/m2 = Pa, or [in-lb][in]/[in 4] up of two materials, 1 and 2, bonded together at their interface. The elastic
[lb/in 2] = psi, as to be expected.
It should be noted that crx as given by Eqs. 6-11 or 6-12 is the 6 An experiment with an ordinary rubber eraser is recommended!
288 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-4. Computation of the Moment of Inertia 289

Stress

Mz
(6-16)
Yb -- /A Ei dA
o=E 1 �

o = E2 E

the integration must be carried out with appropriate E?s, for each
Bending strain Bending stresses This equation defines the modulus-weighted centroid and locates
(a) (b) (c)
neutral axis.
(d)
Essential y the same process is used for inelastic bending analysis of
Fig. 6-7 Beam of two elastic materials in bending where E2 > E. bychanging the stress-strain relations. The first two of the enu-
basic concepts remain applicable.
moduli for the two materials are E1 and E2, where the-subscripts developed theory for elastic beams of one material is in complete
the material. For the purposes of discussion assume that E2 with the mathematically exact solution 7 based on the theory
When such a composite beam is bent, as for a beam of one
pure bending of an elastic rectangular bar. However, even
the strains vary linearly, as shown in Fig. 6~7(b). However, the this limited case, the boundary conditions at the ends require the
dinal stresses depend on the elastic moduli and are as shown in stresses Crx to be distributed over the ends as given by Eq. 6-11.
7(c). At the interface between the two materials, whereas the strain
)r this case plane sections through a beam remain precisely plane after
both materials is the same, the stresses are dif erent, and depend on However, in usual applications, per Saint-Venant's principle, it

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
magnitudes of E and E2. The remaining issue in such problems cons: is generally assumed that the stresses, at a distance about equal to the
of locating the neutral axis or surface. This can be easily done for
depth of a member away from the applied moment, are essential y uniform
having cross sections with symmetry around the vertical axes. givenby Eq. 6-11. The local stresses at points of force application

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For beams of several dif erent materials, the elastic moduli for
in cross section are calculated using stress concentration fac-
material must be identified. Let Ei be such an elastic modulus for
In applications the theory discussed is routinely applied to any kind
ith material in a composite cross section. Then Eq. 6-4 can be g of cross section, whether a material is elastic or plastic.
to read
In conclusion it should be noted that, in all cases in pure bending, the
stresses acting on the area above the neutral axis develop a force of one
Crx = Ei�x = -Ei K y
whereas those below the neutral axis develop a force acting in the
direction. An example is shown in Fig. 6~7(d) where the tension
Where from Fig. 6-7(a), y = Yb -- Yb. In this relation Yb is T is equal to the compression C, and the T - C couple.is equal to the
measured from the bottom of the section, and yb locates the neutral moment Mz. This method of reducing stresses to forces and a couple can
as shown.
be used to advantage in some problems..
Since for pure bending the force Fx at a section in the x direction
vanish, fol owing the same procedure as before, and substituting Eq.
14 into Eq. 6-5, Computation of the Moment of Inertia
In applying the flexure formula, the rectangular moment of inertia I of
the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis must be determined. Its
is defined by the integral of y2 dA over the entire cross-sectional
area of a member, and it must be emphasized that for the flexure formula,
The last expression dif ers from Eq. 6-6 only by not placing Ei outside moment of inertia must be computed around the neutral axis. This
the integral. By substituting y = yu - yu into Eq. 6-15, and reco ixis passes through the centroid of the cross-sectional area. It is shown
that Yb is a constant,
7 S. Timoshenko, and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York:

-}c /A Ei Yb dA + }cYb fA Ei dA = 0
1970), 284.
8 This is a review section.
290 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-4. Computation of the Moment of Inertia
in Sections 6-15 and 6-16 that for symmetric cross sections, the
axis
around
reason,
is perpendicular
such
this axis
an axis
to the axis
is either
is one of the principal
of symmetry.
a maximum
The
or a minimum,
axes for an area.
moment

The
and for
of
Iz = Izc+ Adz2 (6-18)

for determining centroids and moments of inertia of areas are is the parallel-axis theorem. It can be stated as fol ows: the moment
thoroughly discussed in texts on statics. 9 However, for 'inertia of an area around any axis is equal to the moment of inertia of
they are reviewed in what fol ows. the same area around a parallel axis passing through the area's centroid,
The first step in evaluating I for an area is to find its centroid the product of the same area and the square of the distance between
integration of y2 dA is then performed with respect to the horizontal i the two axes.
passing through the area's centroid. In applications of the flexure fo In calculations, Eq. 6-18 must be applied to each part into which a
the actual integration over areas is necessary for only a few ss-sectional area has been subdivided and the results summed to obtain
shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, etc. Values of moments of Iz for the whole section, i.e.,
for some simple shapes may be found in texts on statics as well as. in
standard civil or mechanical engineering handbook (also see Table It (whole section) = (Izc + Ad 2) (6-18a)
the Appendix). Most cross-sectional areas used may be divided
combination of these simple shapes. To find I for an area process is completed, the z subscript may be dropped in treating
several simple shapes, the parallel-axis theorem (sometimes called of symmetric cross sections.
transfer formula) is necessary; its development fol ows. The fol owing examples il ustrate the method of computing I directly
Consider that the area A shown in Fig. 6-8 is a part of a complex integration for two simple areas. Then an application of the parallel-
of a cross section of a beam in flexure. The centroidal axis zc for this theorem to a composite area is given. Values for I for commercial y

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is at a distance dz from the centroidal z axis for the whole fabricated steel beams, angles, and pipes are given in Tables 3 to 8 of the
area. Then, by definition, the moment of inertia Izc of the area A Appendix.
its zc axis is

www.avs4you.com EXAMPLE 6-t

Itc = AY2 (6-1
the moment of inertia around the horizontal axis passing through the centroid
for the rectangular area shown in Fig. 6-9.

On the other hand, the moment of inertia It of the same area A

the z axis is

The centroid of this section lies at the intersection of the two axes of symmetry.
Iz = A (y� + dz)2dA Here it is convenient to take dA as b dy. Hence,

+hi2 bh 3
By squaring the quantities in the parentheses and placing the
outside the integrals, .J-hi2 y2b dy = b --h/2 12
y

Iz = fA y2dA + 2dz A yC dA + d2 A dA C bh3h ib3h)

Here the first integral according to Eq. 6-17 is equal to Izc, the
integral vanishes as y passes through the centroid of A, and the
integral reduces to Ad 2. Hence, expressions are used frequently, as rectangular beams are common. Fig. 6-9

Fig. 6-8 Area for deriving the 9 For example, see J. L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige, Engineering
parallel-axis theorem. Vol. 1, Statics, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1986).
292 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-5. Applications of the Flexure Formula 293
EXAMPLE 6-2 ,. the entire area:

Find the moment of inertia about a diameter for a circular area of radius c;
Fig. 6-10. bh 3 40 x 603
Izc = 1-- = 12 - 72 x 104 mm 4
y Solution Ad 2 = 2400(30 - 28.3) 2 = 0.69 X 104 mm 4
To find I for a circle, first note that D 2 = Z 2 + y2, as may be seen from the fi I = 72.69 x 104 mm 4
Then using the definition of J, noting the symmetry around both axes, and the hollow interior:
Eq. 4-2,
bh 3 20 X 303
4.50 x 104 mm 4
12 12

Fig. 6-t0 J= f,p2.dA = f,(Y2+z2) dA= f,y2dA+ f,z2dA Ad 2 = 600(35 - 28.3) 2 = 2.69 x 104 mm 4
= + Iy= Iz= 7.19 x 104 mm 4
composite section:

= --J_ 2 4
Note
composite
particularly
area
Iz = (72.69

that
contributes
in applying
two
- 7.19)104

terms
= 65.50

the parallel-axis
to the total
x 104

theorem,
I. One
mm

term
4

each element
is the moment
of

In mechanical applications, circular shafts often act as beams; hence, Eq. ' inertia of an area around its own centroidal axis, the other term is due to the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
20 wil be found useful. For a tubular shaft, the moment of inertia of the transfer of its axis to the centroid of the whole area. Methodical work is the prime
interior must be subtracted from the last expression. in solving such problems correctly.

EXAMPLE

Determine
6-3

the moment of inertia I around

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6-5.
the Applications of the Flexure
horizontal Formula axis for the area
in mm in Fig. 6-11 for use in the flexure formula. largest stress at a section of a beam is given by Eq. 6-13, O'max =
and in most practical problems, it is this maximum stress that has
Solution
be determined. Therefore, it is desirable to make the process of de-
As the moment of inertia is for use in the flexure formula, it must be g O'max as simple as possible. This can be accomplished by noting
around the axis through the centroid of the area. Hence, the centroid of the both I and c are constants for a given section of a beam. Hence,
must be found first. This is most easily done by treating the entire outer is a constant. Moreover, since this ratio is only a function of the cross-
and deducting the hollow interior from it. For convenience, the work is dimensions of a beam, it can be uniquely determined for any
out in tabular form. Then the parallel-axis theorem is used to obtain I. area. This ratio is called the elastic section modulus of a
wil be designated by S. With this notation, Eq. 6-13 becomes
y [ram]
Area A [mm 2] (from bottom) Ay
Entire area 40 x 60 = 2400 30 72 000

60
Hollow interior -20 x

A
30 =

=
-600

1800mm 2
35

Ay
-21

= 51000
000
O'max-- (6-21)
28.3
stated otherwise
 Ay 51 000 - 28.3 mm from bottom bending moment
Fig. 6-11 800 maximum bending stress =
elastic section modulus
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-5. Applications of the Flexure Formula 295

r=20 kN
20kN 0.75kN/m
300
If the moment of inertia I is measured in in 4 (or m 4) and c in in mm
0.75 kN/m
S is measured in in 3 (or m3). Likewise, ifM is measured in in-lb (or
the units of stress, as before, become psi (or N/m2). It bears Pa
that the distance c as used here is measured from the neutral axis to rn

most remote fiber of the beam. This makes I/c = S a minimum,

consequently M/S gives the maximum stress. The efficient sections
resisting elastic bending have as large an S as possible for a
--L
.I
of material. This is accomplished by locating as much of the (a) (b) (c) (d)

possible far from the neutral axis. Fig. 6-t2

The use of the elastic section modulus in Eq. 6-21 corresponds
what to the use of the area termA in Eq. 1-13 (or = P/A). However, Eq. 6-19:
the maximum flexural stress on a section is obtained from Eq.
whereas the stress computed from Eq. 1-13 holds true across the bh 3 300 X 4003
section of a member. It . . 16 x 108 mm
12 12
Equation 6-21 is widely used in practice because of its simplicity.
facilitate its use, section moduli for many manufactured cross Eq. 6-13:
are tabulated in handbooks. Values
sections for
are givenl a few steel
Tables 3 to 8 in the Appendix. Equation 6-21 is particularly Mc 38.5 X 106 X 200
for the design of beams. Once the maximum bending moment for Crmx I 16 X 108 = +4.81 MPa
is determined and an allowable stress is decided upon, Eq. 6-21 may
solved
select
delayed
for the required
a beam.
until
However,
Chapter
section

9. This
a detailed
modulus.
consideration
is necessary
This information

inasmuch
of beam NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is sufficientq
design
as a shear
From the
are
,riven,
sense
seen
the
of the bending
to be in compression
positive
moment

sign applies
shown in Fig.
and the bottom
to the tensile stress
6-12(c),
ones
and
the top fibers
in tension.
the negative
In the
sign
of

which
interaction
gain
in turn

complete
causes stresses,
of the
insight
usually
various
also

into
acts

the
at a beam
kinds of
problem.
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section.
stresses must be considered first
applies
toward
to the
the neutral
on infinitesimal
compressive
axis, where
elements
the bending
at A and
stress. Both of these
stress
B are shown
stresses
is zero. The
in Fig.
normal
6-12(d).
decrease
stresses
It is im-
at a linear rate

The fol owing two examples il ustrate calculations for bending  learn to make such a representation of an element as it wil be frequently
at specified sections, where, in addition to bending moments, shears Chapters 8 and 9.
also required for equilibrium. As shown in the next chapter, the
of small or moderate shears does not significantly affect the
Soldion
stresses in slender beams. Both moment and shear frequently
the same section simultaneously. If only the maximum stress is desired, the equation involving the section modulus
may be used. The section modulus for a rectangular section in algebraic form is
EXAMPLE 6-4
I bh 3 2 bh 2
s .. (6-22)
A 300 by 400 mm wooden cantilever beam weighing 0.75 kN/m carries an c 12 h 6
concentrated force of 20 kN at the end, as shown in Fig. 6-12(a). Determine
maximum bending stresses at a section 2 m from the free end.
[n this problem, S = 300 x 4002/6 = 8 x 106 mm 3, and by Eq. 6-21,
Solution
M 38.5 X 10 6
A free-body diagram for a 2-m segment of the beam is shown in Fig. O'max- S 8 X 106 4.81 MPa
keep this segment in equilibrium requires a shear of 20 - (0.75 x 2) = 18.5
and a bending moment of(20 x 2) - (0.75 x 2 x 1) = 38.5 solutions lead to identical results.
Both of these quantities are shown with their proper sense in.Fig. 6-12(c).
distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers c = 200 mm. Thi
to both the tension and the compression fibers.
296 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-6. Stress Concentrations 297

8k 8k
 Ay 17.0 1.70 in from line ab
:P- E = 10.--- =
16"
4xl 3
I= (Io +Ad 2)- 12 + 4 x 1.2 2
2xlx3 3
+ + 2 x 3 x 0.82 = 14.43in 4

8 X
.8k
16 k-in Mc 8
12.
x 16 x 2.3
mx - - = 20.4 ksi (compression)
I 14.43
(a)
Mc 8 x 16 x 1.7
O'max - = = 15.1 ksi (tension)
I 14.43

These stresses vary linearly toward the neutral axis and vanish there. The re-
obtained would be the same if the cross-sectional area of the bracket were
led, as shown in Fig. 6-13(e). The properties of this section about the
axis are the same as those of the channel. Both these sections have
axis of symmetry.
I? .v_ i?':1

(d) (e)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Section A-A
previous example shows that members resisting flexure may be
ortioned so as to have a dif erent maximum stress in tension than in
(b)
This is significant for materials having dif erent strengths
Fig. 6-t3

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tension and compression. For example, cast iron is strong in compres-
and weak in tension. Thus, the proportions of a cast-iron member
EXAMPLE
be so set as to have a low maximum tensile stress. The potential
Find the maximum tensile and compressive stresses acting normal to of. the material may thus be better utilized.
A of the machine bracket shown in Fig. 6-13(a) caused by the applied force
kips.
Stress Concentrations
Solution
flexure theory developed in the preceding sections applies only to
The shear and bending moment of proper magnitude and sense to beams of constant cross section, i.e., prismatic beams. If the cross-sec-
segment of the member in equilibrium are shown in Fig. 6-13(c). Next the: area of the beam varies gradually, no significant deviation from the
axis of the beam must be located. This is done by locating the centroid 3attern discussed earlier takes place. However, if notches, grooves,
area shown in Fig. 6-13(b); see also Fig. 6-13(d). Then the moment holes, or an abrupt change in the cross-sectional area of the beam
the neutral axis is computed. In both these calculations, the legs of the high local stresses arise. This situation is analogous to the ones
section are assumed rectangular, neglecting fil ets. Then, keeping in mind earlier for axial and torsion members. Again, it is very dif icult
sense of the resisting bending moment and applying Eq. 6-13, one obtains to obtain analytical expressions for the actual stress. In the past, most of
desired values.
Ihe information regarding the actual stress distribution came from ac-
photoelastic experiments. Numerical methods employing finite ele-
y [in] are now extensively used for the same purpose.
Area Number A [in 2] (from ab) Ay
Fortunately, as in the other cases discussed, only the geometric pro-
1 4.0 0.5 2.0 of the member affect the local stress pattern. Moreover, since
2 3.0 2.5 7.5
generally is in the maximum stress, stress-concentration factors
3 3.0 2.5 7.5
be used to an advantage. The ratio K of the actual maximum stress
 A = 10.0 in 2  Ay = 17.0 in3 to the nominal maximum stress in the nin#num section, as given by Eq.
298 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-7. Elastic Strain Energy in Pure Bending

2.2
. r/d = 0.05
  0.1
Me K 1.8

(ama x) nominal = 'T ,' 0.2

1.4

' .... 0.75

Fig. 644 Meaning of stress- 1.0 Fig. 6.t6 Stess-concentration
concentratioh factor in (amax) actual
K= 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 factors in bending for
bending. (ama x ) nominal h grooved flat bars.

6-13, is defined as the stress-concentration factor in bending. This area has reentrant angles. For example, high localized stresses may
is il ustrated in Fig. 6-14. Hence, in general, at the point where the range  and the web of an I beam meet. To
these, commercial y rolled or extruded shapes have a generous
at all such points.
In addition to stress concentrations caused by changes in the cross-
(O'max)actual ,nal area of a beam, another effect is significant. Forces often are
over a limited area of a beam. Moreover, the reactions act only
on a beam at the points of support. In the previous treatment, all
In this equation Mc/I is for the small width of a bar. uch forces were idealized as concentrated forces. In practice, the average
Figures
representative
6-15 and 6-16 are plots
ases. o The factor
of stress-concentration
NON-ACTIVATED
K, depending
on the proportions of i VERSION factors for pressure
are computed
between the member
at the point of contact
delivering
of such forces
such a force
with the beam.
and the

member, may be obtained from these diagrams. A study of these grap bearing pressure, or stress, acts normal to the neutral surface of a
indicates
notches
the
to reduce
desirability
local
of generous
stress concentrations.
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fil ets and
These
the elimination
remedies
of beam and is at right
A more detailed
angles to the bending
study
stresses
of the
discussed in this chap-
effect of such forces shows that they
desirable in machine design. For ductile materials, where the  a disturbance of all stresses on a local scale, and the bearing pres-
forces are static, stress concentrations are less mportant. sure as normally computed is a crude approximation. The stresses at right
Stress concentrations become particularly significant if the to the flexural stresses behave more nearly as shown in Fig. 2-30.
The reader must remember that the stress-concentration factors apply
o These figures are adapted from a paper by M. M. Frocht, "Factors while the material behaves elastically. Inelastic behavior of material
Concentration Photoelastically Determined," Trans. ASME 57, (1935): to reduce these factors.

h
rid = 0.05 
2.0
:26=7. Elastic Strain Energy in Pure Bending My
I

1.8 Section 2-11, the elastic strain energy for an infinitesimal element sub-
ected to a normal stress
was formulated. Using this as a basis, the elastic
1.6 energy for beams in pure bending can be found. For this case, the
K
0.2 stress varies linearly from the neutral axis, as shown in Fig. 6-
1.4 17, and, according to Eq. 6-11, in simplified notation, this stress cr =
0.27 The volume of a typical infinitesimal beam element is dx dA, dA

1.2
0.5
dx is its length, and dA is its cross-sectional area. By substituting
(a) (b)

Fig. 6-t5 Stress-concentration 1.0 .. 1.0 n The web is a thin vertical part of a beam. Thin horizontal parts of a beam Fig. 6-t7 A beam segment for
factors in pure bending for
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 called flanges. deriving strain energy in
flat bars with vhrious Eftlets. h/r n This section can be postponed until study of Chapter 12. bending.
300 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-8. Beams of Composite Cross Section 30'

these expressions into Eq. 2-23 and integrating over the volume V of
beam, the expression for the elastic strain energy U in a beam in U=  M2EI2 dx - 2EIM -t2o fz dx- M2L
2EI
bending is obtained.
instructive to write this result in another form: 'Thus, since O'ma x ----- Mc/I, M
= 2CrmaxI/h, and I = bh3/12,
J 2E

Rearranging terms and remembering that M at a section of a (2ffmaxI/h)2Z.=f 2max(bh_)= O'2max(31_VOl)

2EI 2E 2E

constant and that the order of performing the integration is

given maximum stress, the volume of the material in this beam is only one-
as effective for absorbing energy as it would be in a uniformly stressed bar,
U'= -- dx y2 dA = U = (tr2/2E)(voD. This results from variable stresses in a beam. If the
ngth 2EI 2 ea 2EI moment also varies along a prismatic beam, the volume of the material
even less effective.

where the last simplification is possible since, by deflation, I = f y2

Equation 6-24 reduces the volume integral for the elastic energy of
matic beams in pure flexure to a single integral taken over the
of a beam. Beams of Composite Cross Section
Alternatively, -Eq. 624 can be derived from a dif erent point of
by considering an elementary segment of a beam dx long, as is uses of beams made of dif erent materials occur in practice.
Fig. 6-18. Before the application of bending moments M, the two den beams are sometimes reinforced by metal straps, plastics are

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
and reinforced concrete is concrete with steel rein-
perpendicular to the axis of the beam are parallel. After the
of the bendingmoments, extensions of the same two planes, which bars. The elastic bending theory discussed before can be readily
planes, intersect at O, and the angle included between these two to include such beams of composite cross section.

an anglewww.avs4you.com
is dO. Moreover, since the ful value of the moment M is attained an elastic beam of several materials bonded together with a
Fig. 6-18 Beam segment for ually, the average 'moment acting through dO is �M. Hence, axis of symmetry as shown in Fig. 6-20(a). The elastic moduli Ei
alternative derivation of
external work We done on a segment of a beam is dWe = �M dO: the dif erent materials are given. As for a homogeneous material, the
strain energy in bending. extensional strains ex are assumed to vary linearly as shown
since for small deflections, dx  O dO, where  is the radius of
of the elastic curve, per Eq. 6-10 1/p = M/EL Hence, from the This is an optional section.
of conservation of energy, the internal strain energy of an element
beam is

0� x

dU = dWe = lMdO = lMdXp - M22EI dx

which has the same meaning as Eq. 6-24.

EXAMPLE 6-7

Find the elastic strain energy stored in a rectangular cantilever beam due Unit
distance
bending moment M applied at the end; see Fig. 6-19.

Soldion Cross section Bending strain Bending stresses

Section (a) (b) (c)

The bending moment at every section of this beam, as well as the flexural
Fig. '6-'19 El, is constant. By direct application of Eq. 6-24, Fig. 6-20 Elastic beam of composite cross section in bending.
302 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-8. Beams of Composite Cross Section 303'

in Fig. 6-20(b). The neutral axis for this section, passing through the 7.5 = 150/20

ulus-weighted centroid, is located by the distance Yb and can

using Eq. 6-16. The stresses shown in Fig. 6-20(c) fol ow from Eq.
At the interfaces
of their Ei's,
between
a sharp discontinuity
two materials,
in stress
depending
magnitudes
on the relative
arises.
-t250 mm
Neutral axis
Following the same procedure as in Eq. 6-7, the resisting bending
ment
150
Mz = K fA Eiy2 dA = K(EI)* 10mm  20X150=3000mm 4 mm _1

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6-2t
where the curvature K, being constant for the section, is taken
the integral, and (E/)* defines symbolically the value of the PLE 6-8
the middle expression. Hence
a composite beam of the cross-sectional dimensions shown in Fig. 6-
mz The upper 150 by 250 mm part is wood, E, = 10 GPa; the lower 10 by 150
(E/)* mm strap is steel, Es = 200 GPa. If this beam is subjected to a bending moment
'30 kN.m around a horizontal axis, what are the maximum stresses in the steel
wood?
and by substituting this relation into Eqs. 6-3 and 6-14,
ilution
Mz E M
e,=-(E/),y and NON-ACTIVATED
cr,=- i(-Y VERSION as in Fig.
The
as Ee.
6-21(b)
centtold
Then

and
with
n = EdEw
the equivalent
moment of inertia
= 20. Hence
width
the
of steel
around the
transformed
equal
centroidal
to 150
axis
cross
x 20
for this
section
= 3000
trans-
where the last expression is an analogue to Eq. 6-11, and can be
diately specialized
In calculations
for a homogeneous
of bending of composite
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beam.
cross sections, sometimes
section

150 x 250
are,

x
respectively,

125 + 10 x 3000 x 255

useful to introduce the concept of an equivalent or transformed = 150 x 250 + 10 x 3000 = 183mm (from the top)
sectional area in one material. This requires arbitrary selection of
150 x 2503 3000 x 103
erence Ei, defined here as Eref. Using this notation the integral in - + 150x 250x 582+ + 10 x 3000 x722
12 12
15, for constant curvature , can be recast as fol ows:
= 478 x 10 6 mm 4

stress in the wood is

Ely dA = Eref Yr dA = Erie y(ni dA) = 0 Mc 0.03 X 109 X 183

(O'w)mx I 478 X 10 6 11.5 MPa
where ni dA = (Ei/Ee) dA. Therefore a beam of composite cross maximum stress in the steel is
can be considered to have the mechanical properties of the
material, provided the dif erential areas dA are multiplied by hi, the 0.03 x 109 X 77
of Ei to Erie. After transforming a cross section in this manner, (O')mx = no-, = 20 x = 96.7 MPa
478 x 10 6
tional elastic analysis is applicable. In transformed sections the
vary linearly from the neural axis in all materials. The actual stresses klternative Solution
obtained for the reference material, whereas the stresses in the
materials must be multiplied by ielect E as Er. Then nw = Ew/E = 1/20, and the transformed section is as in
This procedure is il ustrated on the two examples that fol ow. 6-21(c).
304 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-8. Beams of Composite Cross Section 305

7.5 x 250 x 135 + 150 x 10 x 5 the tension zone of a beam only holds the reinforcing steel in place? Hence,
7.5 x 250 + 150 x 10 this analysis, it virtually does not exist at all, and the transformed section
= 77 mm (from the bottom) sumes the form shown in Fig. 6-22(c). The cross section of concrete has the
7.5 x 2503 150 x 103 hape above the neutral axis; below it, no concrete is shown. Steel, of
Iz- + 7.5 x 250 x 582 + can resist tension, so it is shown as the transformed concrete area. For
12 12
purposes, the steel is located by a single dimension from the neutral
+ 150 x 10 x 722 = 23.9 x 106mm 4
to its centreid. There is a negligible dif erence between this distance and the
0.03 x 109 x 77 distances to the various teel fibers.
(crs)mx = 23.9 X 106 = 96.7 MPa far, the idea of the neutral axis has been used, but its location is unknown.
ors 1 0.03 x 109 x 183 However, it is known that this axis coincides with the axis through the centreid
(Crw)mx n 20 x 23.9 X 106 11.5 MPa the transformed section. It is further known that the fn:st (or statical) moment
the area on one side of a centroidal axis is equal to the first moment of the
on the other side. Thus, let kd be the distance from the top of the beam to
Note that if the transformed section is an equivalent wooden section
centroidal axis, as shown in Fig. 6-22(c), where k is an unknown ratio, 5 and
stresses in the actual wooden piece are obtained directly. Conversely, 'if the
the distance the from top of the beam to the center of the steel. An algebraic
alent section is steel, stresses in steel are obtained directly. The stress in
stif er than the material of the transformed section is increased, since, to
of the foregoing locates the neutral axis, about which I is computed
stresses are determined as in the preceding example.
the same unit strain, a higher stress is required.

10(kd) (kd12) = 30 (20 - kd)

EXAMPLE 6-9 concrete arm transformed arm
area steel area
Determine the maximum stress in the concrete and the steel for a 5(kd) 2 = 600 - 30(kd)
concrete
bending
(These bars
beam
momeni
with
of 50,000
are 1 in in diameter
the section
ft-lb.
shown
The
and
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
in Fig.
reinforcement
have
6-21(a)

a cross-sectional
if it is subjected
consists
area
of two
of 1 in 2'
#9
to a
steel
(kd) 2 + 6(kd) - 120 = 0

the

Solution
ratio of E for steel to that of concrete
www.avs4you.comto be 15, i.e., n = 15.
kd = 8.36 in and 20 - kd = 11.64 in

Plane
beam.
sections
Strains vary
are assumed
linearly from
to remain
the neutral
plane
axis,
in an
as shown
elastic
in Fig. 6-22(b) by
10(8.12 367 +
Mc 50,000
10(8.36)
x 12 x
(86)
-- -+
8.36
0 + 30(11.64) 2 = 6020 in 4
line ab. A transformed section in terms of concrete is used to solve this I 6020 = 833 psi
However, concrete is so weak in tension that there is no assurance that
Mc 15 x 50,000 x 12 x 11.64
cracks wil not occur in the tension zone of the beam. For this reason, no = 17,400 psi
I 6020
is given to concrete for resisting tension. On

Solution

a
kd is determined, instead
I, a procedure of computing evident from Fig. 6-
may be used. The
developed resultant force
by the stresses acting in a
;hydrostatic" manner on the compression
side of the beam must be located kd/
below the top of the beam. Moreover, if b is the width of the beam, this resultant
20 - kd
C = �(cr)m,b(kd) (average stress times area). The resultant tensile force
steel and is equal to Acr, where A is the cross-sectional
the steel. Then, ifjd is the distance between T and C, and since T = C,
; I hA, = 30 in 2 applied moment M is resisted by a couple equal to Tjd or Cjd.
Unit distance

Actually, it is used to resist shear and provide fireproofing for the steel.
(b) (c) (d)  This conforms with the usual notation used in books on reinforced concrete.
Fig. 6-22 In this text, h is generally used to represent the height or depth of the beam.
306 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-9. Curved Bars 307
jd = d - kd/3 = 20 - (8.36/3) = 17.21 in e b

M = Cjd = b(kd)(c)mx(jd)
Centroid
+y

2M 2 x 50,00.0 x 12
(O�)m,, -- -- = 833 psi
b(kd)(jd) 10 x 8.36 x 17.21
M = Tjd = Assjd
.\
M 50,000 x 12 \ Straight beam
o-s = -- - = 17,400 psi \
A(jd) 2 x 17.21 \ (b) (c)

Both methods naturally give the same answer. The second method is
convenient in practical applications. Since steel and concrete have
lowable stresses, the beam is said to have balanced reinforcement when
designed so that the respective stresses are at their allowable level simuttaneou
Note that the beam shown would become virtually worthless if the bending o
ments were applied in the opposite direction.
(a)

Fig. 6-23 Curved bar in pure bending.

Curved Bars its initial length is rqb. The strain e of any arbitrary fiber is (R - r)
b)/rqb, and the normal stress tr on an element dA of the cross-sectional
The flexure theory for curved bars is developed in this section. area is
is confined
this axis
case is treated,
lying
to bars having
in one plane
an axis

7 with
along
the usual
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
of symmetry
the length
proviso
 = Ee = E (R - r) dqb
that
rqb
of the cross
of the bar.
the
Only
section,

elastic
the
modulus is
(6-29a)
same

outer
Consider
in tension

fibers
a curved
are
and

at a distance
compression.
member such
of
ro from
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as shown
the
in Figs.
center of
6-23(a)
curvatur60.
and (b).
For future use, note also that

--
trr
-
E dqb
(6-29b)
inner fibers are at a distance of r. The distance from O to the R - r qb
axis is L The solution 8 of this problem is again based on the Equation 6-29a gives the normal stress acting on an element of area of
assumption: Sections perpendicular to the axis of the beam remain section of a curved beam. The location of the neutral axis fol ows
after a bending moment M is applied. This is diagrammatically from the condition that the summation of the forces acting perpendicular
by the line ef in relation to an element of the beam abcd. The the section must be equal to zero, i.e.,
is defined by the central angle qb.
Although
beams,
the basic
and, from Hooke's
deformation assumption
law, the normal stress
is the same as for strai
tr = Ee, a dif iculty
F.=0 fA ,y a_A = fA E(R -rqb r) d4 dA = 0
encountered. The initial length of a beam fiber such as gh depends since E, R, qb, and dqb are constant at any one section of a
the distance r from the center of curvature. Thus, although the. total bar, they may be taken outside the integral sign and a solution
formation of beam fibers (described by the small angle dqb) fol ows obtained. Thus:
law, strains do not. The elongation of a generic fiber gh is (R - r)
where R is the distance from O to the neutral surface (not yet
oo ---7-- oo --- aA =0
6 Study of this section is optional.
7 For plastic analysis of curved bars, see, for example, H. D. Conway,
tic-Plastic Bending of Curved Bars of Constant and Variable Thickness.
Mech. 27/4 (December 1960): 733-734. (6-30)
is This approximate solution was developed by E. Wintaler in 1858. The
solution of the same problem by the methods of the mathematical theory of
ticity is due to M. Golovin, who solved it in 1881.
308 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-9. Curved Bars 309

where A is the cross-sectional area of the beam, and R locates the My

axis. Note that the neutral axis so found does not coincide with the cr- (6-32)
Ae(R - y)
troidal axis. This dif ers from the situation found to be true for
elastic beams.
These equations indicate that the stress distribution in a curved bar
Now that the location of the neutral axis is known, the equation for a hyperbolic pattern. A comparison of this result with the one
stress distribution is obtained by equating the external moment to fol ows from the formula for straight bars is shown in Fig. 6-23(c).
internal resisting moment built up by the stresses given by Eq. particularly that in the curved bar, the neutral axis is pulled toward
The summation of moments is made around the z axis, which is center of the curvature of the beam. This results from the higher
to the plane of the figure at O in Fig. 6-23(a). Stresses developed below the neutral axis. The theory developed applies,
course, only to elastic stress distribution and only to beams in pure
 Mz=O M= /,cr dA (R- r)= f, E(R - r) 2 dqb
force arm
For
at a section,
a consideration
see Section
of situations
6-12.
where an axial force is also

Again, remembering that E, R, qb, and dqb are constant at a section, tVIPLE 6-'10
Eq. 6-29b, and performing the algebraic steps indicated, the fol owing
obtained: are stresses in a 50 by 50 mm rectangular bar subjected to end moments of
2083 N.m in three special cases: (a) straight beam, (b) beam curved to a radius
the centroidal axis, i.e., i = 250 mm, Fig. 6-24(a), and (c) beam
M = E dqbf, (R -r r)2 dA - R---rr f, (R -r r)2 dA :urved to ? = 75 mm.

-r f, g 2 - Rr -r Rr NON-ACTIVATED

R err + r2 VERSION
- Solution dA

This fol ows directly by applying Eqs. 6-21 and 6-22.

_ err (R2fAdA_RfAdA_RfAdA
R-r r + fArdA)
www.avs4you.com S = bh2/6 = 50 x 502/6 = 20.83 x 103 mm 3
M 2083 x 103
Here, since R is a constant, the first two integrals vanish as may be - +100 MPa
from the expression in parentheses appearing just before Eq. 6-30. crmx S 20.83 x 103
third integral is A, and the last integral, by definition, is ?A where
the radius of the centroidal axis. Hence, This result is shown in Fig. 6-24(c). ? = oo since a straight bar has an infinite
of curvature.

O't"
To solve parts (b) and (c) the neutral axis must be located first. This is found
M - .(?A - RA) m general terms by integrating Eq. 6-30. For the rectangular section, the ele-
mentary area is taken as b dr, Fig. 6-24(b). The integration is carried out between
limits r and ro, the inner and outer radii, respectively.
from where the normal stress acting on a curved beam at a
from the center of curvature is 50 X 50 mm

100 MPa 93.6 MPa 80.9 MPa

I M(R- r)1
� -v {----v 60ram
or- rA(?- R)
100 MPa 107
/I-T
MPa 128 MPa
7' = .o 7' = 250 mm 7' = 75 mm

If positive y is measured toward the center of curvature from the 0

axis, and ? - R = e, Eq. 6-31 may be writ en in aform that more (a) (b) (c)
resembles the flexure formula for straight beams: Fig. 6-24
Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-10. Inelastic Bending of Beams

A bh h cross-sectional area may become very complex. Finally, calculations

must be very accurate since dif erences between R and numerically
quantities are used in the stress formula.
h h h last two dif iculties prompted the development of other methods
I In r Ir? In (ro/ri) 2.3026 log (ro/rt) solution. One such method consists of expanding certain terms of the
into a series? another of building up a solution on the basis of
where h is the depth of the section, In is the natural logarithm, and log is a special transformed section. Yet another approach consists of working
arithm with a base of 10 (common logarithm). reverse." Curved beams of various cross sections, curvatures, and
(b) For this case, h = 50 mm, ? = 250 mm, rt = 225 mm, and re = 275 mm. moments are analyzed for stress; then these quantities are divided
solution is obtained by evaluating Eqs. 6-33 and 6-31. Subscript i refers to a flexural stress that would exist for the same beam if it were straight.
normal stress  of the inside fibers; o of the outside fibers. : ratios are then tabulated? Hence, conversely, if stress in a curved
beam is wanted, it is given as
50
g m - 249.164 mm

e =
In (275/225)
? - R = 250 - 249.164 = 0.836 mm
 = K McI (6-34)

M(R - ri) 2083 x 103 x (249.164 - 225)

O'i =
riA(? - R) 225 x 502 x 0.836 ere the coefficient K is obtained from a table or a graph and Mc/I is
107 MPa as in the usual flexure formula.
M(R - re) 2083 x 103 x (249.164 - 275) An expression for the distance from the center of curvature to the neu-
roA(b - R) 275 x 502 x 0.836 axis of a curved beam of circular cross-sectional area is now given

The negative sign

- 93.6

of ere indicates
MPa

a compressive
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION stress. These quantities
for future reference:

p+ V.2 - c2

www.avs4you.com
R = (6-35)
the corresponding stress distribution are shown in Fig. 6-24(c); ? = 250 mm. 2

(c) This case is computed in the same way. Here h = 50 mm, ? = 75 ram, ri: where ? is the distance from the center of curvature to the centroid, and
50 mm, and re = 100. Results of the computation as shown in Fig. 6-24(c). c is the radius of the circular cross-sectional area.

50 50
R = --- - 72.13mm
In (100/50) In 2 6-10. Inelastic Bending of Beams
e = g- R = 75 - 73.13 = 2.87mm
reasons of economy, it is becoming increasingly important to deter-
2083 x 103 x (72.13 - 50)
mine member strengths beyond the elastic limit. In this section the in-
o-i = 50 x 502 x 2.87 = 128 MPa bending of beams in the post elastic rage of material behavior is
2083 x 103 x (72.13 - 100) considered. The discussion is limited to pure bending of beams around
�'� = 100 x 502 x 2.87 = -80.9 MPa axis perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the beam cross section.
The elastic bending theory for beams can be readily extended to in-
introducing an uniaxial nonlinear stress-strain relation-
Several important conclusions, generally true, may be reached ship for the material. The basic requirements of statics and kinematics of
remain the same as for the elastic case.
this example. First, the usual flexure formula is reasonably good
beams of considerable curvature. Only 7 percent error in the To il ustrate the analysis procedure consider a beam having a cross
stress occurs in part (b) for ?/h = 5, an error tolerable for most such as shown in Fig. 6-25(a). By assuming as before that plane
cations. For greater ratios of ?/h, this error diminishes. As the 19 S. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, 3rd ed., Part I (Princeton, NJ: Van
of the beam increases, the stress on the concave side rapidly ' Nostrand, 1955), 369 and 373.
over the one given by the usual flexure formula. When ?/h = 1.5, a 20 R. J. Roark, and W. C. Young, Formulas for Stress and Strain, 5th ed. (New
percent error occurs. Second, the evaluation of the integral for R York: McGraw-Hil , 1975).
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 640. Inelastic Bending of Beams
Finding the location of the neutral axis such that T = C may require
trial-and-error process, although direct procedures have been devised
some cross sections. TM After the neutral axis is correctly located, the
�5
0 2 --
: bending moment Mz at the same section is known to be C(a +
Y5
or T(a + b), see Fig. 6-25(d). Alternatively, in the form of a general
Y4 01 -- equation,

Mz = - cry dA (6-37)
�5 �4
The problem is greatly simplified if the beam cross section is symmetric
_ Unit  �1 E2 �3
horizontal axis and material properties are the same in tension
length- I'- 1 For these conditions it is known a priori that the neutral
(a) Beam section (b) Bending strain -- O 4
passes through the centroid of the section, and Eq. 6-37 can be di-
applied. The behavior of such a beam in bending is shown quali-
in Fig. 6-26. A sequence of progressively increasing strains as-
(c) Stress-strain diagram ciated with plane sections is shown in Fig. 6-26(b). These maximum
define the maximum stresses in the outer fibers of the beam, Fig.
resulting in progressively increasing bending stresses.
(/5
As can be seen from Figs. 6-26(a) and (c), the maximum attainable stress
m �5
M z 0-3. The instantaneous stress distribution in the beam associated with

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 0-3, for this brit le

in routine
often computed
material,
experiments
is given

by applying
by the curved
the nominal stress
line AB in Fig.
in the extreme
the elastic flexure formula, Eq.
6-26(c).

6-13, using
fibers

o3
www.avs4you.com the

Hil ,
experimental y
2 A. Nadai,
1950), 356.
Theory
determined
of Flow andFracture
ultimate bending
of Solids, vol.
moment.
! (New
The
York:
stress so
McGraw-

(d) Bending stresses (e)

Fig. 6-25 Inelastic bending of beam.

sections remain plane after deformation, the longitudinal normal Fracture

vary linearly as in Fig. 6-25(b). For the several selected strains

.. es in this diagram, the correponding stresses 0., 0-2 . . . 0-5
defined on the given stress-strain diagram in Fig. 6-25(c). A plot of
stresses along a section establishes a possible stress distribution in
beam along the curved line AB as il ustrated in Fig. 6-25(d). (Except Propordonal
limit (b)
vertical scale, this line precisely corresponds to the curved line in
stress-strain diagram.) These stresses, acting on the corresponding E1 �2 3
of the cross section, develop a compressive force C above the 01 0 2 0 3
axis, and a tensile force T below it. When T = C, a correct location
the neutral axis is found. This condition is equivalent to the
that at a section

Fig. 6-26 Rectangular beam

fA 0- dA = 0 (a) c B
in bending
proportional
exceeding
limit of the
the

where 0- is the normal bending stress acting on a section. (c) material.

 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.t0. Inelastic Bending of Beams
Plastic zone Elastic core to that shown in Fig. 6-28(c) is permissible and has a simple physical
-The whole upper half of the beam is subjected to a uniform compressive
M2
-crvp, whereas the lower half is all under a uniform tension crvp. That the
divided evenly into a tension and a compression zone fol ows from sym-
Numerically,

I C = T = o.yp(bh/2) i.e., stress x area

� Neutralaxis
Each one of these forces acts at a distance hi4 from the neutral axis. Hence,
or ultimate resisting, moment of the beam is
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6-27
found
Elastic-plastic
is called
'beam
the rupture
at large
modulus
levels of straining.
of the material in bending. This
Mp  Muir = C ( + ) = o.yp- 4 bh2
is associated with the line CD in Fig. 6-26(c) and is larger than the is the breadth of the beam, and h is its height.
actually attained. The same solution may be obtained by directly applying Eqs. 6-36 and 6-37.
The elastic perfectly plastic idealization [Fig. 2-13(b)], for reasons NOting the sign of stresses, one can conclude that Eq. 6-36 is satisfied by taking
simplicity, is very frequently used for beams of ductile materials in neutral axis through the middle of the beam. By taking dA = b dy and noting
termining their behavior in bending, and as an important example symmetry around the neutral axis, one changes Eq. 6-37 to
elastic bending, consider a rectangular beam of elastic-plastic
see Fig. 6-27. In such an idealization of material behavior, a sharp Mp - Mult = - 2 oh/2 (- o.yp)yb dy = o.ypbh2/4 (6-38)
aration
For example,
ginning
of the member

of yielding,
if'the strain
into distinct

only the middle

in the extreme
elastic

half of the beam

and plastic
fibers NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is double
zones

remains
is
that at the
elastic; bending moment of a beam of rectangular section when the outer
Fig. 6-27(a).
nltude
puted
of moment
(see Example
In this case,
M corresponding
6-13).
the outer

At higher
quarters
to this condition
strains,
of the beam
www.avs4you.com
the elastic
yield.
can be readily
zone,
The

6r
ust reach

Myp = o-ypI/c
crv, as given

= o-yp(bh2/6)
by the elastic flexure

therefore,
formula,

Mp/Myp
is

= 1.50
diminishes. Stress distribution corresponding to this situation is
in Figs. 6-27(b) and (c). The ratio Mp/Mvp depends only on the cross-sectional properties of a member
is called the shape factor. The shape factor just given for the rectangular
shows that Myp may b& exceeded by 50 percent before the ultimate plastic
of a rectangular beam is reached.
EXAMPLE 6-tt
For static loads such as occur in buildings, ultimate capacities can be approx-
Determine the ultimate plastic capacity in flexure of a mild steel beam imately determined using plastic moments. The procedures based on such con-
gular cross section. Consider the material to be ideally elastic-plastic. are referred to as the plastic method of analysis or design. For such work,
section modulus Z is defined as fol ows:
Soldion

The idealized stress-strain diagram is shown in Fig. 6-28(a). It is assumed

the material has the same properties in tension and compression. The strain
can take place in steel during yielding are much greater than the maximum
strain (15 to 20 times the lat er quantity). Since unacceptably large
Oyp
of a beam would occur at larger strains, the plastic moment may be taken as
ultimate moment.
E
The stress distribution shown in Fig. 6-28(b) applies after a large amount
deformation takes place. In computing the resisting moment, the stresses
responding to triangular areas abc and bde may be neglected without (a) (b) (c) (d)
impairing the accuracy. They contribute lit le resistance to the applied Fig. 6-28
moment because of their short moment arms. Hence, the idealization of the stress
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-10. Inelastic Bending of Beams
Mp - O-ypZ
Elastic-plastic
For the rectangular beam just analyzed, Z = bh2/4. boundaW
The Steel Construction Manual 22 provides a table of plastic section moduli a
many common steel shapes. An abridged list of these moduli for steel sec
is given in Table 9 of the Appendix. For a given M s and Cryp the solution of i
6-39 for Z is very simple.
The method of limit or plastic analysis is unacceptable in machine
situations where fatigue properties of the material are important.

(b) (c)
EXAMPLE 6-t2
Fig. 6-30 Elastic-plastic cantilever beam.
Find the residual stresses in a rectangular beam upon removal of the
plastic bending moment.
643
Solution
)etermine the moment resisting capacity of an elastic-plastic rectangular beam.
The stress distribution associated with an ultimate plastic moment is shown
Fig. 6-29(a). The magnitude of this moment has been determined in the Solution
example and is M s = crypbh2/4. Upon release of this plastic moment M s,
fiber
unloading is double
since Myp = crypbh2/6
in the
that which
beam
could take place
and the moment being
can rebound elastically.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
The material
initial y
released
elastic
(see Fig. 2-13).
is cryp(bh2[4)
range during

or
To make the problem
6-30(a).
P is large enough
more definite,

to cause yielding,
consider
If the beam is made of ideal elastic-plastic
plastic
a cantilever
material
zones wil be formed
loaded as shown
and the applied
(shown
in Fig.
force
shaded
the maximum
Fig. 6-29(b).
stresses due
stress
Superimposing.the
to the release
calculated

ofM,
on the basis of elastic
initial
one finds
stresses www.avs4you.com
action
at M s with
the residual stresses;
is cryp, as shown
the elastic
see Fid.
the figure).
be as shown
At an arbitrary
that
in Fig. 6-30(c).
within
section
the
a-a, the corresponding
The elastic zone extends
elastic zone
stress distribution
over the depth
the
of 2yo.
stresses vary linearly and that everywhere
Both tensile and compressive longitudinal residual stresses remain in the the plastic zone the longitudinal stress is crvv, the resisting moment M is
The tensile zones are colored in the figure. If such a beam were machined
gradually reducing its depth, the release of the residual stresses would = - - (- Cryp)(b dy)y
undesirable deformations of the bar. (6-40)
bh 2 by2o by2o
22 American Institute of Steel Construction, AISC Steel Construction Manual = YP'4 YP-- = Me - YP' 3
9th ed. (Chicago: AISC, 1989).

the last simplification is done in accordance with Eq. 6-38. In this general
if yo = 0, the moment capacity becomes equal to the ultimate plastic
moment. However, if yo = h/2, the moment reverts to the limiting elastic case,
I = cv, bh2/6. When the applied bending moment along the span is known,
the elastic-plastic boundary can be determined by solving Eq. 6-40 for yo. As long
Oy p
an elastic zone or core remains, the plastic deformations cannot progress with-
out a limit. This is a case of contained plastic flow.
O'yp
After the applied force P is released, along the length of the beam where plastic
deformations occurred, residual stresses wil remain. A typical residual stress
(b) for this region is shown in Fig. 6-31. This is a more realistic stress
distribution pattern than the one shown in Fig. 6-29(c), where the idealization of (a) (b)
Fig. 6.29 Residual stress distribution in a rectangular bar. dividing the tension and compression zones in the beam at the neutral
axis in reality is impossible to attain. That pattern of stress distribution represents Fig. 6-31 Residual stress
distribution in the beam.
g case of the stress distribution pattern given in Fig. 6-31. Many inelastic
Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.1t. Bending About Both Principal Axes

materials tend to have a stress-strain relationship such as shown in Fig.

The residual stress pattern for such materials would resemble the stress
between curved line AB and straight line CD of Fig. 6-26(c).

EXAMPLE 6-t4 l. Bending About Both Principal Axes 24

Determine the plastic moment strength for the reinforced concrete beam in a simple example of skew or unsymmetrical pure bending, consider
ample 6-9. Assume that the steel reinforcement yields at 40,000 psi and that rectangular beam shown in Fig. 6-33. The applied moments M act in
ultimate strength of concrete f = 2500 psi. abcd. By using the vector representation for M shown in Fig.
this vector forms an angle c with the z axis and can be resolved
Solution , the two components, My and Mz. Since the cross section of this beam
symmetry about both axes, the formulas derived in Section 6-3 are
When the reinforcing steel begins to yield, large deformations commence. applicable. Because of symmetry, the product of inertia for this
is taken to be the ultimate capacity of steel; hence, T,u = Ascryp. is zero, and the orthogonal axes shown are the principal axes for
At the ultimate or plastic moment, experimental evidence indicates that
cross section. This also holds true for the centroidal axes of singly
compressive stresses in concrete can be approximated by the rectangular areas. (For details see Sections 6-15 and 6-16.)
block shown in Fig. 6-32. 23 It is customary to assume the average stress in
compressive stress block to be 0.85f;. On this basis, keeping in mind that By assuming elastic behavior of the material, a superposition of the
= C,t, one has .ses caused by My and Mz is the solution to the problem. Hence, using
s. 6-11 and 6-12,
Yult
k'd
= gypAs
-
C.t
= 40,000
=
x 2 =
80,000 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
80,000 lb
=
=
3.77 in . = ---
Mzy
+
Myz
-- (6-41)
0.85�b 0.85 x 2,500 x 10
Mt = Tt(d - k'd/2) = 80,000(20 www.avs4you.com - 3.77/2)/12 = 121,000 ft-lb
all terms have the previously defined meanings.
23 For further details, see P.M. Ferguson, J. E. Breen, and J. O. J'sa, 24 Some readers may prefer to study Section 6-14 fkst, and then consider this
forced Concrete Fundamentals, 5th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1988), or R. Park as a special case.
T. Paulay, Reinforced Concrete Structures (New York: Wiley, 1975).

Probable
Y
stress
distribution
c

Muir

Assumed
stress
distribution

Gyp

(a) (b)

Fig. 6-32
(a) (b)

Fig. 6-33 Unsymmetrical bending of a beam with doubly symmetric cross section.
320 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-tt. Bending About Both Principal Axes 32'

Y, the constants are placed in front of the second integral, which is

to zero because by definition a product of inertia for a principal
vanishes.
virtue of the above, the restriction placed on the elastic flexure
. at the beginning of the chapter limiting it to applications for sym-
cross sections can be removed. However, in the application of Eq.
the principal axes for a cross section must be used. A procedure
+ = bypassing this requirement is given in Section 6-14.

PLE 645

Mzy
100 by 150 mm wooden beam shown in Fig. 6-36(a) is used to support a
. _ Myz
distributed load of 4 kN (total) on a simple span of 3 m. The applied
in a plane making an angle of 30 � with the vertical, as shown in Fig. 6-
(a) (b) (c) and again in Fig. 6-36(c). Calculate the maximum bending stress at midspan,
for the same section, locate the neutral axis. Neglect the weight of the beam.
Fig. 6-34 Superposition of elastic bending stresses.
a = 30 �
A graphical il ustration of superposition is given in Fig. 6-34. Note
a line of zero stress, i.e., a neutral axis, forms at an angle [3 with
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
4 kN (total)
axis. Analytically, such an axis can be determined by setting the
given by Eq. 6-41 to zero, i.e.,

---
Mzy
Iz
+--
Myz
Iy'
= 0 or www.avs4you.com
tan [3-
y
z
---
Mylz
Mzly
J< 3m '
Since, in general, My = M sin e and Mz = M cos e, this equation
to

tan [3 =  tan e (a) (b)

Direction
This equation shows that unless I = Iy, or e is either 0 � or 90 �, Y
of load
Centroid angles e and [3 are not equal. Therefore, in general, the neutral axis
the normal to a plane in which the applied moment acts do not D -0.47 MPa D C -6.47 MPa D c
Y
The results just given can be generalized to apply to beams having cros!
sections of any shape provided the principal axes are employed. TO
150 - a
this statement, consider a beam with the arbitrary cross section
150
in Fig. 6-35. Let such an elastic beam be bent about the principal z
and assume that the stress distribution is given as crx = -My/I, Eq.
11. If this stress distribution causes no bending moment My around
y axis, this is the correct solution of the problem. Forming such an B +6.47 MPa A B +0.47 MPa
sion gives
(b)
(c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Fig. 6-35 Pure bending
around a principal axis. My= - -z yz dA = I yz dA = 0 Fig. 6-36
322 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-It, Bending About Both Principal Axes 323
Solution

The
according
maximum
to Example
bending in the
5-8,
plane
it is equal
of the
to woL2/8
applied load
or WL/8,
occurs
where
at midspan
W is the
NA Y'
load on span L. Hence,

125.7
WL 4x3
M .. 1.5 kN.m
8 8

Next, this moment is resolved into components acting around the res[
and I and Iy are calculated.

My
Mz

Iz = 100
= M cos tx = 1.5
= M sin tx =
x 1503/12
1.5
x X/-/2
x 0.5
= 28.1
= 0.75
= 1.3 kN.m

x 10 6 mm 4
kN.m 74.3
By considering
the maximum tensile
Iy = 150
the sense
stress
x 1003/12
of the moment
occurs at A.
= 12.5

Similar
components,
reasoning
x 10 6 mm 4
it can be concluded
applies when
i
100 ,. t Fig. 6-37

ering the other corner points. Alternatively, the values for the coordinate
can be substituted directly into Eq. 6,41. On either basis,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
s incorrect to solve this problem using the y and z coordinates shown with the
formulas developed so far in the text. The solution can be obtained, how-
M(:-ci) Myc2 1.3 x 106 x 75 0.75 x 106 x 50
+ ever, using the principal axes for the cross section. These are determined in
era = Iz + Iy 28.1 X 106 12.5 x 10 6 Example 6-15, where it is found that the axes must be rotated counterclockwise

ere
=
=
+3.47
+ 3.47
+
-
3.00
3.00
=
='
+6.47
+ 0.47
MPa
MPa
www.avs4you.com = 23.95
an angle 0 = 14.34
x 106 mm 4 and Imin
� to locate such
= Iy, = 2.53
axes. For these
x 106 mm 4. For
principal
these
axes,
axes,
Imx

crc = -3.47 - 3.00 = -6.47 MPa

crz> = -3.47 + 3.00 = -0.47 MPa
+M cos 0 = 10 x 106 COS 14.34 � = 9.689 x 10 6 N.mm
+M sin 0 = 10 x 10 6 sin 14.34 � = 2.475 x 10 6 N.mm
Note that the stress magnitudes on diametrically opposite
equal. highest stressed points on the cross section lie at points farthest from the
The neutral axis is located by the angle [3, using Eq. 6-43: To locate this axis, the angle [3 is given by Eq. 6-43. Hence, using
and z' coordinates,
28.1 x 10 6
tan [3 - 12.5 x 106 tan 30 � = 1.30 or [3 = 52.4 � Iz, 23.95 X 10 6
tan [3' =y, tan0 = 2.53 x 106 tan 14.34 � = 2.42
Alternatively, it can be found from the stress distribution, which varies
between any two points. For example, from similar triangles, a/(150 - a) [3' = 67.5 �. Since this angle is measured from the z' axis, it forms an angle
0.47/6.47, giving a = 10.2 mm. This locates the neutral axis shown in Fig. - 14.3 � = 53.2 � with the z axis. Note the large inclination of the neutral
as it must pass through the section centroid. These results lead to the same with respect to the z axis, which is much larger than 0.
established the neutral axis, by inspection of the sketch, it can be seen
that the highest stressed point in compression is at B, whereas that in tension is
: F. By locating these points in the y'z' coordinate system of the principal axes
*EXAMPLE 646 applying Eq. 6-41, the required stresses are found.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses caused by a
moment of 10 kN-m acting around the horizontal axis for the angle shown in y = zesin0z + yecos0 = +4.3 sin0 + 125.7cos 0 = 122.9mm
in Fig. 6-37. zb = z cos 0 - y sin 0 = +4.3 cos 0 - 125.7 sin 0 = -26.95 mm
324 Sec. 6-t2. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads 325
Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces

O'B = + -- xt
p II
9.689 x 106 X 122.9 2.475 x 106 x (-26.95)
+
23.95 x 10 6 2.53 x 10 6 d
= - 76.1 MPa

Similarly, z z

Yb = zF sin 0 + yF cos 0 = 24.3 sin 0 - 74.3 cos 0 = -65.97

zb = z cos 0 - y sin 0 = 24.3 cos 0 + 74.3 sin 0 = +41.93
mz,yj my,z
(c)
9.689 x 106 X (--65.97) 2.475 X !06 X 41.93
23.95 x 10 6 2.53 X 10 6
= + 67.7 MPa
(b)

Fig. 6-39

When
forces,
venient.
parallel
unsymmetrical
another
The applied
procedure

to the principal
bending

forces
equivalent
of a beam

are first
axes of the cross-sectional
resolved
is caused
to that just given
by applied

into components
area.
I crx = AP Mzy
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is often

Then
Myz1
 + -y
the
transv
more

P is taken positive for axial tensile forces, and bending takes

(6-45)
place
moments
computed
ponents of the applied
caused
for use in the flexure
by these components

load are shown

formula.
around
In Example
in Fig. 6-36(g).
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the respective
6-15,
To avoid
such
axesi the two principal
the particular
case shown
y and z axes.
case of an eccentrically
in Fig. 6-39(a). By applying
applied
two equal
axial force,
but opposite
consider
forces
stresses, the applied transverse forces must act through the shear cent at centroid C, as shown in Fig. 6-39(b), an equivalent problem is ob-
a concept discussed in the next chapter. For bilaterally symmetrical In this formulation, the applied axial force P acting at C gives rise
tions, e.g., a rectangle, a circle, an I beam, etc., the shear center term P/A in Eq. 6-45; whereas a couple Pd developed by the op-
with the geometric center (centroid) of the cross section. For other forces P a distance d apart causes unsymmetrical bending. The
sections, such as a channel, the shear center lies elsewhere, as at S Pd applied by this couple can be resolved into two components
in Fig. 6-38, and it is at this point that the transverse force must the principal axes, as shown in Fig. 6-39(c). These components are
to prevent occurrence of torsional stresses. Single angles acting as Pzo and M = Pyo. Since the sense of these moments coincides
must be treated similarly (see Fig. 7-24). For analysis of uns' the positive directions of the y and z axes, these moments in Eq. 6-
bending, the applied forces must be resolved at the shear center are positive.
to the principal axes of the cross section. the principal axes are used, Eq. 6-45 can be applied to mem-
of any cross section. In some instances, however, it may be more
to use an arbitrary set of orthogonal axes and to determine
6-12. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads
bending stresses using Eq. 6-64 given in Section 6-14. To complete a
A solution for pure bending around both principal axes of a member the normal stress caused by axial force must be superposed.
be extended to include the effect of axial loads by employing It is instructive to note that in calculus, the equation of a plane is given
sition. Such an approach is applicable only in the range of elastic
of members. Further, if an applied axial force causes Ax + By + Cz + D=O
Fig. 6-38 Lateral force member must be stocky, lest a buckling problem of the type
through shear center S in Chapter 11 arises. With these reservations, Eq. 6-41 can be B, C, andD are constants. By settingA = 1, x = cry,, B = M/I,
causes no torsion. to read -My/Iy, and D = -P/A, it can be recognized that Eq. 6-45 defines
326 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-12. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads
3.6 kN
a plane. Similary, since e = rifE, Eq. 6-45 can be recast in terms of:
to read
25 kN  25 kN

e, = x = -(by + cz + d)

where a = 1, and b, c, and d are constants. Since this equation

-x375.  1125 .-I
defines a plane, the basic strain assumption of the simplified (a)

theory of flexure is verified. However, because of the presence of

strain due to P, the "plane sections" not only rotate, but also transla 3,6kN
an amount P/AE.
Based on the above discussion, it can be concluded that the Ion
strain magnitudes in members subjected to bending and axial forces i
be represented by distances from a reference plane to an inclined
The same is true for elastic stresses. These inclined planes intersect 2.7 kN 0.9 kN
reference plane in a line. This line of zero stress or strain is analo (b) (c)
the neutral axis occurring in pure bending. Unlike the former case,
ever, when P  0, this line does not pass through the centroid of a sec -21.6 MPa -14.9 MPa
For large axial forces and small bending moments, the line of zero
or strain may lie outside a cross section. The significance of this M M
that the normal stresses or strains vary from it linearly.
+

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
It should be noted that in many instances, the bending moment
member is caused by transverse forces rather than by an
applied axial force such as il ustrated in Fig. 6-39. In such cases, Ec +6.67 MPa +21.6 MPa +28.3 MPa
45 remains

bending
Several
takes
applicable.
il ustrative
place only
examples
around
fol ow,
one
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of the
beginning
principal
with
axes.
situations
10 3 x
(d) (e) (f) Fig. 6-40

375 = 1.013 x 10 6 N.mm. From the flexure formula, the maximum

at the extreme fibers caused by this moment are

EXAMPLE 6-19 Mc 6M. 6 x 1.013 x 106

cr- - - = +21.6 MPa
I bh 2 50 x 752
A 50 bY 75 mm, 1.5 m long elastic bar of negligible weight is loaded as
mm in Fig. 6-40(a). Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
normal act to the section of the beam and decrease linearly toward
acting normal to the section through the beam.
neutral axis as in Fig. 6-40(e). Then, to obtain the compound stress for any
element, bending stresses must be added algebraically to the direct
Solution stress. Thus, as may be seen from Fig. 6-40(f), at point A, the resultant
stress is 14.9 MPa compression, and at B, it is 28.3 MPa tension. Side
To emphasize the method of superposition, this problem is solved by of the stress vectors as commonly drawn are shown in the figure.
into two parts. In Fig. 6-40(b), the bar is shown subjected only to the axial
in this problem, the given axial force is larger than the transverse
and in Fig. 6-40(c) the same bar is shown subjected only to the transverse
force, bending causes higher stresses. However, the reader is cautioned not to
For the axial force, the normal stress throughout the length of the bar is
slender compression members in the same light.
Note that in the final result, the line of zero stress, which is located at the
P 25 x 103 of the section for flexure, moves upward. Also note that the local
cr- - - 6.67 MPa (tension)
A 50 x 75 caused by the concentrated force, which act normal to the top surface
beam, were not considered. Generally, these stresses are treated indepen-
This result is indicated in Fig. 6-40(d). The normal stresses due to the as local bearing stresses.
force depend on the magnitude of the bending moment, and the maximum stress distribution shown in Fig. 6-40(f) would change if instead of the axial
moment occurs at the applied force. As the left reaction is 2.7 kN, Mmax s applied at the ends, compressive forces of the same magnitude were
328 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 642. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads 329

acting on the member. The maximum tensile stress would be reduced to 14.9 i Shear force is necessary to maintain equilibrium of the segment shown in Fig.
from 28.3 MPa, which would be deskable in a beam made of a material The relative insignificance of the stress caused by the axial force is strik-
tension and carrying a transverse load. This idea is utilized in prestressed
struction. Tendons made of high-strength steel rods or cable passing
beam with anchorages at the ends are used to precompress concrete beams.
artificial y applied fomes inhibit the development of tensile stresses. Prestre
also has been used in racing-car frames. Problems similar to the above commonly occur in machine design.
C clamps, frames f punch presses, etc. il ustrate the variety of
to which the foregoing methods of analysis must be applied.
**EXAMPLE 648

A 50 by 50 mm elastic bar bent into a U shape, as in Fig. 6-41(a); is

by two opposing forces P of 8.33 kN each. Determine the maximum normal ,. LE 649
occurring at section A-B.
having a rectangular cross section at the base, as shown lB
s. 6-42(a) and (b). Determine the maximum eccentricity e such that the stress Pe
Solution
caused by the applied force P is zero.
The section to be investigated is in the curved region of the bar, but this
no essential dif erence in the procedure. First, a segment of the bar is ution (b) b
a free-body, as shown in Fig. 6-41(b). At section A-B, the axial force,
the centroid
librium are
of the section,
determined. Then,
and the bending
each element
moment
of the force
necessary
system
to maintain
is con,.
in order to maiPntaandin aapplmomentied forcePe atP thein equi
base librihavium,
ng thteheresenses must shown.
be an axiThe al strcom-
ess ,_
by the axial force is  = -P/A = -P/bh, whereas the largest tensile

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
separately. The stress caused by th axial forces is
;tress caused by bending is O'max = Mc/I = M/S = 6Pelbh 2, where bh2/6 is the (c) t'""'t t tt
section modulus of the rectangular cross section. To satisfy the condition
P 8.33 X 103
 -- -- -- 3.33 MPa (compression) having stress at B equal to zero, it fol ows that

and is shown
A

in the first
50 x

diagram
50

of Fig.
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6-41(c).  = bh + bh 2 = 0
The normal or e = - stresses caused
P 6Pe h
e
(d)

the bending moment may be obtained by using Eq. 6-31. However, for this
bent to a 75-mm radius, the solution is already known from Example
means that if force P is applied at a distance of h/6 from the centroidal tel
stress distribution corresponding to this case is shown in the second dia
of the cross section, the.stress at B is just zero. Stress distributions across
Fig. 6-41(c). By superposing the results of these two solutions, the
stress' distribution is obtained. This is shown in the third diagram of Fig.
base corresponding, respectively, to the axial force and bending moment are Fig. 6-42 Location of force P
in Figs. 6-42(c) and (d), and their algebraic sum in Fig. 6-42(e). causing zero stress at B.
The maximum compressive stress occurs atA and is 131 MPa. An is{
for point A is shown in Fig. 6-41(d). Shear stresses are absent at
3.33 MPa 128 MPa 131
8.33 kN --
the above problem, if force P were applied closer to the centroid of
section, a smaller bending moment would be developed at section A-

'=75
175

250
+ and there
be repeated
would be some
for the force
compression
acting
stress
to the right
at B. The same
of the centroidal
argument
axis.
80.9 MPa 77.6
a practical rule, much used by the early designers of masonry
2083 N-m may be formulated thus:/f the resultant of all vertical forces
(c)
within the middle third of the rectangular cross section, there is no
kN in the material at that section. It is understood that the resultant
in a vertical plane containing one of the axes of symmetry of the
131 MPa141 MPa cross-sectional area.
(a) (b) (d) The foregoing discussion may be generalized in order to apply to any
Fig. 6-4t system of forces acting on a member. The resultant of these forces
330 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.t2. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads
Resultant
may be made to intersect the plane of the cross section, as is Ith comer of the block can be found directly from such a transformed equa-
Fig. 6-43. At the point of intersection of this resultant with the This equation reads
it may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components. If the
component
no tension
of the resultant
wil be developed
fulfs the conditions
at point
of the former
B, as the horizontal A
P MzSt + MySy (6-48)
causes only shear stresses. Hence, a more general "middle-third"
may be stated thus: there wil be no tension at a section of a mem Sz = bh2/6, and Sy = hb2/6.
6 2 a rectangular cross section if the resultant of the forces above this s forces acting on section ABCD, Fig. 6-44(c), are P = -64 x 10 3 N, My
intersects one of the axes of symmetry of the section within the -64 x 103 x 150 = -9.6 x 106 N.mm, and M = -64 x 103 x (75 + 75)
Fig. 6-43 Resultant causing x 106 N-nlm. The cross-sectional area has the fol owing properties: A
no tension at B. third.
150 x 300 = 45 x 10 3 mm 2, Sz = 300 x 1502/6 = 1.125 x 106 mm 3, and Sy
X 3002/6 = 2.25 X 10 6 mm 3.

EXAMPLE 6-20
normal stresses at the comers are found using Eq. 6-48, assigning signs
the stresses caused by moments by inspection. For example, from Fig. 6-
Find the stress distribution at section ABCD for the block hown in mm n. it can be seen that due to My, the stresses at comers A and D are com-
6-44(a) if P = 64 kN. At the same section, locate the line of zero stress. Ne ;ive. Other cases are treated similarly. Using this approach,
the weight of the block.
64 x 103 9.6 x 106 9.6 x 106
Solution 45 x 103 1.125 x 106 2.25 x 106
= -1.42 - 8.53 - 4.27 = -14.2 MPa
In this problem, it is somewhat simpler to recast Eq. 6-45 with the aid of
orb = -1.42 - 8.53 + 4.27 = -5.7 MPa
22, defining the elastic section modulus S = I/c as bh2/6. The normal

P NON-ACTIVATED VERSION crc

crz)
=
=
-1.42
-1.42
+
+
8.53
8.53
+
-
4.27
4.27
=
=
+11.4
+2.8
MPa
MPa

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75
stresses are shown in Fig. 6-44(d). The ends of these four stress vectors
A', B', C', and D' lie in the plane A'B'C'D'. The vertical distance between
ABCD and A'B'C'D' defines the total stress at any point on the cross
500
The intersection of plane A'B'C'D' with plane ABCD locates the line of
stress FE.
By drawing a line B'C" parallel to BC, similar triangles C'B'C" and C'EC are
thus, the distance E = [11.4/(11.4 + 5.7)]150 = 100 mm. Similarly,
is found to be 125 mm. Points E and F locate the line of zero stress.
weight of the block is neglected, the stress distribution on any other section
(b) to ABCD is the same.

(a)
/- +2.8 MPa 6-21

125 +11.4 MPa

zone over which the vertical downward force Po may be applied to the
D
weightless block shown in Fig. 6-45(a) without causing any tensile
at the section A-B.

-14.MPa
2 -5.7 MPa

(d)
'A,/  zero
force P =
e system
-Po is placed
shown. Then
at an arbitrary
the same reasoning
point in the first
used in the
quadrant
preceding
of the yz
example
(c) this position of the force, the greatest tendency for a tensile stress
Fig. 6-44 atA. With P = -Po, M = +PoY, and My = -Poz, setting the stress at
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-t3. Inelastic Bending with Axial Loads 333

P
)lution

xI Po
sume that only a portion AB of the foundation of length x and width b is effective
resisting applied force P. This corresponds to the colored area in Fig. 6-46(c).
h/6
stress along line B-B is zero by definition. Hence, the fol owing equation for
stress at B may be writ en.

z b/6 trB= P
xb + P () - k x  6 0
, x/2 - k is the eccentricity of the applied force with r6spect to the centroidal
of the shaded contact area, and bx2/6 is its section modulus. By solving for
it is found that x = 3k and the pressure distribution wil be "triangular," as
shown in Fig. 6-46(b) (why?). As k decreases, the intensity of pressure on line A

y increases; when k is zero, the block becomes unstable.

Problems such as this arise, for example, in the design of foundations for chim- (a)
as no tensile stresses can develop at the contact surface of a concrete pad
(b)
soil. Similar problems arise in foundations for heavy machinery. Similar
Fig. 6-45 . (a)
can be applied where a number of forces are acting on a member and P

A equal to zero fulf'fils the limiting condition of the problem. Using Eq. 6-45 contact area is of any shape.
the stress at A to be' expressed as

- Po (PoY)( - b/2) ( - Poz)( - h/2)

era = 0 -
A

Po Poy
NON-ACTIVATED
PoZ _ 0
Izz
;o13. InelVERSION
astic Bending
+
with Axial Iyy

In Section 6-10, it is pointed out that the basic

Loads
kinematic assumption that
(b)

or

Simplifying,
--- + b-h/6 + bh2/6
z
h/6 +  = 1
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y
plane
a beam
sections
is bent
through
remains
a beam
valid
taken
even
normal
if the material
to its axis
behaves
remain plane
inelastically.
after A

Similary, plane sections perpendicular to a beam axis move along it par-

allel to themselves when an inelastic member is loaded axial y. For small
which is an equation of a straight line. It shows that when z = 0, y = b/6;
deformations, the normal strains corresponding to these actions can be
when y = O, z -- hi6. Hence, this line may be represented by line CD in Fig.
45(b). A vertical force may be applied to the block anywhere on this line and t superposed. As a result of-such superposition, a plane defined by EqJ 6- A
stress aA wil be zero. Similar lines may be established for the other 47 can be formulated. Such general analysis of inelastic beams is rather
of the section; these are shown in Fig. 6-45(b). If force P is applied on any cumbersome and is not considered in this text? Here' attention is Confined
of these lines or on any line parallel to such a line toward the centtold to a planar case.
section, there wil be no tensile stress at the corresponding coruer. Hence, The superposition of strains for a planar member simultaneously sub-
P may be applied anywhere within the ruled area in Fig. 6-45(b) without ected to an axial force P and a bending moment M is shown schematically
tensile stress at any of the four coruers or anywhere else. This zone of the in Fig. 6-47. For clarity, the strains are greatly exaggerated. Superposition Fig. 6-46 Stresses between
sectional area is called thekern of a section. By limiting the possible location of strains due to P and M moves a plane section axial y and rotates it as two contacting surfaces that
the force to thelines of symmetry of the rectangular cross section, the shown. If axial force P causes strain larger than any strain of opposite do not transmit tensile
found in this example verify the "middle-third" rule discussed in Example forces.
sign that is caused by M, the combined strains wil not change their sign
within a section.
By supplementing these basic kinematic assumptions with the stress-
EXAMPLE 6-22 strain relations and conditions of equilibrium, one can solve either elastic
or inelastic problems. It is important to note, however, that superposition
Consider a "weightless" rigid block resting' on a linearly elastic foundation
capable of transmit ing any tensile stresses, as shown in Fig. 6-46(a).  M. S. Aghbabian and E. P. Popov, "Unsymmetrical Bending of Rectangular
the stress distribution in the foundation when applied force P is so placed that Beams Beyond the Elastic Limit," Proceedings, First U.S. National Congress
part of the block lifts off. of Applied Mechanics (Michigan: Edwards Bros., 1951), 579-584.
334 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.t3. Inelastic Bending with Axial Loads 335

M 2

P2 x

(a) (b) (c)

Unit' 1 Jnilet ngth

(a) Axial strain due to P (b) Bending strains due to M (c) Combined, strains due to P and

Fig. 6-47 Superposition of strains. �p

M 3
of stresses is applicable only in elastic problems where deformations
small.
P3
An example fol ows il ustrating an elastic as well as an inelastic
for a member simultaneously subjected to bending and axial forces.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Section Oyp %

EXAMPLE 6-23- (d) (e) (f)

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Consider a rectangular elastic-plastic beam bent around the horizontal axis Fig. 6-48 Combined axial and bending stresses: (a) elastic stress distribution, (b) and (c) elastic-plastic stress
simultaneously subjected to an axial tensile force. Determine the distribution, and (e) and (f) ful y plastic stress distribution.
the axial forces and moments associated with the stress distributions shown
Figs. 6-48(a), (b), and (e). The stress distribution shown in Figs. 6-48(b) and (c) occurs after yielding has
taken place in the lower quarter of the beam. With this stress distribution given,
Solution ne can determine directly the magnitudes of P and M from the conditions of
equilibrium. If on the other hand, P and M were given, since superposition does
The stress distribution shown in Fig. 6-48(a) corresponds to the limiting apply, a cumbersome process would be necessary to determine the stress
case, where the maximum stress is at the point of impending yielding. distribution.
case, the stress-superposition approach can be used. Hence, For the stresses given in Figs. 6-48(b) and (c), one simply applies Eqs. 6-36
6-37 developed for inelastic bending of beams, except that in Eq. 6-36, the
P1 MlC of the normal stresses must equal axial force P. Noting that in the elastic
crmax -' cryp = ' q' I the stress can be expressed algebraically as cr = cryp/3 - crypy/(3h/8) and
that in the plastic zone cr = crvp, one has
Force P at yield can be deemed as Pyp = Acryp; from Eq. 6-21, the
1.0 \ X _AtiriPE;ding
yield is myp = (I[c)O'yp.
for Pyp and Myp, after
Dividing
simplification,
Eq. 6-49 by cryp and substituting the =
fA cr dA =
;+h/2 cr3yp( BE)
J -- h/4 1 - b dy q'
;--hi4
J -- h/2 crypb dy = CrYP -- 4 bh
P M = - cry dm= -- Jdh14 1 -- yb dy --J-h2 crypyb dy
Pyp Myp 3
= 1'- crypbh2 0 1.0
Pyp
p

This establishes a relationship between P and M so that the maximum

just equals cryp. A plot of this equation corresponding to the case of Note that the axial force just found exactly equals the force acting on the plastic Fig. 6-49 Interaction curves
yield is represented by a straight line in Fig. 6-49. Plots of such relations of the section. Moment M2 is greater than Myp = crypbh2/6 and less than Muir for P and M for a
interaction curves or diagrams. M v = crvobh2/4; see Eq. 6-38. rectangular member.
336 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.t4. Beams with Unsymmetric Cross Section 337

The axial force and moment corresponding to the ful y plastic case
Figs. 6-48(e) and (0 are simple to determine. As may be seen om Fig.
the axial force is developed by cryp acting on the area 2yb. Because
these stresses make no contribution to the moment. Forces acting on the to
the bottom areas ab = [(h/2) - y]b, Fig. 6-48(d), form a couple with a me
arm of h - a = h/2 + y. Therefore,

P3 = 2ylbCryp or y = P3/2bcryp
and z  z
fi
M3 = abcryp(h - a) = Crypb(h2/4 - y) = Mp - Crypby
3myp P3 
2 4bcryp

Then dividing by M s = 3Myp/2 = crvpbh2/4 and simplifying, one obtains

Fig. 6-50 Bending of
(a) (b) unsymmetric cross section.
(6,51
+ = I in the positive quadrant of the y and z axes is located by the perpendicular
r from this line. Then analogous to Eq. 6-3, the longitudinal
This is a general equation for the interaction curve for P and M neces: normal strain ex is assumed to be
achieve the ful y plastic condition in a rectangular member (see Fig. 6-49).

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
the equation for the elastic case, the relation is nonlinear. (6-52)

aere in the chosen coordinates, Positive curvature

*'266-14. Bending
[Arbitrary]
of Beams
Cross
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with Unsymmet ric
Section
r =ycos[3 - zsin[3 (6-53)

A general equation for pure bending of elastic members of arbitrary cro . by analogy to Eq. 6-4, the longitudinal elastic stress crx acting on
the cross section is
section whose reference axes are not the principal axes can be
using the same approach as for the symmetrical cross sections
x

Crx = Eex = - EKr (6-54)

earlier. Again, it is assumed that any plane section through a beam, (a)
normal to its axis, remains plane after the beam is subjected to
Then two basic requirements for equilibrium are enforced: (1) the and using Eq. 6-53, this relation becomes
axial force on any cross section of a beam must be zero, and (2) x

cr. = -Ey cos [3 + E sin [3 (6-55)

external bending moment at a section must be developed by the
stresses acting on the cross section. Hooke's law is
normal strain. where K cos [3 is the projected curvature Ky in the xy plane, as may be
In order to derive the required equation, consider a beam. having seen from the limiting case of setting [3 equal to zero. Similarly, K sin [3
arbitrary cross section such as that shown in Fig. 6-50. The the projected curvature z inthe xz plane. By adopting this notation, Positive curvature

of the y and z orthogonal axes is chosen arbitrarily. Let this beam Eq. 6-55 can be recast to read
subjected to a pure bending moment M having the components My
Mz, respectively, around the y and z axes; see Fig. 6-50(a). Crx = --EKyy + EKzZ (6-56) z'
(b)
According to the fundamental hypothesis, during bending, a plane
tion through a beam would rotate and intersect the yz plane at an The dif erence in signs in the two expressions on the right side of the Fig. 6-5t Relationships
[3 with the z axis, as shown in the figure. A generic infinitesimal area equations arises from the adopted sign convention and can be clarified between positive moments
making reference to Fig. 6-51. Here it can be noted that a mathe- and curvatures in xy-and xz-
26 This section is of an advanced character and can be omit ed. matically defined positive curvature, causing an increase in the slope of planes.
Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6-t4. Beams with Unsymmetric Cross Section 339

a bent beam with an increase' in the distance from the origin, substituting these constants in Eq. 6-56, the expression for the elastic
to two dif erent cases. In the xy plane, positive curvature and stress cry, for any beam cross section with arbitrarily directed
bending moments have the same sense. The opposite is true in hal coordinate axes is
plane. Hence, the normal stresses Crx due to these two curvatures
be of opposite sign.

the
By having
sum
an analytic
of all forces
expression
in the x direction
for
must
or:, Eq.
equal
6-56,
zero,
the
i.e.,
condition
 Fx
or:,= - /yI- y + /y/z-Iy2 z (6-64)
can be writ en as
is the generalized flexure formula� If the principal axes for a cross
are used, where Iyz is zero, this equation simplifies to Eq. 6-41.
f crxdA = -EKy f y + EKz f z dA =O setting
� in the arbitrary
Eq. 6-64 equal
coordinate
to zero,
system
the angle
is obtained,
{3 for locating
giving
the neutral

This equation is identically satisfied provided that the coordinate

are taken with their origin at the centraid of the cross section. This y Mylz + Mzlyz
(6-65)
was anticipated and the arbitrary orthogonal axes in Fig. 6-50 are tan {3 z MIy + Mylyz
passing through the centraid C of the cross section.
By imposing the conditions of moment equilibrium at a section. the principal axes, this equation reverts to Eq. 6-43.
moment component equations can be writ en requiring that
applied moment around either axis is balanced by the internal
stresses. One of these equations pertains to the moments around EXAMPLE 6-24
axis; the other, around the y axis. Hence, as previously defined,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
the general equation for elastic bending stress, verify the stresses found at
the known applied moment component around the z axis and My is Points B and F for the angle of Example 6-16 shown in mm in Fig. 6-52. Show
known applied moment component around the y axis, one has the that these stresses are, respectively, the minimum and the maximum. The applied
lowing two equations: Mz = 10 kN.m.

mz=f-*yaA=Eyfy2dA-EzfyzdA www.avs4you.com Solution

and
Example 6-25, it is found that Iz = 22.64 x 10 a n]1114, Iy = 3.84 x 10 a mm 4,
My=f+*zda=-Eyfyz+Ezfz2 and Iyz = 5.14 x 10 
Eq. 6-64, and defining,
mm 4. Substituting
respectively,
these values
the coordinates
and Mz = +10 kN-m
of points
into
B and F as (125.7,
where. the constants are taken outside the integrals in the expressions and (-74�3, 24.3), one h/s
the right. The meaning of these integrals is discussed in Section
According to Eq. 6-66, these integrals define the moments and 10 x 106 X 3.84 x 10 6
of inertia for a cross sectional area as I, Iy, and Iy, permit ing the orb = 3.84 x 22.64 x 1012 - 5.142 X 1012 X 125.7 A

I
casting of the last two equations as 10 X 106 X 5.14 X 106
+ X 4.3
3.84 X 22.64 X 10 2 -- 5.142 X 10 2
EI% - EIyKz = M = --0.6345 X 125.7 + 0.8493 X 4.3 = --76.1 MPa
125.7
and
(6-61 -0.6345 x (-74.3) + 0.8943 x 24.3 = +67.8 MPa

Solving these two equations simultaneously gives To show that these stresses are the minimum and the maximum, respectively,
locate the neutral axis using Eq. 6-65, giving
74.3
Ey = +
10 x 106 X 5.14 x 10 6
and
tan {3 = 10 x 106 X 3.84 x 10 6 = 1�34 or {3 = 53.3 �

Iylz - Iy2z By sketching this line on the given cross section, it is evident by inspection Fig. 6-52
340 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Sec. 6.t6. Principal Axes of Inertia
that the farthest distances measured perpendicular to NA are associated

andIyacre,respectmoment
ivofelinyert,around
siathzeacnd&
points B and F. Therefore, the largest stresses occur at these points. axes, A is the area considered, and dz and dy are, respectively, the
Some minor discrepancies among the results given in Example 6-16 and ini an.ces from C to the axes z and y.
example are due to roundoff errors.
By starting with the definition for the product of inertia, Eq. 6-66, and
fol owing the same procedure as before for I and Iy, the transfer-of-axis
for the product of inertia, after simplifications, becomes

and
Iyc
Zc axes.
Iyz= f (Y+d)(z
is the +dy)dA=Iyczc+Adydz (6-68)
product of inertia of the area A around the centroidal

'276=115. Area Moments and Products of Inertia As noted earlier, the respective expressions given by Eqs. 6-18, 6-67,
6-68 for all parts of a complex area should be summed to obtain Iy,
Moments of inertia, or second moments of area around the z axis and Iyz for the whole cross section.
already encountered in connection with symmetric cross sections.
this concept is generalized for two orthogonal axes for any
shape. With the yz coordinates chosen as shown in Fig. 6-53, b3 � 6-16. Principal Axes of Inertia
the moments and product of inertia of an area are given as
the previous discussion, the yz centroidal axes for an area of a general +y
were chosen
arbitrarily. Therefore, it is important to investigate
Iz = f ya dA Iy = f' z a dA
NON-ACTIVATED
f VERSION and Iyz = yz dA (6: z

the moments and product of inertia change if these orthogonal axes

rotated. This is shown in Fig. 6-53, where the axes are rotated through
Note that these axes are chosen to pass through the centroid C of an angle 0, forming a new set ofy'z' coordinates. Generally, the moments
area.
problems.
either
The

for doubly
use
It is also important
or singly
of such

symmetric
centroidal
to note that the product
areas;
axes

see Fig.
www.avs4you.com
of inertia
6-54
is essential
v;
This
in the solution ofb
and product of inertia
of Iy,
corresponding
I, and
to these
Iy.
axes
In order
are dif erent
to transform
from the
these quantities from one Fig. 6-54 (a)
(b)

Doubly and (b)

set of coordinates to another, one notes that singly symmetric cross
be seen by referring to Fig. 6-54(b), where, due to symmetry, for sections.
y(+z) dA, there is a y(-z) dA, and their sum vanishes. y' = CP + PS = y cos O + zsin0
y In Section 6-4, it was shown that in calculating moments of inertia z' = NR -RS = z cos O -ysin0
symmetric cross sections having complex areas, it is y
subdivide such areas into simple parts for which the moments
Then, based on the definitions for moments and product of inertia given
are available in formulas. Then by applying the parallel-axis
in Eqs. 6-66,
each part and adding, Eq. 6-18a, the moment of inertia for the
section is obtained. By making reference to the general case shown dA

Fig. 6-55,
6-18,
it can be concluded
for the transfer
that the previously
of a moment
developed
of inertia
formula,
for an area from the zc to
f (y')2 dA =; (ycos 0 + Z sin 0)2dA
z axis remains applicable. Moreover, except for a change in = cos2 0 f y2 dA + sin2 0 f z2 dA + 2 sin O cos O f yz dO
similar formula applies for transferring a moment of inertia from the = I cos 2 0 + Ix sin 2 0 + 2Iyz sin 0 cos 0
to the y axis. Therefore, the fol owing two formulas for the transfer 1 + cos 20 1 - cos 20
Z  axes are available for the moments of inertia: = I 2 + 13, 2 + Iyz sin 20
Hence, on using trigonometric identities,
and
= +
Fig. 6-53 Rotation of Fig. 6-55 Parallel transfer of
cos 20 + Iy sin 20 (6-69)
coordinate axe. 27 This is an optional part of the chapter. axes.
Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Problems

MPLE 645
Similarly, Iy, - 2
-- 2
cos 20 - Iyz sin 20
the cross section shown in mm in Fig. 6-56, find the principal
arfd the principal moments .of inertia.
and IY'' = Iz -2 Iy sin 20 + Iy cos 20
ution

can be verified by the procedure discussed earlier that the centroid of the area
These equations the moments relate and the product of inertia of
lies 74.3 mm from the bottom and 24.3 mm from the left side. The moments and
area (second moments) in the new y'z' coordinates to the initial ones of inertia about the y and z axes can be calculated by dividing the angle
200

the yz coordinates through the angle 0. Note that Iy, + I, I + I, into two rectangles and using the transfer-of-axes Eqs. 6-18, 6-67, and 6-68. Due z
the sum of the moments of inertia around two mutually the symmetry of the two rectangles into which the angle is divided, there are C
axes remains the'same, i.e., invariant, regardless of the angle 0. As no product of inertia terms for these parts around their own centroidal axes. For z'
earlier, the product of inertia Iyz vanishes for doubly and singly s around their centroidal axes, I = bh3/12, Eq. 6-19.
sections.
A maximum or a minimum value of Iz, or Iy, can be found by Iz = 20 x 1803/12 + 20 X 180 X (125.7 -- 90) 2
entiating either Eq. 6-69 or 6-70 with respect to 0 and setting + 100 x 203/12 + 100 X 20 X (--74.3 + 10) 2 = 22.64 x 106mm 4
equal to zero, i.e., Iy = 180 x 203/12 + 180 x 20 x (24.3 - 10) 2
Fig. 6-56
+ 20 x 1003/12 + 20 x 100 x (-50 + 24.3) 2 = 3.84 x 106mm 4
d/z t Iyz = 0 + 20 x 180 x (125.7 - 90)(24.3 - 10)
d- - (I - Iy) sin 20 + 2Iy cos 20 = 0 + 0 + 100 x 20(-74.3 + 10)(-50 + 24.3) = 5.14 x 106mm 4

Hence, tan 20 - NON-ACTIVATED

2Iy VERSION By substituting these values into Eq. 6-73,

www.avs4you.com
Imx = I = 23.95 x 10 6 mm 4 and Imin = 12 = 2.53 x 10 6 mm 4
This equation gives two roots within 360 � that are 180 � apart. Since
is for a double angle 20, 'the roots for 01 are 90 � apart. One of these Eq. 6-72,
locates an axis around which the moment of inertia is a maximum;
other locates the conjugate axis for the minimum moment of inertia. 2 x 5.14 x 10 6
two centroidal axes are known as the principal axes of inertia. As can tan 20 (22.64 - 3.84) x 10 6 0.547 hence, 0 14.34 �
noted from Eq. 6-71, the same angles define the axes for which the
of inertia is zero. This means that the product of inertia for the From inspection of Fig. 6-56, this angle is seen to define an axis for the maximum
axes is zero. moment of inertia. A substitution of this value of 0 into Eq. 6-69 can confirm
By defining sines and cosines in terms of the double angle roots conclusion. In this case, Imx is associated with the z' axis at 0 = 14.34 �,
6-72 (see Fig. 8-5), substituting these into Eq. 6-69, or Eq. 6-70, i.e., Imx = It'; conversely, Im = Iy,.
simplifying, expressions for the prbzcipal moments of inertia are

Immixn = 11 or I2 /z +2 Iy + + 50
Sections 6-3 through 6-5
6-t through 6-4. Determine bending moment capac- 5O 150
where, by definition, I = Imx, and/2 = Imn- The axes for which ities around the horizontal axes for the cross-sectional
maximum and minimum moments of inertia apply are defined by Eq. areas with the dimensions shown in the figures. The 100

72. By directly substituting one of the roots of this equation into Eq, allowable elastic stress is either 165 lV[Pa or 24 ksi. For
69, one can determine whether the selected root gives a maximum properties of W steel shapes, channels, and angles, see
minimum value of the moment of inertia. Tables 4, 5, and 7, respectively, in the Appendix. Fig. P6-t Fig. P6-2
 344 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Problems 345

6"X4"X angles C 12 X 20.7

6-9 and 6-t0. Determine elastic positive bendJ y If a positive bending of 2270 moment ft-lb is applied
ment capacities around the horizontal axes for Centroid of area to such a beam acting a horizontal around axis, (a) find
 ] having the cross sections shown in the figureS the stresses
compresslye
at the extreme
force developed
fibers, (b) calculate
by the normal
the
stresses
total
43 " maximum elastic stress in tension for Prob. 6-9
 x above the neutral axis because of the bending of the
plate 44" ksi, and in compression, 15 ksi; the corres
w 8 x 50 stresses for Prob. 6-10 are 100 MPa and 150 beam, and (c) find the total force due to the tensile
4 bending stresses at a section and compare it with the
result found in (b).
*645. By integration, determine the force developed
Fig. P6-3 Fig. P6-4 by the bending stresses and its position acting on the
shaded area of the cross section of the beam shown in
6-5. Very the section modu ven in the Append Fig. P6-12 the figure if the beam is subjected to a negative bending
tables for S 12 x 40.8, W 10 x 112, and C 12 x 20.7. moment of 3500 N-m acting around the horizontal axis.
6-6. the appHed moment is 40 k-, and the owable y is the distance from the neutral axis of the cross
elastic stress is 24 ksi, (a) what W section should be the centroid of the area A, as shown in the 100 mm

used for bendg ound the hofizont is, and �)

ound the veic is? 643. Determine the magnitude and position of the
6-7. A W 16 x 100 steel beam is supposed at A and tensile force T acting on this section when a pos-
B as shown in the fire. at is the magffitude of the Fig. P6-9 Fig. P6-t0 itive moment of 100 kN-m is applied. Since the mag-
unffory distributed load f a strain gage attached to tde of this tensile force T equals the compresslye
the top of the upper flange measures 0.0002 in when 64t. A beam having a solid rectangular cross C acting on the section, verify that the T-C cou- Fig. P6-15
the load is applied? E = 29 x 10  ksi. with the dimensions shown in the figure is is equal to the applied moment.
to a positive
around
force acting
bending
the horizontal
on the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION moment
axis.
shaded
(a) Find
area
of 16 000 N.m
the
of the cross
'6-t6.
triangle,
negative
A beam
as shown
bending
has
in the
moment
the cross
figure,
of 4000
section
and is subjected
N-m around
of an isosceles

the
to a
hor-
developed
force
tion.
acting
by the bending
on the cross-hatched www.avs4you.com stresses. (b) Find
area of the cross
the 30 izontal
(b) Determine
suitant tensile
axis. (a) Show
the
and
location
compresslye
by integration
and magnitude
forces
that

acting
Io = bh3/36.
of the re-
on a sec-
tion ifb = h = 150 mm.
120

k100 mm-
Fig. P6-7

6-8. A small steel T beam is used in an inverted po-

.l30
h
sition to span 400 mm. If, due to the application of the
three forces shown in the figure, the longitudinal gage
at A registers a compresslye strain of 50 x 10 -3, how >25
large are the applied forces? E = 200 GPa. Fig. P6-13 Fig. P6-16

P P 3P
6-t7. For a linearly elastic material, at the same max-
6-t4. Two 2 x 6 in ful -sized wooden planks are glued
Fig. P6-11 together to form a T section, as shown in the figure. imum stress for a square member in the two dif erent
positions shown in the figure, determine the ratio of
the bending moments. Bending takes place around the
642. Consider a linearly elastic beam subjected horizontal axis.
<too ood bending
which the
moment
moment
M around
of inertia
its
of the
principal
cross-sectio
axis z

is I. Show that for such a beam, the normal force

4 acting on any part of the cross-sectional area A

FigP. 6-geA 4
where
Q=
F = MQ/I

y dA = yA Fig. P6-t4 Fig. P6-17

Beam section
 346 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces Problems 347

*'6-18. Show that the elastic stress in a rectangular 6-20. A solid steel beam having the 100 80 N/mm

beam bent around its diagonal can be reduced by re- dimensions partial y shown in the figure
mm

25m-2[m,-mm22i
moving the small triangular areas, as shown in the fig- the laboratory in pure bending. Bending took
ure. This is referred to as the Emerson paradox.* (Hint: around a horizontal neutral axis. Strain measureme
Let the sides of the removed triangular areas be ka, showed that the top fibers contracted 0.0003 m/m 80
where k is a constant. In calculating I for the section, gitudinally; the bottom fibers elongated 0.0006
treat it as consisting of two rectangles, the large one longitudinally. Determine the total normal force
having sides (1 - k)a, and the small one having the acted on the shaded area indicated in the figure Fig. P6-24
width kava.) time the strain measurements were made. E =
GPa. All dimensions are in mm.

ciently accurate. Do not consider the stress concen-

trations at the supports.
6-25. Considering the beam of a 160-mm span and the
loading conditions given in the preceding problem, de-
Fig. P6-22 termine the distances from the supports such that the
stresses at midspan and at the depth transition points
are the same.

beam in a downward direction as well as in an

Fig. P6-20 direction. Base answers only on the consid-

Fig. P6-t8 6-2t. As the screw of a large steel C clamp,

of the maximum bending
A 150 x 300 mm rectangular
stresses caused
section
by F.
is sub- -[4 160- 2a q
649.
ure,
A channel-shaped
acts as a horizontal beam in a machine. When
member, as shown in the fig- shown
strain
in the figure,
in the horizontal
is being measured
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
is tightened
direction
upon an object,
due to bending
by a strain gage at point B. Ifa
ected

nonisotropic
to a positive
the "strong"
bending
axis.
and is such that
The
moment
material
the modulus
of 240 000 N-m
of the beam
of elasticity
is
Fig. P6-25

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vertical forces are applied to this member the distance in tension is 1� times as great as in compression; see
AB increases by 0.0010 in and the distance CD de- of 900 x 10 -6 in/in is noted, what is the force on
screw corresponding to the value of the the figure. If the stresses do not exceed the propor- Section 6.7
creases by 0.0090 in. What is the sense of the applied tional limit, find the maximum tensile and compressive
moment, and what normal stresses occur in the ex- strain? E = 30 x 106 psi. 6-26. Show that the elastic strain energy due to bend-
stresses in the beam.
treme fibers? E = 15 x 10 6 psi. ing for a simple uniformly loaded beam of rectangular
cross section is (cr2m=/2E)(-tL), where Crm= is the
maximum bending stress, A is the cross-sectional area,
and L is the length of the beam.
6-27. Show that Ube,di,g = (cr2m/2E)(Vol/9) for a can-
tilever of rectangular cross section supporting a con-
centrated load P at the end.

l T-
5.16"
Fig. P6-t9 Section 6-8
? In 1864, in Saint-Venant's additions to Navier's 6-28. A composite beam of two dif erent materials has
book, he calls the removed fibers useless. However, Section a-a Fig. P6-23 the cross section shown in Fig. 6-7(a). For the upper
he, as well as Emerson, recognized that the elastic Fig. P6-21 50 x 80 mm bar, the elastic modulus El = 15 GPa,
failure of these fibers does not indicate that the trun- and for the lower 50 x 20 mm bar, E2 = 40 GPa. Find
cated section possesses greater static strength than the Section 6-6
6-22. A T beam shown in the figure is made of a the maximum bending stresses in both materials
complete section. However, in machine design, for
terial the behavior of which may be idealized as 6-24. A small beam, shown in the figure, is to carry caused by an applied positive moment of 12 kN-m act-
members subjected to fatigue, the removal of sharp
corners may be advantageous. See I. Todhunter and a tensile proportional limit of 20 MPa and acc a cyclically applied load of 80 N/mm. The beam is ing around the z axis. Do not use the method of trans-
K. Pearson, A HistoL3, of the Theoo, of Elasticity and sive proportional limit of 40 IV[Pa. With a factor 12-mm thick, and spans 160 mm. Determine the max- formed sections. (Hint: Use Eq. 6-16 to locate the neu-
of the Strength of Materials (New York: Dover, 1960), safety of 1� on the initiation of yielding, find the imum stress at midspan and at depth transition points. tral axis and the direct procedure shown in Figs. 6-7
Vol. I , Part I, p: 109. nitude of the largest force F that may be applied Assume that the factors given in Fig. 6-15 are suffi- and 6-20.)
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces - Problems
6-29. Consider a composite beam whose cross section 6-34. A 150-mm thick concrete slab is bending moment causes this strain? Assume ideal elas-
is made from three dif erent materials bonded to- reinforced with steel bars, as shown in t he figure, 1 tic-plastic material behavior with E = 200 GPa and tryp
gether, as shown in Fig. 6-20(a). Bar 1 is 40 x 20 mm termine the allowable bending moment per = 240 MPa. (b) What residual strain would remain in
and has an elastic modulus E = 15 GPa; bar 2 is 60 of this slab. Assume n = 12 and the allowable the gage upon release of the applied load? (c) Draw
x 40 mm with E2 = 10 GPai and bar 3 is 20 x 20 mm for steel and concrete as 150 MN/m 2 and 8 the residual stress pattern.
with E3 = 30 GPa. Determine the maximum bending respectively. 6-46. An I beam is made up from three steel plates
stresses in each of the three materials caused by an welded together as shown in the figure. The flanges
applied moment of 10 kN.m acting around the z axis. are o stronger steel than the web. (a) What bending
Fig. P6-39 Fig. P6-40
Do not use the method of transformed sections; see moment would the section develop when the largest
the hint in the preceding problem. stresses in the flanges just reach yield? The stress-
6-30 ond -31. Using transformed sections, deter- strain properties 0f the two steels can be idealized as
mine the maximum bending stresses in each of the two 10-mm  bars 25 mm shown on the diagram. (b) Draw the residual stress
materials for the composite beams shown in the figures 80 mm on centers W8 X 18 pattern.
when subjected to positive bending moments of 80 Fig. P6-34 20
kN-m each. Est = 210 GPa and Eu = 70 GPa. (Hint 300
for-Prob. 6-31: For an ellipse with semiaxes a and b, 6-35. A beam has the cross section shown in the I I-- I 400 MPa
I = 'rrab3/4 around the major centroidal axis.) ure, and is subjected to a positive bending moment
1 (flanges)

75 mm
causes
what
a tensile
is the value
stress
of the
in the
bending
steel of 20 ksi.
moment?
If n
Fig. P6-4t Fig. P6-42
'4o 240 MPa

E = 200 GPa
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Steel inside core
www.avs4you.com 6-47. A small sandwich
Fig.

beam
P6-46

spanning 400 mm is
Fig. P6-30 Fig. P6-3t Fig. P6-43 made up by bonding two aluminum alloy strips to an
alloy steel bar, as shown in the figure. The idealized
6-32 and 6-33. Determine the allowable bending mo- Find the ultimate moment capacity for a beam stress-strain diagrams are shown in the figure. What
ment around horizontal neutral axes for the composite Fig. P6-35 the cross section shown for Prob. 6-1. Assume is the magnitude of the applied bending moment if it
beams of wood and steel plates having the cross-sec- hat the material yields in tension and in compression causes -7.5 x 10 -3 longitudinal strain in the gage
tional dimensions shown in the figures. are Materials 200 MPa. glued to the top of the aluminum alloy strip?
fastened so that they act as a unit. Est = 30 x 106 psi Section 6.9 -45. A steel I beam subjected to pure bending de-
and E, = 1.2 x 106 psi. The allowable bending velops a longitudinal strain of - 1.6 x 10 -3 in the top a [MPa]
stresses are trst = 20 ksi and trw = 1.2 ksi. 6-36. Rework Example 6-10 by changing h to flange in the location shown on the figure. (a) What Gage

6-37. Derive Eq. 6-35.

6-38. What is the largest bending moment that AI --
Gage 20
be applied to a curved bar, such as shown in Fig. St 40
23(a), with ? = 3 in, if it has a circular cross-set
AI-
area of 2-in diameter and the allowable stress is 12
 350

Section 6.'10 Beam section 0 5 X 10 -3 g

6-39 through 6-43. Find the ratios MuJMyp ! Fig. P6-47

beams having the cross sections shown in the fi
2O
Bending occurs around the horizontal axes. 6-48. On applying a bending moment around the hor-
Fig. P6-32 Fig. P6-33 idealized elastic-plastic behavior as in Example Fig. P6-45 izontal axis to the T beam having the dimensions
 350 Problems

Gage A
PureBendinandBendi
g nwigthAxiaFl orces 5kN_ 18

6
10" A<

X 10 -3  Fig. P6-51

shown in the figure. Determine the largest B

Beam section stresses and locate the neutral axis.
Fig. P6-48 6-52. A 10-ft cantilever made up from the
steel shape S 12 x 50 has its web in a vertical
as shown in the figure. Determine the maximum b{ Fig. P6-57
shown in the figure, the measured longitudinal strain ing stresses 2 ft from the support caused by the
at gage A is -2 x 10 -3. Determine the magnitude of plication of the variously inclined force P
the_ applied bending moment if the stress-strain relation through the centroid of the section at the free end
Section 6-t2
for the material can be idealized as shown on the dia- ct be 0 �, 1 �, and 5 �.
gram. 6-58. AW 10 x 49 beam 8 ft long is subjected to a
Fig. P6-54
6-49. A 100 x 180 mm rectangular beam is of a ma- pull P of 100 k, as shown in the figure. At the ends,
terial with the stress-strain characteristics shown in the where the pin connections are made, the beam is rein-
figure. (a) Find the largest moment for which the entire 200 mm from the loaded end of the cantilever. Assume forced with doubler plates. Determine the maximum
elastic behavior of the material. (b) Locate a flange stress in the middle of the member caused by
cross section remains elastic. (b) Determine the ulti-
of zero stress on line AB. the applied forces P. Qualitatively, briefly discuss the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
mate moment capacity, and draw the resulting stress
distribution. (c) What is the residual stress distribution -55. Determine the bending stresses at the coruers load transfer at the ends. Most likely, where are the
after a release of the ultimate bending moment? (d) the cantilever loaded, as shown in the figure, at a highest stressed regions in this member?
Show that the residual stresses are self-equilibrating. mm from the free end. Also locate the neu-

www.avs4you.com Fig. P6-52

tral axis.

10kN
a (MPa
6-53. A beam having the cross-sectional Fig. P6-58
10(
in mm, shown in the figure is subjected to a bend
moment of 500 N-m around its horizontal axis. 6-59. For the machine link shown in the figure, de-
180 0.001 e
termine the maximum bending stresses. termine the offset distance e such that the tensile and
compressive stresses in the T section are equal.

15 kN 00
100 mm
20 10
Beam section Fig. P6-55
Fig. P6-49 p P

6-56. Rework Example 6-16 by assuming that the

subjected to a 4-kN.m bending moment around
Section 6-11 vertical axis.
Fig. P6-53 6-57. Determine the maximum stresses in the Z sec-
6-50. Rework Example 6-15 by assuming that the
span is 6000 mm, the beam is 150 x 200 mm, and ct caused by a 2-N.m bending moment acting around
is 20 � .
6-54. A biaxial y. symmetric cruciform aluminum ex- the z axis. As found in Prob. 6-83, the principal mo-
trusion has the cross-sectional dimensions, in ments of inertia are I = Iz, = 753.9757 x 103 mm 4,
6-51. A 150 x 200 mm 'beam spanning 6000 mm is
loaded in the middle of the span with an inclined force
shown
cantilever
in the figure.
to carry
It is used in a tilted position
an applied force P = 100 N at
as = Iy, = 96.0243
Locating the neutral
x 103 mm 4, and 0 = 32.8862
axis gives an indication as
�� 7-m lO mm
of 5 kN along the diagonal of the cross section, as end. (a) Determine the maximum flexural tensile stress where the largest stresses occur.) Fig. P6-59 Link section
352 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces
1 F
6-60. A frame for a punch press has the proportions structure shown in the figure. The cross section at S
shown in the figure. What force P can be applied to tion a-a is that of a solid circular bar of 2-in d

F �,I 13�
this frame controlled by the stresses in the sections 6-63. Compute the maximum compressive stress
such as a-a, if the allowable stresses are 4,000 psi in ing normal to section a-a for the structure shown
tension and 12,000 psi in compression? the figure. Post AB has a 12 by 12 in cross
A B
2
Neglect the weight of the structure. 2OO Gage
A
D 500
Top view
mm

Cable

Cable

Fig. P6-65
'9k
longitudinal stresses on the extreme fibers at two sec-
Section a-a 200 mm apart are determined experimental y to
crt = 0; orb = -30 MPa; crc = -24 MPa; and crD
Fig. P6-60
12' = -6 IV[Pa. Determine the magnitude of the vertical
6-61. A force of 169.8 k is applied to bar BC at C, as and horizontal components of force F.
shown in the figure. Find the maximum stress acting 6-66. A rectangular vertical member fixed at the base Fig. P6-67
normal 'to section a-a. Member BC is made from a is loaded as shown in the figure. Find the location for
piece of 6 by 6 in steel bar. Neglect the weight of the gage on member face AB such that no longitudinal
tudinal strain of +20 x 10 -6 in the gage atA? Assume
bar. strain would occur due to the application of force P

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
that the bar behaves as a linearly elastic material and
= 6 kN. Does the answer depend on the magnitude let E = 70 GPa.
169.8 k
Fig. P6-63 P? Assume elastic behavior. All dimensions
' C/ are given in mm. 6-68. A magnesium alloy bar is bonded to a steel bar

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6-64. In order to obtain the magnitude of an eccen of the same size forming a beam having the cross-sec-
vertical force F on a tee-shaped steel column, tional dimensions in mm shown in the figure. (a) If on
gages are attached at A and B, as shown in the fi application of an eccentric axial force P, the upper
Determine the force F if the longitudinal strain at A longitudinal gage measures a compressive strain of 2

a
-100 x 10 -6 in/in and atB is -800 x 10 -6 in/in. x 10 -3, and the lower one, a tensile strain of 2 x
= 30 x 106 psi and G = 12 x 106 psi. The 10 -3, what is the magnitude of applied force P? As-
sectional area of the column is 24 in 2. sume elastic behavior of the materials with EMg = 45
GPa and Est = 200 GPa. (b) Where would one have
to apply axial force P to cause no bending? (It is in-
teresting to note that this locates the neutral axis for
this beam.)
Centroid
Fig. P6-6t

6-62. Calculate the maximum compressire stress act- A B

ing on section a-a caused

707 lb
by the applied
Fig. P6-62
load for the
3" ,
Gage- ' T�PseVci"dt'na Mg 20

Fig. P6.66
St 20
6-67. An inclined tensile force F is applied to an alu-
Fig. P6-64 minum alloy bar such that its line of action goes
centroid of the bar, as shown in mm in the Gage
'6-65. A bar having a 100 x 100 mm cross section (The detail of the attachment is not shown.)
subjected to a force F, as shown in the figure. What is the magnitude of force F if it causes a Iongi- Fig. P6-68

353
354 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces , Problems 355

6-69. A steel hook, having the proportions in the fig- along the line A-A over which a downward
ure, is subjected to a downward force of 19 k. The force could be applied to the top of the block
radius of the centroidal curved axis is 6 in. Determine causing any tension at the base. Neglect the
the maximum stress in this hook. the block.
6-72. The cross-sectional area in plan view of
block is in the shape of an "arrow," as shown in

dius
figure. Find the position of the vertical
force on the line of symmetry of this section so
Section
the stress at A is just zero.
Fig. P6-77

3" Fig. P6-69 Fig. P6-75 What wil be the reading of the gages when applied
force P is released?

pressure at A is just zero? Assume that water weighs Section 644

lb/ft 3 and concrete 150 lb/ft 3.
6-78. Rework Example 6-24 for an applied moment
6-70. A steel bar of 50-ram diameter is bent into a Fig. P6-72 M_,. = 4 kN.m.
nearly complete circular ring of 300-ram outside di- Section 6.t3 6-79. Using the generalized flexure formula, find the
ameter, as shown in the figure. (a) Calculate the
max- 6-76. A T beam of perfectly elastic-plastic material largest stresses in a beam with a Z cross section, hav-
imum stress in this ring caused by applying two 10-kN 6-73. Determine the kern for a member having a
has the dimensions shown in the figure. (a) If the Ion- ing the dimensions shown in the figure for Prob. 6-57,
circular cross section. due to a pure bending moment M: of 2 N.m. Also
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
forces at the open end. Co) Find the ratio of the max- strain at the bottom of the flange is - eyp and
imum stress found in (a) to the largest compres_sive 6-74. For a small triangular dam cate the neutral axis. See answers to Prob. 6-83 for
is known to be zero at the juncture of the web and the
stress acting normal to the same section. approximately 2550 kg/m 3, as shown in the figure, f'm( area moments of inertia for the cross section.
flange, what axial force P and bending moment M act
the approximate normal stress distribution at 6-80. Rework the preceding problem for an applied
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on the beam? (b) What would the strain reading be
A-B using elementary methods for prismatic after the applied forces causing P and M in (a) are moment My = 6 kN.m.
when the water behind the dam is at the level
removed? Let tryp = 200 IV[Pa.
cated. For the purpose of calculation, consider
linear meter of the dam in the direction
Section 6-t5
10 mm
to the plane of the paper as an isolated beam. 6-8t. (a) Find the product of inertia for the triangular
300 dimensions shown are in meters. area shown in the figure with respect to the given axes.
(b) For the same area, determine the product of inertia
with respect to the vertical and horizontal axes through
50 mm the centroid.

Fig. P6-70 10 mm
y
6-7t. A short block has cross-sectional dimensions in -50 mm 
plan view as shown in the figure. Determine the range Fig. P6-76

2.16 m---
6-77.
given
A magnesium
in the figure
alloy
in mm.
casting
During
has the
application
dimensions
of force
x
the upper gage recorded a tensile strain of 3 x 10 -3, Fig. P6-8t
Fig. P6-74
and the lower one, a compressive strain of 6 x 10 -3.
Estimate the magnitude of applied force P and its 6-82, (a) Find the principal axes and principal mo-
6-75. What should the total height h e assuming idealized behavior for the ma- ments of inertia for the cross-sectional area of the angie
Fig. P6-7t in the cross-sectional view be so that the
tedfl. Let tryp = 135 MPa and eyp = 3 x 10 -3. (b) shown in the figure. (b) The given dimensions of the
 Pure Bending and Bending with Axial Forces
condition, Imi, + Ira= = Ix' + Iy, = Ix + Iy,
one can readily solve for Imx.) ter
6-83. For the Z cross section shown in the figure
determine area moments of inertia Iy, I, and L
obtain the directions of the principal axes and
moments of inertia.

Fig. P6-82

cross section, except for small radii at the ends and a

fil et, correspond to the cross-sectional dimensions of
an 8 x 6 x 1 in angle listed in Table 7 of the Appendix.
Using the information given in that table, calculate the
principal moments of inertia and compare with the re-
sults found in (a). (Hint: Note that per Section 11-6
and Example 11-2, Imin = Ar2min. The r listed in Table !-1. Introduction
7 for the z axis is rmin. Further, from the invariance Fig. P6-83
This chapter is divided into two parts. Part A, the major part, is devoted
a study of shear stresses in beams caused by transverse shear. The
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION related
means
problem
of bolts,
of attaching
gluing, or welding
separate longitudinal
is also considered.
parts
In Part
of a beam
B, super-
by

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position of direct shear stresses of the type discussed in Part A with those
caused by torque, as in springs, is treated. This problem is analogous to
that encountered in the previous chapter in the study of beams simul-
taneously subjected to bending and axial forces.
The discussion in this chapter is largely limited to elastic analyses, the
most widely used approach in the solution of the type of problems con-
sidered.

?.2. Preliminary Remarks

In deriving the torsion and the flexure formulas, the same sequence of
reasoning was employed. First, a strain distribution was assumed across
the section; next, properties of the material were brought in to relate these
strains to stresses; and, finally, the equations of equilibrium were used
to establish the desired relations. However, the development of the
expression linking the shear force and the cross-sectional area of a beam
to the stress fol ows a dif erent path. The previous procedure cannot be

357
Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-2. Prellminary Remarks

employed, as no simple assumption for the strain distribution due to

shear force can be made. Instead, an indirect approach is used. The
distribution
is assumed,
caused
which,
by flexure,
together with
as determined
the equilibrium
in the preceding
requirements,
cha
(a)
c D[P A B [P (c)
dM= V dx = P dx

the problem of the shear stresses.

First, it wil be necessary to recall that the shear force is inse Moment diagram
linked with a change in the bending moment at adjoining sections
a beam. Thus, if a shear and a bending moment are present at one C D

through a beam, a dif erent bending moment wil exist at an ad p I I (d)

section, although the shear may remain constant. This wil lead to ? ?
establishment of the shear stresses on the imaginary longitudinal (b) 0
through the members that are parallel to its axis. Then, since at a
equal shear stresses exist on the mutually perpendicular planes, the Shear diagram -- -P
stresses whose direction is coincident with the shear force at a se Fig. 7-t Shear and bending moment diagrams for the loading shown.
wil be determined. Initial y, only beams having symmetrical cross
tions with applied forces acting in the plane of symmetry wil be consi of an I beam. In Fig. 7-2(a), in addition to the beam itself, blocks simulating
ered. The related problem of determining interconnection req stress distribution caused by bending moments may be seen. The moment
for fastening together several longitudinal elements of built-up or on the right is assumed to be larger than the one on the left. This system
posite beams wil also be discussed. of forces is in equilibrium providing vertical shears V (not seen in this
In order to gain some insight into the problem, recall Eq. 5-4. view) also act on the beam segment. By separating the model along the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
it in two alternative forms, neutral surface, one obtains two separate parts of the beam segment, as
shown in Fig. 7-2(b). Again, either one of these parts alone must be in
dM equilibrium.
dM = V dx or dx - V (7-1
Equation 7-1 means that if shear
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V is acting at a section, there wil
dowel
If the upper

the lower
or a bolt in an actual
part caused
and the lower

by the bending
beam,
segments
the axial
moment
of Fig. 7-2(b)
forces
stresses
on either
are connected

must
the upper
be maintained
by a
or

change in the bending moment M on an adjoining section. The in equilibrium by a force in the dowel. The force that must be resisted
between the bending moments on the adjoining sections is equal to can be evaluated by summing the forces in the axial direction caused by
If no shear is acting, no change in the bending moment occurs. bending stresses. In peffqrming such a calculation, either the upper or
natively, the rate of change in moment along a beam is equal to the lower part of the beam segment can be used. The horizontal force
Therefore, although shear is treated in this chapter as an transmit ed by the dowel is the force needed to balance the net force
action on a beam, it is inseparably linked with the change in the caused by the bending stresses acting on the two adjoining sections. Al-
moment along the beam's length. ternatively, by subtracting the same bending stress on both ends of the
As an example of the above, consider the shear and moment segment, the same results can be obtained. This is shown schematically
from Example 5-7, shown in Fig. 7-1. Here at any two sections in Fig. 7-2(c), where assuming a zero bending moment on the left, only
A and B taken through the beam anywhere between applied forces P, the normal stresses due to the increment in moment within the segment
bending moment is the same. No shear acts at these sections. On need be shown acting on the right.
other hand, between any two sections such as C and D near the If, initial y, the I beam considered is one piece requiring no bolts or
a change in the bending moment does take place. Shear forces act dowels, an imaginary longitudinal plane can be used to separate the beam
sections. These shears are shown acting on an element of the beam segment into two parts; see Fig. 7-2(d). As before, the net force that must
Fig. 7-1(d). Note that in this zone of the beam, the change in the be developed across the cut area to maintain equilibrium can be deter-
moment in a distance dx is Pdx as shear V is equal to P. In subse mined. Dividing this force by the area of the imaginary horizontal cut
discussion, the possibility of equal, as well as of dif erent, bending gives average shear stresses acting in this plane. In the analysis, it is again
merits on two adjoining sections through a beam is of great expedient to work with the change in bending moment rather than with
Before a detailed analysis is given, a study the total moments on the end sections.
of a model (Fig. 7-2) may prove helpful. The model represents a After the shear stresses on one of the planes are found (i.e., the hor-
360 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-3. Shear Flow

calculating the shear stresses in the cut. The imaginary vertical plane cuts
a part of the flange in Fig. 7-2(f). This permits calculation of shear
lying in a vertical plane in the figure.
Before finally proceeding with the development of equations for de-
termining the shear stresses in connecting bolts and in beams, an intuitive
example is worthy of note. Consider a wooden plank placed on top of Fig. 7-3 Sliding between
planks not fastened
another, as shown in Fig. 7-3. If these planks act as a beam and are not together.
;rconnected, sliding at the surfaces of their contact wil take place.
interconnection of these planks with nails or glue is necessary to
hake them act as an integral beam. In the next section, an equation wil
(a)
be derived for determining the required interconnection between the com-
ponent.parts of a beam to make them act as a unit. In the fol owing section,
this equation wil be specialized to yield shear stresses in solid beams.

-3. Shear Flow

nsider an elastic beam made from several continuous longitudinal
planks whose cross section is shown in Fig. 7-4(a). For simplicity, the
beam has a rectangular cross section, but such' a limitation is not nec-
essary. To make this beam act as an integral member, it is assumed that

(c)
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Neutral axis
!

f
h A B
h

www.avs4you.com Centroid /

(d)

(a)

A
(e)

Fig. 7-2 Shear flow model of an I beam. (a) Beam segment with bending stresses simulated by blocks. (b) B FA A
Shear force transmit ed through a dowel. (c) For determining the force on a dowel only a change in moment
h
is needed. (d) The longitudinal shear force divided by the area of the imaginary cut yields shear stress. (e) B
Horizontal cut below the flange for determining the shear stress. (f) Vertical cut through the flange for
determining the shear stress.

izontal one in Fig. 7-2(d)), shear stresses on mutually perpendicular

of an infinitesimal element also become known since they must be Neutral 
merically equal, Eq. 1-2. This approach establishes the shear stresses
the plane of the beam section taken normal to its axis. (c)
The process discussed is quite general; two additional il ustrations
separating the segment of the beam are in Figs. 7-2(e) and (f). In Fig.
(b)
2(e), the imaginary horizontal plane separates the beam just below
flange. Either the upper or the lower part of this beam can be used Fig. 7-4 Elements for deriving shear flow in a beam.
362 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-3. Shear Flow

Centroid of the planks are fastened at intervals by vertical bolts. An element of' On the other hand, if MA is not equal to Ma, which is always the case
A fghi beam isolated by two parallel sections, both of which are shears are present at the adjoining sections, FA is not equal to Fa.
to the axis of the beam, is shown in Fig. 7~4(b). push (or pull) develops on one end of a "plank" than on the other,

.ehntofroid
If the element shown in Fig. 7-4(b) is subjected to a bending dif erent normal stresses act on the section from the two sides. Thus,
+MA at end A and to +MB at end B, bending stresses that act MA  MB, equilibrium of the horizontal forces in Fig. 7-4(c) may be
to the sections are developed. These bending stresses vary linearly only by developing a horizontal resisting force R in the bolt. If
their respective neutral axes, and at any point at a distance y > MA, then ] F ] > lEA I, and I FA I + R = I F [, Fig. 7-4(d). The
ole area neutral axis are -MBy/I on the B end and --MAy/I on the A end. I I - I Fa I ---- R tends to shear the bolt in the plane of the plank
From the beam element, Fig. 7-4(b), isolate the top plank, as .2 If the shear force acting across the bolt at level km, Fig. 7-4(a),
Fig. 7-4(c). The fibers of this plank nearest the neutral axis are to be investigated, the two upper planks should be considered as
by the distance y. Then, since stress times area is equal to force unit.
forces acting perpendicular to ends A and B of this plank may be If MA  Ma and the element of the beam is only dx long, the bending
mined. At end B, the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA at tents on the adjoining sections change by an infinitesimal amount.
y from the neutral axis is (-My/I) dA. The total force acting on the if the bending moment at A is MA, the bending moment at B is MB
fghj, Aighj, is the sum, or the integral, of these elementary forces Ma + riM. Likewise, in the same distance dx, the longitudinal forces
this area. Denoting the total force acting normal to the area fghj and Fa change by an infinitesimal force dF, i.e., [ F I - I Fa I = dF.
and remembering that, at section B, M and I are constants, one By substituting these relations into the expression for Fa and FA found
the fol owing relation: with areas �ghj and abde taken equal, one obtains an expression
the dif erential longitudinal push (or pull) dF:
Fa= L MyI dA= -I MsL
.. ydA= MBQI
NON-ACTIVATEDdF:lFzlVERSION
ea ea

-IFAl= (MA+ I dMt Q- (--)

fghj fghj

Q= Q
where y dA = AighjY

The integral deeming Q is the

fghj

first
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or the statical moment of area
the final expression
are
eliminated.
for dF, the
Only the
actual
dif erence
bending moments
in the bending
at the adjoining
moments dM
around the neutral axis. By definition, y is the distance from the the adjoining sections remains in the equation.
axis to the centroid of Afgh? Il ustrations of the manner Instead of working with a force dF,. which is developed in a distance
Q are in Fig. 7-5. Equation 7-2 provides a convenient means it is more significant to obtain a similar force per unit of beam length.
th e longitudinal force acting normal to any selected part of the quantity is obtained by dividing dF by dx. Physically, this quantity
sectional area. the dif erence between FB and FA for an element of the beam
Next consider end A of the element in Fig. 7-4(c). One can unit length. The quantity dF/dx wil be designated by q and wil be
the total force acting normal to the area abde as to as the shear flow. Since force is measured in newtons or
ounds, shear flow q has units of newtons per meter or pounds per inch.
recalling that dM/dx = V, one obtains the fol owing expression for
Shade areas are Afghi FA = MAI far ea &bde
y dA = MAQI shear flow in beams:
Fig. 7-5 Procedure for
determining Q [. where the meaning of Q is the same as that in Eq. 7-2 since for

I dF dMlf VAigh.VQ1
Y
beams, an area such as fghj is equal to the area abde. Hence, if
(7-5)
moments
the bolt
at A and B
shown in the
were
figure
equal,
would
it would
perform
fol ow
a nominal
that FA =
function
F,
q - dx dxI ydA- I I
ing the planks together and would not be needed to resist any
tudinal forces.
The forces ( I FB I-I Fz I) and R are not collinear, but the element shown in
is in equilibrium. To avoid ambiguity, shear forces acting in the vertical
Area fgpn and its y may also be used to find I Q I. are omit ed from the diagram.
Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-3. Shear Flow 365

In this equation, ! is the moment of interia of the entire cross~st

area
which
around
it came.
the neutral
The total
axis,
shear
just
force
as it does
at the
in the
section
flexure
investigated
formula
is
-I I-;I-;1'-la
resented by V, and the integral of y dA for determining. Q 62.5
over the cross-sectional area of the beam to one side of this area at,
q is investigated. NA
In retrospect, note careful y that Eq. %5 was derived on the
162.5
the elastic flexure formula, but no term for a bending moment
in the final expressions. This resulted from the fact that only the
in the bending moments at the adjoining sections had to be
and the lat er quantity is linked with shear V. Shear V was (b)
for dM/dx, andthis masks the origin of the established relations. Ec Fig. 7-6
7-5 is very useful in determining the necessary interconnection
the elements making up a beam. This wil be il ustrated by ution for an Alternative Arrangement of Planks
instead of using the two planks as before, a beam of the same cross section
made from five pieces, Fig. 7-6(b), a dif erent nailing schedule would be
EXAMPLE 7-t uired.
To begin, the shear flow between one of the outer 25 by 50 mm planks and the
Two long wooden planks form a T section of a beam, as shown in mm in
the beam is found, and although the contact surface a-a is vertical,
6(a). If this beam transmits a constant vertical shear of 3000 N, find the nec{
procedure is the same. The push or pull on an element is built up in the same
spacing of the nails between the two planks to make the beam act as a unit. Asi
that the allowable

Solution
shear force per nail is 700
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION N.

Q = AsgiUY = 25 x 50 x 62.5 = 78.1 x 103 mm 3

In
tendency
attacking
to slide
such problems,
longitudinally
the
from
analyst
the remainder? www.avs4you.com
Here
VQ 3000 113.5x 78.X1 106x 103 = 2.06
q = I =
must
this
ask: What part
occurs
of a beam
in the
N/mm
of contact of the two planks; Eq. 7-5 must be applied to determine the shear the same nails as before are used to join the 25 by 50 mm piece to the 50 by
in this plane. To do this, the neutral axis of the whole section and its mm piece, they may be 700/2.06 = 340 mm apart. This nailing applies to both
inertia around the neutral axis must be found. Then as Vis known and Q
as the statical moment of the area of the upper plank around the neutral To determine the shear flow between the 50 by 250 mm vertical piece and either
may be determined. The distance yc from the top to the neutral axis is of the 50 by 50 mm pieces, the whole 75 by 50 mm area must be used to
Q. It is the dif erence of pushes (or pulls) on this whole area that causes
50x200x25+50x200x 150 unbalanced force that must be transferred at the surface b-b:
= 87.5 mm
Yc= 50 x 200 + 50 x 200
200 x 503 50 x 2003 Q = AsghjY = 75 X 50 X 62.5 = 234 X 103 mm 3
I- + 50 x 200 x 62.52 + + 50 x 200 x
12 12 VQ 3000 x 234 x 103
= 113.54 x 106mm 4 q - - - 113.4 X 106 = 6.19 N/mm
Q = AighjY .---- 50 x 200 x (87.5 -- 25) = 625 x 103 mm 3
VQ _ 3000 x 625 x 103 = 16.5 N/mm
should be spaced at 700/6.19 = 113 mm, intervals along the length of the
q - I 113.54 X 106 eam in both sections b-b. These nails should be driven in first, then the 25 by
put on.
Thus, a force of 16.5 N/mm must be transferred from one plank to
the length of the beam. However, from the data given, each nail is ca
resisting a force of 700 N; hence, one nail is adequate for transmit ing LE 7-2
700/16.5 = 42 mm of the beam length. As shear remains constant at the
utive sections of the beam, the nails should be spaced throughout at )le beam on a 6-m span carries a load of 3 kN/m including its own weight.
tervals. cross section is to be made from several wooden pieces, as is shown
366 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-4. The Shear-Stress Formula for Beams

Lag screw it is proper to specify the use of 10-mm lag screws on 120-mm centers for
distance of 1.5 m nearest both of the supports and 240-mm spacing of the same
screws for the middle half of the beam. A greater refinement in making the
A
from one spacing of fastenings to another may be desirable in some
The same spacing of lag screws should be used at section b-b as at
:tion a-a.

NA
500
9kNl 9
In numerous

Spacing
pieces,
practical

of selected
applications,
as shown-in
bolts
Fig. 7-8(a),
or rivets,
beams are made
or welding
as well as sizing
up by bolting
them,
of welds,
as shown
or riveting

is determined
in Fig.
(a)
6m
procedures analogous to those described before. The strength of individual
(b) or rivets is discussed in Section 1-13 and that of welds is treated in Section
9 kN
4.5 kN .14. Note that the bolts may be staggered along the length of a beam, and that
' act in double shear. The welds may be either continuous or intermit ent.

5O[- 200---50-
(a)
'-4. The Shear-Stress Formula for.Beams
(b)
(c) shear-stress formula for beams may be obtained by modifying the Fig. 7-8 Composite beam
;ar flow formula. Thus, analogous to the earlier procedure, an element sections: (a) plate girder,
Fig. 7-7
beam may be isolated between two adjoining sections taken perpen- (b) I beam reinforced with
in mm in Fig. 7-7(a). Specify the spacing of the 10-mm lag screws shown t to the axis of the beam. Then by passing another imaginal7 Ion- plates.
necessary
determined
parallel
to fasten
by laboratory
to the grain
this beam

of the wood.
tests,
together.
is good
Assume
for 2 kN when
For the entire
that

section,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION one 10-mm
transmit ing
I is equal
lag screw,

to 2.36 x
i
element
section through
is obtained,
this element
which
parallel
corresponds
to the axis of the
to the element
beam,
of one
a

'plank" used in the earlier derivations. A side view of such an element

mm

Solution
2.
www.avs4you.com shown
 distance
in Fig. 7-9(a),
y from the
where
neutral
the
axis.
imaginary longitudinal
The cross-sectional area
cut is made
of the beam
at

shown in Fig. 7-9(c).

To find the spacing of. the lag screws, the shear flow at section a-a
determined. The loading on the given beam is shown in Fig. 7-7(b), and to
the variation of the shear along the beam, the shear diagram is
Fig; 7-7(c). Next, to apply the shear flow formula, fea Y dA = Q must
fghj

terrained. This is done by considering the hatched area to one side of the A B h

dy Imagicutnary
a in Fig. 7-7(a). The statical moment of this area is most conveniently
by multiplying the areas of the two 50 by 100 mm pieces by the distances
Fa= FA + dF
[-Centroid of fgh/
their centroids to the neutral axis of the beam and adding to this product
quantity for the 50 by 200 mm piece. The largest shear flow occurs at the
as the largest vertical shears V of 9 kN act there:
Yl

Q = AsghZY = 2Ay + A2Y2

= 2 x 50 x 100 x 200 + 50 x 200 x 225 = 4.25 x 106

q =
VQI =
9 x2.36 4.25 x x109 109 =
16.2 N/mm _] L--

 dx  Cross section
At the supports, the spacing of the lag screws must be 2 x 103/16.2 =
apart. This spacing of the lag screws applies only at a section where shear
(b) (c)
equal to 9 kN. Similar calculations for a section where V = 4.5 kN gives (a)
8.1 N/mm; and the spacing of the lag screws becomes 2 x 103/8.1 = 246 Fig. 7-9 Derivation of shear stresses in a beam.
368 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-4. The Shear-Stress Formula or Beams
If shear forces exist at the sections through the beam, a dif erent the shear stresses at the longitudinal cut. As before, V is the total
ing moment acts at section A than at B. Hence, more push or ' force at a section, and I is the moment of inertia of the whole cross-
developed on one side of the partial area fghj than on the other, ,n.al area about the neutral axis. Both V and I are constant at a section
before, this longitudinal force in a distance dx is h a beam. Here Q is the statical moment around the neutral axis
partial area
of the cross section to one side of the imaginary lon~
cut, and
y is the distance from the neutral axis of the beam to
I ea y dA - AsghiY Q centroid of the partial area Afghj. Finally, t is the width of the im-
yghj
longitudinal cut, which is usually equal to the thickness or width
'the member. The shear stress at dif erent longitudinal cuts through the
In a solid beam, the force resisting dF may be developed only assumes dif erent values as the values of Q and t for such sections
plane of the longitudinal.cut taken parallel to the axis of the beam.
fore, assuming that the shear stress, is uniformly distributed 3 s Care must be exercised in making the longitudinal cuts preparatory for
section of width t, the shear stress in the longitudinal plane may in Eq. 7-6. The proper sectioning of some cross-sectional areas of
tained by dividing dF by the area t dx. This yields the horizontal is shown in Figs. 7-10(a), (b), (d), and (e). The use of inclined
stress ,. For an infinitesimal element, however, numerically equal planes shotfid be avoided unless the section is made across a small
stresses 4 act on the mutually perpendicular planes; see Fig. 7-9Co). When the axis of symmetry of the cross-sectional area of the
the same relation gives simultaneously the longitudinal shear stress is vertical and in the plane of the applied forces, the longitudinal
the shear stress in the plane of the vertical section at the Ion are usually made horizontal y. In such cases, the solution of Eq. 7~
cut. 5
simultaneous values of horizontal and vertical shear stresses, as
dF dM Aehiy planes are mutually perpendicular, Eq. 1-2. The lat er stresses act

This equation may be simplified,

dx t
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
since
dx

according
It

to Eq. 7-1, dM/dx

the plane
stresses
relation
of the transverse
resist
of statics,
the

shear
section

Fy
force
= 0. The
through
at the
validity
the
same
beam.
section,
of this
Collectively,
thus
statement
satisfying
these

for a
and by Eq. %5, q = VQ/I. Hence,
www.avs4you.com case wil be proved
For thin members only,
in Example
Eq. 7-6 may
7-3.
be used to determine the shear

I VAfghjyVQ_ q1
;ses with a cut such as f-g of Fig. 7-10(b). These shear stresses act
a vertical plane and are directed perpendicularly to the plane of the
* - It I- - t Matching shear stresses act horizontal y; see Fig. 7-10(c). These
stresses act in entirely dif erent directions than those obtained by
Equation 7-6 is the important formula for the shear stresses in horizontal cuts, such as �-g in Figs. 7-10(a) and (d). As these
stresses do not contribute directly to the resistance of vertical shear
3 This procedure is best suited to situations where the section sides are their significance wil be discussed in Section 7-7.
and are away from significant changes in the shape of the cross section.
limitations see Section 7-6.
4 Note that the sense of positive, agrees with the positive sense for V in
adopted in Section 5-8. / h h g
5 The presence of y in this relation may be explained dif erently. If the
is present at a section through a beam, the moments at the adjoining
M and M + dM. The magnitude of M is irrelevant for determining the
stresses. Hence, alternately, no moment need be considered at one section
NA
the adjoining section, a bending moment dM is assumed to act. Then on a
area of the section, such as the shaded area in Fig. 7-9(c), this bendin
(c)
dM wil cause an average normal stress (dM)y/I, as given by
In the lat er relation, y locates the fiber that is at an average distance from h
neutral axis in the partial area of a section. Multiplying (dM)y/I by the (a) (b) Centroid of cross-hatched area
area of the section leads to the same expression for dF as before.
6 This formula was derived by D. I. Jouravsky in 1855. Its development (d) (e)
prompted by observing horizontal cracks in wood ties on several of the
bridges between Moscow and St. Petersburg. Fig. 740 Sectioning for partial areas of cross sections for computing shear stresses.
370 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-4. The Shear-Stress Formula for Beams

Procedure Summary v

The same three basic concepts of engineering mechanics of solids

fore are used in developing the formula for shear stresses in beams.
ever, their use is less direct.
1. Equilibrium conditions are used
(a) for determining the shear at a section,
(b) by using the relationship between the shear and the
change in bending moment along a span, and NA

(c) by determining the force at a longitudinal section of a

element for obtaining the average shear stress.
2. Geometry of deformation, as in pure bending, is assumed such I
plane sections remain plane after deformation, leading to _J

clusion that normal strains in a section vary linearly from (a) (b) (c) (d)
axis. Since, due to shear, the cross sections do not remain
Fig. 7-tl
but warp, this assumption is less accurate than for pure
However, for small and moderate magnitudes of shear, and , be conveniently expressed as b dy. By applying Eq. 7-6, the horizontal shear
members, this assumption is satisfactory. ess is found at level y of the beam. At the same cut, numerically equal vertical
3. Material properties are considered to obey Hooke's law, stresses act in the plane of the cross section, Eq. 1-2.
extension to other constitutive relations is possible for

These
solutions.

conditions treat the problem NON-ACTIVATED

as one-dimensional, and VERSION
x - VQ
It _ IVt f r  y dA =
fghj
fyha by dy
sumed geometry of deformation is insensitive to the effects of
trated
fore again reliance
forces
is largely
and/or changes in the
placed
cross-sectional
www.avs4you.com
on Saint-Venant's
areas
- of beams.
principle. In
(7-7)

words, only at distances beyond the member depth from such

bances are the solutions accurate. Therefore solutions are best equation shows that in a beam of rectangular cross section, both the hor-
slender members; see Section %5. Further, rigorous solutions izontal and the vertical shear stresses vary parabolically. The maximum value of
for wide longitudinal sections, solutions are somewhat inaccurate shear stress is obtained When y is equal to zero. In the plane of the cross
complex warpage of their cross sections near the sides. Fig. 7-11(b), this is diagrammatically represented by *tax at the neutral
An application of Eq. 7-6 for determining shear stresses in a rectan beam. At increasing distances from the neutral axis, the shear stresses
beam is given next. Based on the results obtained in this diminish. At the upper and lower boundaries of the beam, the shear
cease to exist as y = + h/2. These values of the shear stresses at the
general discussion fol ows of the effect of shear on warpage of
levels of the beam may be represented by the parabola shown in Fig. 7-
plane sections in beams. Then two additional examples on il(c). An isometric view of the beam with horizontal and vertical shear stresses
of Eq. %6 are provided. shown in Fig. 7-11(d).
To satisfy the condition of statics,  Fy = 0, at a section of the beam, the sum
EXAMPLE 7-3 the vertical shear stresses, times their respective areas dA must be equal
the vertical shear V. That this is the case may be shown by integrating, dA
Derive an expression for the shear-stress distribution in a beam of solid Over the whole cross-sectional area A of the beam, using the general expression
gular cross section transmit ing a vertical shear V. found before.

Solution

The cross-sectional area of the beam is shown in Fig. 7-11(a). A longitudinal i

through the beam at a distance y from the neutral axis isolates the partial
fghj of the cross section. Here t = b and the infinitesimal area
372 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems
Sec. 7-5. Warpage of Plane Sections Due to Shear 373

As the derivation of Eq. 7-6 was indirect, this proof showing that the shear ?rom Eq. 1-5:
integrated over the section equal the vertical shear is reassuring. Moreover,
an agreement in signs is found, this result indicates that the direction
stresses at the section through a beam is the same as that of the shear c9O'x + &rxy = 0
This fact may be used to determine the sense of the shear stresses. Ox Oy
As noted before, the maximum shear stress in a rectangular beam
Ocrx aM y Vy
the neutral
by setting
axis,
y = 0.
and for this case, the general expression for :But trx = MyI hence, ? Ox Ox I I

Vh 2 Vh 2 3 V 3 V
rmax -- Eq. 1-5 becomes
81 8bh3/12 2 bh 2 A

where V is the total shear, and A is the entire cross-sectional area. The
Vy 2
integrating, + C
21
result may be obtained more directly if it is noted that to make VQ/It
Q must attain its largest value, as in this case V, I, and t are bonstants.
Vh 2
property of the statical moments of areas around a centroidal axis, the C 1 + --
;ince ,y(+h/2) = 0 one has 81
value of Q is obtained by considering one-half the cross-sectional area
the neutral axis of the beam. Hence, alternately,

'rxy = 'ryx =  _ y2
VQ .v(b�) (h) - 23VA
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
agrees with the result found earlier, since here y = Yl.
Tmax -- I- - [bh3\ (74

Since
Eq. 7-8b
the shear
beams
is very
strength
of rectangular
useful.
of wood
cross-sectional
It is widely
on planes
used
parallel
area are used
in the design
to the grain
frequently
of wooden
is small.
www.avs4you.com
Thus,
in
5. Warpage
beams of Plane Sections Due to Shear
 solution based on the mathematical theory of elasticity for a rectangular
equal shear stresses exist on mutually perpendicular planes, wooden beam:
a tendency to split longitudinally along the neutral axis. Note that the beam subjected simultaneously to bending and shear shows that plane
shear stress is 1� times as great as the average shear stress V/A. Neverthei perpendicular to the beam axis warp, i.e., they do not remain
in the analysis of bolts and rivets, it is customary to determine their shear This can also be coficluded from Eq. 7-7 derived in the preceding
by dividing the shear force V by the cross-sectional area A (see Section 1-8).
practice is considered justified since the allowable and ultimate strengths to Hooke's law, shear strains must be associated with shear
tial y determined in this manner from tests. For beams, on the other Therefore, the shear stresses given by Eq. 7-7 give rise to shear
7-6 is generally applied. According to this equation, the maximum shear stress, hence,
strain, occurs at y = 0; conversely, no shear strain takes
**Alternative Solution = + h/2. This behavior warps the initial y plane sections through
beam, as shown qualitatively in Fig. 7-12, and contradicts the funda-
From the point of view of elasticity, internal stresses and strains in assumption of the simplified bending theory for pure flexure. How-
statically indeterminate. However, in the engineering theory discussed here: based on rigorous analysis, warpage of the sections is known to be
introduction of a kinematic hypothesis that plane sections remain plane
Lmportant only for very short members and is negligibly small for slender
ing changes this situation. Here, in Eq. 6-11, it is asserted that in a beam, This can be substantiated by the two-dimensional finite-element
-My/I. Therefore, one part of Eq. 1-5--that giving the dif erential e�
studies for rectangular cantilevers shown in Figs. 7-13 and 7-14. In both
equilibrium for a two-dimensional problem with a body force X =
solve for the unknown shear stress. From the conditions of no shear stress
In the elasticity sign convention used here, positive shear stress acts upward
top and the bottom boundaries, ,yx = 0 at y = +h/2, the constant of the right face of an element as shown in Fig. 1-5. By analogy this requires
is found. OM/Ox = - V.
374 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-4. Warpage of Plane Sections Due to Shear 375
Plane
sections MPLE 7-4
the simplified theory, determine the shear-stress distribution due to shear
r in the elastic-plastic zone of a rectangular beam.

ution

situation occurs, for example, in a cantilever loaded as shown in Fig. 7-15(a).

the elastic-plastic zone, the external bending moment M = -Px, whereas,
to Eq. 6-40, the internal resisting moment M = M v - crypbyo/3. Upon
[ that yo varies with x and dif erentiating the above equations, one notes the
Maximum
Fig. 7-t2 Shear distortions in distortion at
equality:
a beam. neutral axis

instances, the beams are fixed along lines AB at the nodal points ind dMdx = _p = 2byoo'3yp dyodx
by dots in the figures. To avoid local disturbances of the type
earlier in Fig. 2-31, in each case, applied forces P are
relation wilbe needed later. First, however, proceeding as in the elastic
bolically per Eq. 7-7 to the nodal points along lines CD.
consider the equilibrium of a beam element, as shown in Fig. 7-15(b). Larger
The displacements of the nodal points of the elements for both
forces act on the right side of this element than on the left. By sep-
shown in the figures are greatly exaggerated. For the numerical the beam at the neutral axis and equating the force at the cut to the dif-
used, they are increased by a factor of 3000 compared with the ference in the longitudinal force, one obtains
dimensions of the members. Considerable warpage of the initial y
sections
contrast,
is imperceptible.
can be clearly
for the longer
This
observed
member
study together
in Fig. 7-14, NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
for the short

with
cantilever
the warpage
an examination
in Fig. 7-13
of the
of the width of the beam. After
'ro dx b = 0'yp

substituting
dyo b/2

dyo/dx from the relation found

www.avs4you.com
A
results as well as experimental measurements on beams suggests hating b, one finds the maximum horizontal shear stress %:
assumption of "plane sections" is reasonable. It should also be
that if shear force V along a beam is constant and the boundaries tryp dyo 3P 3 P
no restraint, the warping of all cross sections is the same. 'to ... (7-9)
2 dx 4byo 2 Ao
strain distribution caused by bending remains the same as in pure
Based on these considerations, a far-reaching conclusion can be Ao is the cross-sectional area of the elastic
part of the cross section. The
that the presence of shear at a section does not invalidate distribution for the elastic-plastic case is shown in Fig. 7-15(c). This
for bending stresses derived earlier. case, shown in Fig. 7-15(d). Since equal
Fig. 7-t3 Deformed mesh for
It is cautioned, however, that local disturbances of stresses opposite normal stresses occur in the plastic zones, no unbalance in longi-
a short cantilever from a the points of load applications and the use of the elementary elastic tudinal forces occurs and no shear stresses are developed.
finite element solution. for short beams is questionable.
c Oyp

/ I
Elastic-plastic
boundary
Fig. '744 Finite element
solution showing
deformation of'a moderately (a) (b) (c) (d)
long cantilever. B
Fig. 745 Shear stress distribution in a rectangular elastic-plastic beam.
376 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-4. Warpage of Plane Sections Due to Shear 377

This elementary solution has been refined by using a more careful y For use in Eq. 7-5, the ratio V/I = 50,000/254 = 197 lb/in 4.
criterion of yielding caused by the simultaneous action of normal and
stresses. 8
Level Arab? ? Q = Afghi7 q = VQ/I t x (,psi)
1-1 0 '6 0 0 6.0 '0
EXAMPLE 7-5 6.0 570
2-2 0.5 x 6 = 3.00 5.75 17.25 3400
0.5 6800
An I beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 7-16(a). If it has the cross section
I 0.5 x 6
in Fig.
weight
7-16(c),
of the beam.
determine the shear stresses at the levels indicated. Neglect
3-3 [0.5 x = 0.3.0205
0.5
5.75
5.25 17'1.3215}18.56 3650 0.5 7300
I 0.5 x 6 3.00 5.75
Solution 4-4 [0.5 x 5.5 = 2.75 2.75 17'7.526 5}24.81 4890 0.5 9780
From the free-body diagram of the beam segment in Fig. 7-16(b), it is seen "A�ghj is the partial area of the cross section above a given level in in2o
the vertical shear at all sections is 50 kips. Bending moments d � not enter 0 y is distance in mm from the neutral axis to the centraid of the partial area.
into the present problem. The shear flow at the various levels of the beam
computed in the fol owing table using Eq. 7-5. Since x = q/t, Eq. 7-6, the The positive signs of x show that, for the section considered, the stresses act
stresses are obtained by dividing the shear flows by the respective widths of downward on the right face of the elements. This sense of the shear stresses
beam. dncides with the sense of shear force V. For this reason, a strict adherence to
the sign convention is often unnecessary. It is always true that fAx dA is equal
I = 6 x 123/12 - 5.5 x 113/12 = 254 in 4 to V and has the same sense.
Note that at level 2-2, two widths are used to determine the shear stress--one
8 D. C. Drucker, "The Effect of Shear on the Plastic Bending of Beams. just above the line 2-2, and one just below. A width of 6 in corresponds to the
Appl. Mech. 23 (1956):509-514.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION first
next
cable
case,
section.
to the lower
and 0.5
The
in to
results
half
the second.
obtained,
of the section,
This
which
transition
by virtue
are plot ed
point wil
of symmetry
in Figs.
be discussed

7-16(d)
are also
in the
appli-
and (e). By a

A 100k www.avs4you.com method

the curves
The variation
similar
in Fig.
to

of
the
7-16(e)
the
one used

shear
are parts
stress
in the preceding
of a second-degree
indicated
example,

by Fig. 7-16(e)
parabola.
it may be shown

may be interpreted
that

k
(a) as is shown in Fig. 7-16(0. The maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis,
and the vertical shear stresses throughout the web of the beam are nearly of the
same magnitude. The vertical shear stresses occurring in the flanges are very
small. For this reason, the maximum shear stress in an I beam is often approx-
imated by dividing the total shear V by the cross-sectional area of the web with
the web height assumed equal to the beam overall height, area abcdin Fig. 7-16(0.
rma x = 9780 psi
V=50k Hence,
r = 570 psi
q = 4890 lb/in
v
(b) ('rmax)appr�x -- Aweb (7-10)
In the example considered, this gives

50,000
(g) ('rmax)appr�x 0.5 X 12 8330 psi
This stress dif ers by about 15 percent from the one found by the accurate formula.
(d)
For most cross sections, a much closer approximation to the true maximum shear
(c) Section A-A (e) Shear-stress stress may be obtained by dividing the shear by the web area between the flanges
distribution
only. For the above example, this procedure gives a stress of 9091 psi, which is
Fig. 7-t6 an error of only about 8 percent. It should be clear from the above that division
378 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-6. Some Limitations of the Shear-Stress Formula
of V by the whole cross-sectional area of the beam to obtain the shear
not permissible.
An element of the beam at the neutral axis is shown in Fig. 7-16(g). At
3-3 and 2-2, bending stresses, in addition to the shear stresses, act on the
faces of the elements. No shear stresses and only bending stresses act oni
elements at level 1-1. (a)

The sides of cross sections were assumed to be parallel in all th e:

ceding examples. If they are not parallel, both Q and t vary
section level, and the maximum shear stress may not occur at the y

axis. However, using Eq. 7-6, the maximum average shear stres.. A

always be found. For

example for it can be shown that a
angular cross section such a maximum shear stress is midway
VO / \
the apex and the base. For such cross sections, the stresses vary
a longitudinal section, and are particularly inaccurate near the
sides; see Fig. 7-18. Similar results may develop at longitudinal
taken at an angle with the axes.
The same procedures as described before are used for determining 1 (b)

gitudinal shear stresses in composite beams at bonded or glued

*7-6. Some' Limitations of the NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

Shear-Stress Formula Fig. 748
shear
Modification
stresses to satisfy
of
the

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The shear-stress formula for beams is based on the flexure boundary conditions.
Hence, all of the limitations imposed on the flexure formula apply,
material is assumed to be elastic with the same elastic modulus in or three-dimensional finite-element analysis must be used to obtain
as in compression. The theory developed applies only to straight solution.
Moreover, there are additional limitations that are not present in the Fortunately, the above defect of the shear-stress formula for beams is
ure formula. Some of these wil be discussed now. The vertical shear stresses in the flanges are small. The large
Consider a section through the I beam analyzed in Example 7-5. stresses occur in the web and, for all practical purposes, are cor-
of the results of this analysis are reproduced in Fig. 7-17. The given by Eq. 7-6. No appreciable error is involved by using the
stresses computed earlier for level 1-1 apply to the infinitesimal derived in this chapter for thin-walled members, and the majority
a. The vertical shear stress is zero for this element. Likewise, no belong to this group. Moreover, as stated earlier, the solution
J2 stresses exist on the top plane of the beam. This is as it should be, for the shear stresses for a beam with a rectangular cross section is cor-
the top surface of the beam is a free surface. In mathematical T
this means that the conditions at the boundary are satisfied. For In mechanical applications, circular shafts frequently act a beams.
570 psi of rectangular cross section, the situation at the boundaries is beams having a solid circular cross section form an important
A dif erent condition is found when the shear stresses These beams are not "thin-walled." An examination of the bound-
the I beam at levels 2-2 are scrutinized. The shear stresses were conditions for circular members, Fig. 7-18(a), leads to the conclusion
to be 570 psi for the elements such as b or c shown in the figure. shear stresses are present, they must act parallel to the bound-
requires matching horizontal shear stresses on the inner surfaces oft ,. As no matching shear stress can exist on the free surface of a beam,
i70 psi flanges. However, the lat er surfaces must be free of the shear stress{ shear stress component can act normal to the boundary. However,
Fig. 7-t7 Boundary as they are free boundaries of the beam. This leads to a to Eq. 7-6, vertical shear stresses of equal intensity act at every
conditions are not satisfied that cannot be resolved by the methods of engineering mechanics such as ac in Fig. 7-18(b). This is incompatible with the boundary
at the levels 2-2. ids. The more advanced techniques of the mathematical theory of for elements a and c, and the solution indicated by Eq. 7-6 is
380 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-7. Shear Stresses in Beam Flanges

c
inconsistent. 9 Fortunately, the maximum shear stresses occuzJng
neutral
of their
axis
true
satisfy
value.
the
2o
boundary conditions and are within about 5 C f
c   h/2
*7-7. Shear Stresses in Beam Flanges rt dx J
F+dF

h
In an I beam, the existence of shear stresses acting in a vertical
tudinal cut as c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) was indicated in Fig. 7-2(f) and
7-4. These shear stresses act perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
magnitude may be found by applying Eq. 7-6, and their sense
considering the bending moments at the adjoining sections throu
beam. For example, if for the beam shown in Fig. 7-19Co), positive b (a)
(b)
moments increase toward the reader, larger normal forces act on then
section. For the elements shown, ,t dx or q dx must aid the smaller
acting on the partial area of the cross section. This fixes the sense
shear stresses in the longitudinal cuts. However, numerically equal
stresses act on the mutually perpendicular planes of an infinitesimal
ment, and the shear stresses on such planes either meet or part with
directional arrowheads at a corner. Hence, the sense of the shear st
in the plane of the section becomes known also.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
The magnitude of the shear siresses varies for the dif erent
cuts. For example, if cut c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) is at the edge of the
the hatched area of the beam's cross section is zero. However,
thickness
closer
as y remains
to the web,
of the flange

constant
is constant,
this area increases
foi any
and
from
such
cut c-c
zero www.avs4you.com
area,
is made
at a linear
Q also
rate.
increases linearly
(c)

zero toward the web. Therefore, since V and I are constant at any
through the beam, shear flow qc = VQ/I fol ows the same Fig. 749 Shear forces in the flanges of an I beam act perpendicularly to the axis of symmetry.
the thickness of the flange remains the same, the shear stress ,c = 1
It varies similarly. The same variation of q and , applies on both In common with all stresses, the shear stresses shown in Fig. 7-19(c),
of the axis of symmetry of the cross section. However, as may be integrated over the area on which they act, are equivalent to a force.
from Fig. 7-19Co), these quantities in the plane of the cross section magnitude of the horizontal force F for one-half of the flange, Fig.
opposite directions on the two sides. The variation of these 19(d), is equal to the average shear stress multiplied by one-half of the
or shear flows is represented in Fig. 7-19(c), where for simplicity, area of the flange, i.e.,
assumed that the web has zero thickness.

However,
9 The exact
a better
elastic
approximation
solution
of the true
of this
stresses
problem
may
is beyond
be obtained
the scope of this F= (?:)(b_) or F]= (q:x)() (7-11)
simply. First, an assumption is made that the shear stress as found by I beam transmits a vertical shear, these horizontal forces act in the
gives a true component of the shear stress acting in the vertical direction.
since at every level, the shear stresses at the boundary must act tangent lower flanges. However, because of the symmetry of the cross
boundary, the lines of action of these shear stresses intersect at some section, these equal forces occur in pairs and oppose each other, and
A in Fig. 7-18(b). Thus, a second assumption is made that all shear stresses cause no apparent external effect.
given level act in a direction toward a single'point, as A in Fig. 7-18(b). To determine the shear flow at the juncture of the flange and the web,
the shear stress at any point such as F becomes equal to ?,/cos (b. The in Fig. 7-19(a), the whole area of the flange times y must be used
system found in the above manner is consistent.
z0 A. E. H. Love, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed. (New computing the value of Q. However, since in finding qc-m, one-half
Dover, 1944), 348. flange area times the same y has already been used, the sum of the
382 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-8. Shear Center 383

two horizontal shear flows coming in from opposite sides gives the found in the usual manner. Along the horizontal legs of the channel,
shear flow n at cut a-a. Hence, figuratively speaking, the horizontal quantities vary linearly from the free edge, just as they do for one
flows "turn through 90 � and merge to become the vertical shear flo of the flange in an I beam. The variation of q and, is parabolic along
Thus, the shear flows at the various horizontal cuts through the web web. The variation of these quantities is shown in Fig. 7-20(b), where
be determined in the manner explained in the preceding sections. are plot ed along the center line of the channel's section.
over, as the resistance to the vertical shear V in thin-walled I shear stress ,a/2 multiplied by the areas of the flange gives
developed mainly in the web, it is so shown in Fig. 7-19(d). The sen force Fz = ('d2)bt, and .the sum of the vertical shear stresses over the
the shear stresses and shear flows in the web coincides with the a of the web is the shear V = J--h/r+h/22 'fl-  dy.2 These shear forces acting
of the shear V. Note that the vertical shear flow "splits" upon the plane of the cross section are shown in Fig. 7-20(c) and indicate
the lower flange. This is represented in Fig. 7-19(d) by the two a force V and a couple Fh are developed at the section through the
that are the result of the horizontal shear flows in the flanges. Physically, there is a tendency for the channel to twist around
The shear forces that act at a section of an I beam are shown in longitudinal axis. To prevent twisting and thus maintain the appli-
7-19(d), and, for equilibrium, the applied vertical forces must act ' of the initial y assumed bending-stress distribution, the externally
the centroid of the cross-sectional area to be coincident with V. If be applied in such a manner as to balance the internal
forces are so apphed, no torsion of the member wil occur. This is le Fh. For example, consider the segment of a cantilever beam of
for all sections having cross-sectional areas with an axis of weight, shown in Fig. 7-20(d), to which a vertical force P is
avoid torsion of such members, the applied forces must act in the parallel to the web at a distance e from the web's center line. T9
of symmetry of the cross section and the axis of the beam. A beam this applied force in equilibrium, an equal and opposite shear
an unsymmetrical section wil be discussed next. V must be developed in the web. Likewise, to cause no twisting of
channel, couple Pe must equal couple Fh. At the same section

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Shear Center the channel, bending moment PL is resisted by the usual flexural
(these are not shown in the figure).
Consider a beam having the cross section of a channel; see Fig. 7-201 expression for distance e, locating the plane in which force P must
The
computations
channel
walls

takes
of this
may
place
channel
be based
around
are assumed
on center
the horizontal
to be sufficiently
line dimensions.
axis and although
thin
Bending
this
that
www.avs4you.com applied
remembering
so as to cause
that Fh
no twist in the channel,
= Pe and P = V,
may now be obtained:

section does not have a vertical axis of symmetry, it wil be assumed

e ...
F]h (1/2),bth bth VQ bth Vbt(h/2) b2h2t (7-12)
the bending stresses are given by the usual flexure formula. P P 2P It 2P It 41
further that this channel resists a vertical shear, the bending
wil vary from one section through the beam to another. Note that distance e is 'independent of the magnitude of applied force
By taking an arbitrary vertical cut as c-c in Fig. 7-20(a), q and � as well as of its location along the beam. Distance e is a property of
section and is measured outward from the center of the web to the
n The same statement cannot be made with regard to the shear stressesi
force.
the thickness of the flange may dif er from that of the web.
A similar investigation may be made to locate the plane in which the
r orq
8 must be applied so as to cause no twist in the channel.
F1 for the channel considered, by virtue of symmetry, it may be
that this plane coincides with the neutral plane of the former case.
rf or qt of these two mutually perpendicular planes with the plane
cross section locates a point that is called the shear center. J3 The
center is designated by the let er S in Fig. 7-20(c). The shear center
cross section lies on a longitudinal line parallel to the axis of the
]2 When the thickness of a channel is variable, it is more convenient to find F]
V by using the respective shear flows, i.e., F] = (qa/2)b and V = c+h/
J-hi2 2 q
. Since the flanges are thin, the vertical shear force carried by them is negligible.
(b) (c) (d) Eggenschwyter and R. Mail art of Switzerland clarified this concept only
Fig. 7-20 Deriving location of shear center for a channel. 1921.
384 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-8. Shear Center 385

beam. Any transverse force applied through the shear center ca PLE 7-7
torsion of the beam. A detailed investigation of this problem
when a member of any cross-sectional area is twisted, the twist the approximate location of the shear center for the cross section of the I
shown in Fig. 7-22(a). Note that the flanges are unequal.
place around the shear center, which remains fixed. For this reaso n
shear center is sometimes called the center of twist.
>lution
For cross-sectional areas having one axis of symmetry, the shear
is always located on the axis of symmetry. For those that have is cross section has a horizontal axis of symmetry and the shear center is located
of symmetry, the shear center coincides with the centreid of the it; where it is located remains to be answered. Applied force P causes signif-
sectional area. This is the case for the I beam that was considered bending and shear stresses only in the flanges, and the contribution of the
previous section. Web to the resistance of applied force P is negligible.
The exact location of the shear center for unsymmetrical cross Let the shear force resisted by the left flange of the beam be V, and by the (a)

of thick materials ' is dif icult to obtain and is known only in a few V2. For equilibrium, V + V2 = P. Likewise, to have no twist of
section, from  M, = 0, Pe = V2h (or Pf = Vh). Thus, only V2 remains
If the material is thin, as has been assumed in the preceding be determined to solve the problem. This may be done by noting that the right
relatively simple procedures may always be devised to locate the actually an ordinary rectangular beam. The shear stress (or shear flow)
center of the cross section. The usual procedure consists of such a beam is distributed parabolically, Fig. 7-22(b), and since the area of a
the shear forces, as F and V before, at a section, and then findin is two-thirds of the base times the maximum altitude, V2 = b2(q2)max.
location of the external force necessary to keep these forces in since the total shear V = P, by Eq. 7-5, (q2)max = VQ[I = PQ[I, where
rium. is the statical moment of the upper half of the right-hand flange, and I is the Shear flow in
of inertia of the whole section. Hence, right flange

(h)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
EXAMPLE 7-6
2
Pe = V2h = b2(q2)m, , h - hb2PQI Fig. 7-22
Find the approxirfiate location of the shear center for a beam with the cross
of the channel shown in Fig. 7-21. 2hb2_ 2hb2 b2t2 b2 h t2b 3 hi2 (7-14)

Solution www.avs4you.com
e=- -Q= 31 2 7=7'12
12 is the moment of inertia of the right-hand flange around
-
the neutral
I
axis.
Instead of using Eq. 7-12 directly, some further simplifications may be made. it may be shown that f = hI/I, where I applies to the left flange. If
moment of inertia of a thin-walled channel around its neutral axis may web of the beam is thin, as originally assumed, I  I + 12, and e + � = h,
with sufficient accuracy by neglecting the moment of inertia of the flanges as is to be expected.
their own axes (only!). This expression for I may then be substituted into Eq.
12 and; after simplifications, a formula for e of channels is obtained.

I /web + (Ad2)nanges = th3/12 + 2bt(h/2) 2 = th3/12 + bth2/2

b2h2t b2h2t b
(7-1
41 4(bth2/2 + th3/12) 2 + h/3b A similar analysis leads to the conclusion that the shear center for a
angle is located at the intersection of the center lines of its
Equation 7-13 shows that when the width of flanges b is very large, legs, as shown in Figs. 7-23(a) and (b). This fol ows since the shear flow
its maximum value of b/2. When h is very large, e approaches its minimum every section, as c-c, is directed along the center line of a leg. These
of zero. Otherwise, e assumes an intermediate value between these two
10"
For the numerical data given in Fig. 7-21,
shear flows yield two identical forces, F, in the legs. The vertical com-
ponents of these forces equal the vertical shear applied through S. An
situation is also found for any angle or T section, as shown in
e = = 1.87 in Figs. 7-24(a) and (b). The location of the shear center for various members
2 + 10/(3 x 5)
particularly important in aircraft applications. 14
Hence, the shear center S is 1.87 - 0.05 = 1.82 in from the outside
of the channel.
4 For further details, see E. F. Bruhn, Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle
Fig. 7.2t
(Cincinnati: Tri-State, 1965). See also P. Kuhn, Stresses in Aircraft
Structures (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1956).
386 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec� 7-9. Combined Direct and Torsional Shear Stresses 387

an be combined vectorial y.5 Generally, the maximum torsional shear

.sses as well as the maximum direct shear stress for beams occur at
c ihe boundaries of cross sections and are collinear. Therefore, an algebraic
of these stresses gives the combined shear stress at a point. However,
�of such members, a vectorial sum of the direct and torsional
Stresses is necessary.
In treating beam problems, as noted earlier, it must be recognized that
addition to the shear stresses discussed before, generally, normal
;ses caused by bending also act on the elements considered. Proce-
{) {) (a) {b)
for combining such normal stresses with shear stresses are dis-
Fig. 7-23 Shear center for an Fig. 7-24 Shear center for the ssed in the next chapter.
equal leg angle is at S. sections shown is at S.

P As remarked earlier,
in order to prevent torsion of a. beam, the VIPLE 7-8
force must act through shear the
center. When such a force forms an:
with the vertical, it is best to resolve it into components alo.g the the maximum shear stress due to the applied forces in plane A-B of the 10-
axes of the cross section, as shown in Fig. 6-38. If force P is diameter high-strength steel shaft shown in Fig. 7-26(a).
outside shear center S, as shown in Fig. 7-25, two equal but
forces P can be introduced at S without changing the problem. 25 The inverse problem of resolving a shear stress was considered in connection
addition to the stresses caused by P applied at S, the torsional with Fig. 4-34.
caused by the torque equal to Pd must be considered, as
Chapter 4.
It is to be noted that generally, in addition NON-ACTIVATED VERSION to the shear stresses discu
N 250 N

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in this chapter, bending stresses usually also act on the elements con T= 20 N'm 20 N-m
Fig. 7-25 Torsion-bending of ered. Transformation of this kind of state of stress is discussed
a channel.
8. In the remainder of this chapter, only superposition of the shear V=250N
is considered.
M = 25 N-m

T=20 N-m

{a) (b)

7-9. Combined Direct and Torsional Shear Stresses

The analysis for combined direct and torsional shear stresses consists
two parts that are then superposed. In one of these parts, the direct

 B
stresses are determined using the procedures of Part A of this
in the second, the shear stresses caused by torques susceptible
methods of analysis treated in Chapter 4 are used.
The two analyses for combined shear stresses must be determined
the same elementary area regardless of cause. Multiplying these
by the respective area gives forces. since these forces can iA
torial y, on reversing the process, i.e., on dividing the vector sum b (f)
initial area, one obtains the combined shear stress. Such being the (c) (d) (e)
the shear stresses acting on the same plane of an inf'mitesimal Fig. 7-26
Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-10. Stresses in Closely Coiled Helical Springs 389

Solution Tc 20 X 103 X 5
(Tmax)torsio n -- -- = 102 MPa
J 982
Since only the stresses due to the applied forces are required, the VQ 4V 4 x 250
shaft need not be considered. The free-body of a segment of the shaft is (*m,,)aieot .. 4 MPa
It 3A 3 x 78.5
in Fig. 7-26(b). The system of forces at the cut necessary to keep this
in equilibrium consists of a torque, T = 20 N.m, a shear, V = 250 � E= 102 + 4 = 106MPa
bending moment, M = 25 N.m.
Due to torque T, the shear stresses in cut A-B vary linearly from the representation of.the shear stress at E with the matching stresses on
the shaft and reach the maximum value given by Eq. 4-3, m, = Tc/J. longitudinal planes is shown in Fig. 7-26(0. No normal stress acts on this
maximum shear stresses, agreeing in sense with the resisting torque T, are it is located on the neutral axis.
at points A, B, D, and E in Fig. 7-26(c).
The direct shear stresses caused by shear force V may be obtained by
Eq. 7-6, � = VQ/[t. For elements A and B, Fig. 7-26(d), Q = 0; hence,
The shear stress reaches its maximum value at level ED. For this, Q is
the cross-hatched area shown in Fig. 7-26(d) multipqed by.the distance
*a7-10. Stresses in Closely Coiled Helical Springs
centraid to the neutral axis. The lat er quantiW is y = 4c/3r, where c is the springs, such as the one shown in Fig. 7-27(a), are often used as
of the cross-sectional area; see Table 2 in the Appendix. Hence, of machines. With certain limitations, these springs may be ana-
for stresses by a method similar to the one used in the preceding
� rc 2 4c 2C 3 The discussion wil be limited to springs manufactured from
Q= 2 3,r 3 or wires of circular cross section? Moreover, any one coil of such
wil be assumed to lie in a plane that is nearly petI)endicular to
axis of the spring. This requires that the adjoining coils be close to-
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
Moreover, since t = 2c, and I = ,lrb4/4, the maximum direct shear stress
With this limitation, a section taken perpendicular to the axis of
spring's rod becomes nearly vertical. 8 Hence, to maintain equilibrium
VQ _ V 2C 3 4 _ 4V _ 4V

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It 2c 3 TfC 4 31rC 2 3A a segment of the spring, only a shear force V = F and a torque T =
quired at any section through the rod; see Fig. 7-27(b). Note that
where A is the entire cross-sectional area of the This section is on a specialized topic, and
rod. (A similar expression is optional.
derived in Example 7-3 for a beam of rectangular section.) In Fig.
7-26(d), discussion on springs, see A.M. Wahl, Mechanical Springs
shear stress is shown acting down on the elementary areas at E, C, and D. Penton, 1944).
direction agrees with the direction of shear V. This eliminates the necessity of considering an axial force and a bending
at the section taken' through the spring.
To find the maximum combined shear stress in plane A-B, the stresses
in Figs. 7-26(c) and (d) are superposed. Inspection shows that the maximum s F F
stress is at E, since in the two diagrams, the shear stresses at E act in the
direction. There are no direct shear stresses at A and B, while at C there
torsional shear stress. The two shear stresses act in opposite directions
The combined shear stresses at the five points, A, B, C, D, and E, d =2c
of the interior points, require no formal vectorial addition for
magnitudes. Since the torsional shear stresses at the interior points are
than those at the boundary, the maximum combined shear occurs at E. T= F7
V=F

d 4  x 104
J .. 982 1111114

Axiofs 
32 32
J the spring
I = - = 491 mm 4
2
F

A =  'rrd2 = 78.5 mm 2 (b)

Fig. 7-27 Closely coiled
(a) helical spring.
390 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Sec. 7-tt. Deflection of Closely Coiled Helical Springs 39'

1.6
T = FT ? is the distance from the axis of the spring to the centroid of the
F (up) cross-sectional area.
Here it should be noted that in previous work, it has been
.4
that if a shear is present at a section, a change in the bending
must take place
the rod, yet no bending
along the member.
moment
Here
nor a change
a shear acts at every
in it appears to occur.
.3

1.2
k Springaxis---
is so only because the rod is curved. Such an element of the rod
from the top is shown in Fig. 7-28. At both ends of the element, the ton 1.1
F (down)
are equal to by, and, using vectorial representation, act in the 1.0
Fig. 7-29 Stress-concentration
FT
shown. The component of these vectors toward the axis of the spring 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 factors for helical round-wire
Fig. 7-28 resolved at the point of intersection of the vectors, 2by drb/2 = by 27 compression or tension
opposes the couple developed by the vertical shears V = F, which Spring index, m =  springs.
? d4) apart.
The maximum shear stress at an arbitrary section through the rod K may be interpreted as a stress-concentration factor for closely
be obtained as in the preceding example, by superposing the torsi o iled helical springs made from circular rods. A plot of K vs. the spring
and the direct shearing stresses. This maximum shear stress occurs at' shown TM in Fig. 7-29. For heavy springs, the spring index is small;
inside of the coil at point E, Fig. 7-27(b). However, in the hence, the stress-concentration factor K becomes important. For all
springs, it has become customa,7 to assume that the shear stress factor K accounts for the correct amount of direct shear stress.
by the direct shear force is uniformly distributed over the ; high stresses are commonly allowed in springs because high-strength
area of the rod. Hence, the nominal direct shear stress for any are used in their fabrication. For good-quality spring steel, work-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
the cross section is, = F/A. Superposition of this nominal direct and ing shear stresses range anywhere from 200 to 700 MPa (30 to 100 ksi).
torsional shear stress at E gives the maximum combined shear
Thus, since T = by, d = 2c, and J = 'rrd4/32,
Deflection of Closely Coiled Helical Springs

,m = +-f = J + 1
www.avs4you.com
,rrd 3 + 1 Ilscussed
completeness,
in this section.
the deflection
Attention
of closely
wil be
coiled
confined
helical
to closely
springs
coiled
wil
hel-
be

springs with
a large spring index, i.e., the diameter of the wire wil
It is seen from this equation that as the diameter of the rod d assumed small
in comparison with the radius of the coil. This permits
small in relation to the coil radius ?, the effect of the direct shear treatment of an element of a spring between two closely adjoining
also becomes small. On the other hand, if the reverse is true, the through the wire as a straight circular bar in torsion. The effect
term in the parentheses becomes important. However, in the lat er direct shear on the deflection of the spring wil be ignored. This is
the results indicated by Eq. 7-16 are considerably in error, and Eq. permissible as the lat er effect is small.
should not be used, as it is based on the torsion formula for straight Consider a helical spring such as shown in Fig. 7-30. A typical element
As d becomes numerically comparable to ?, the length of the inside of this spring is subjected throughout its length to a torque T = bY.
of the coil dif ers greatly from the length of the outside fibers, and torque causes a relative rotation between the two adjoining planes,
assumptions of strain used in the torsion formula are not applicable. and B, and with sufficient accuracy, the amount of this rotation may
The spring problem has been solved exactly m by the methods by using Eq. 4-14, d4) = T dx/JG, for straight circular bars.
mathematical theory of elasticity, and while these results this equation, the applied torque T = bY, dx is the length of the
for any one spring, they may be made to depend on a single G is the shear modulus of elasticity, and J is the polar moment
m = 27/d, which is called the spring index. Thus, Eq. 7-16 may be inertia of the wire's cross-sectional area.
writ en as If the plane A of the wire is imagined fixed, the rotation of the plane
D
20 An analytical expression that gives the value of K within 1 or 2 percent of
'rmax
= K 16by
,rd--
(7-1 true value is frequently used. This expression in terms of spring index rn is
(4rn - 1)/(4rn - 4) + 0.615/rn. It was derived by A.M. Wahl in the 1940s
9 O. Goehner, "Die Berechnung Zylindrischer Schraubenfedern," of some simplifying assumptions and is known as the Wahl correction Fig. 7-30 Deriving deflection
des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure 76/1 (March 1932): 269. for curvature in helical springs. for a helical spring.
392 Shear Stresses In Beams and Related Problems Problems

B is given by the foregoing expression. The contribution of this

to the movement of force F at C is equal to distance BC multiplied A - 6473 or n
angle d4, i.e., CD = BC d4. However, since element AB is
tance CD is also small, and this distance may be considered
(although it is an arc) to line BC. Moreover, only the vertical *EXAMPLE 7-9
of this deflection is significant, as in a spring consisting of many
the maximum stress in the 15-mm diameter steel rod shown in Fig. 7-31
for any element on one side of the spring, there is a coxes

.125m
a 3-kg mass freely'fal ing through 0.5 m. The steel helical spring of 35
alent element on the other. The diametrically opposite elements outside diameter inserted into the system is made of 5-mm round wire and
spring balance out the horizontal component of the deflection and 10 live coils. Let E = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa.
only the vertical deflection of force F. Therefore, by finding the
increment ED of the deflection of force F due to an element of s
and summing such increments for all elements of the spring,
of the whole spring is obtained. static deflection of the 3-kg mass exerting a force of 3g = 29.4 N on the Fig. 7-3t
From similar triangles CDE and CBH, is computed first. It consists of two parts: the deflection of the rod given
Eq. 2-9, and the deflection of the spring given by Eq. 7-18b. For use in Eq.
�18b, ? = 15 mm. Then, from Eq. 2-28, the dynamic force acting on the spring
ED HB CD
the rod is found. This force is used for finding the stress in the rod. Here the
CD = B- or ED =-HB cross-sectional area A = r x 152/4 = 177 mm 2.

However, CD = BC d4, HB = ?, and ED may be denoted by dA, PL 64F?3N

represents an infinitesimal vertical deflection of the spring --- A ro d q- A spr =  q-  Gd
of an element AB. Thus, dA = ? dqb and
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 177
29.4
x 200
x 750
x 103
+
64 x
80
29.4
x 103
x 153
x 54
x 10
= 1.27 mm

However, T = F, and for a closely

A =
coiled
dA =
spring, the length L of 
?dqb = ? JG
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JG
= W (1 + 1 + 2tt)=29.4 (1 + /1 + 2x 500h
wire may be taken with sufficient accuracy as 2,rN, where N is the
PdynA 855
177
4.8 MPa
ber of live or active coils of the spring. Hence, the deflection A
spring is a free fal of the mass of 0.5 m without the spring, an elastic'rod stress would
210 MPa. For the system with the spring, most of the reduction in stress is
A - 2F3N
JG
(7-1 to Asp r.

or if the value of J for the wire is substituted, 'robiems

7-3 (20-penny) common nails, spaced 6 in apart and stag-
64F3N gered, when force P = 500 lb is applied to the middle
A -- --
Gd 4 The cross section of a beam made up of a ful - of the span? Calculate the shear flow two ways: using
x 6 in member reinforced with a 2 x 6 in plank the cross section of the plank and then using the cross
shown in the figure. What forces are exerted on 20d section of the larger member.
Equations 7-18a and 7-18b give the deflection of a closely coiled
spring along its axis when such a spring is subjected to either a
or compressive force F. In these formulas, the effect of the direct
stress on the deflection is neglected, .i.e., they give only the effect
torsional deformations.
The behavior of a spring may be conveniently def'med by its
constant k. From Eq. 7-18b, the spring constant for a helical spring
from a wire with a circular cross section is
Fig. P74
394 Shear Stresses in Beams and Related Problems Problems 395
5O
7-2. The shear diagram for the box beam supporting shown, determine the bolt spacing for the a total vertical shear of 150 k is transmit ed, what
a uniformly distributed load is conservatively approx- gion of the span. The bolts are arranged in the spacing of rivets A and B? For the girder
imated for design by the stepped diagram shown in the the allowable shear force per high-strength bolt is und the neutral axis, I is .14,560 in 4. Assume a-in
figure. If the beam is nailed together with 16d (16- kN. s and note that one rivet is good for 6.63 k in single
penny) box nails from four ful -sized pieces, as shown 13.25 k in double shear, and 11.3 k in beating
7-5. A wooden box beam, made up from 2-in
in the cross section, what nail spacing should be used a -in plate.
boards, has the dimensions shown  the figure.
along the span? Assume that each nail is good for 75 beam transmits a vertical shear of 760 lb, what A simply supported beam has a cross section con-
lb in shear. of a C 12 x 20.7 and a W 18 x 50 fastened
be the longitudinal spacing of the nails (a)
2" necting board A with boards B and C, and (b) ' 4a-in-diameter bolts spaced longitudinally 6
900
...
lb
1 600 lb
 necting board D with boards B and C? apart
is
in each
loaded