Research in Science & Technological Education

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Why biosecurity matters: students’ knowledge

of biosecurity and implications for future
engagement with biosecurity initiatives

Rajesh Ram, Bev France & Sally Birdsall

To cite this article: Rajesh Ram, Bev France & Sally Birdsall (2016) Why biosecurity
matters: students’ knowledge of biosecurity and implications for future engagement with
biosecurity initiatives, Research in Science & Technological Education, 34:1, 69-84, DOI:
10.1080/02635143.2015.1066324

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2015.1066324

Published online: 25 Jul 2015.

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 Research in Science & Technological Education, 2016
Vol. 34, No. 1, 69–84, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2015.1066324

Why biosecurity matters: students’ knowledge of biosecurity and

implications for future engagement with biosecurity initiatives
Rajesh Ram*, Bev France and Sally Birdsall

Faculty of Education, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Background: Research on biosecurity is important as New Zealand’s agricultural

export-driven economy is susceptible to biosecurity threats. Because New
Zealand is reliant on the primary industries to drive its economy, bovine diseases
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

such as foot and mouth could have a devastating effect on the economy.
Purpose: Making sure that the general public are aware of the importance of
maintaining biosecurity is crucial in order to protect New Zealand’s economy,
human health, the environment, and social and cultural values. New Zealand
Year 9 students’ knowledge of biosecurity was gauged as these students
represented the next generation of individuals tasked to maintain biosecurity in
New Zealand.
Design: A qualitative approach using the interpretive mode of inquiry was used
to investigate the knowledge about biosecurity with New Zealand Year 9
students. Questionnaires and interviews were the data collection tools.
Sample: One hundred and seventy-one students completed a questionnaire that
consisted of Likert-type questions and open-ended questions. Nine students were
interviewed about their knowledge.
Results: The findings showed that New Zealand Year 9 students lacked specific
knowledge about unwanted plants, animals and microorganisms. These students
saw illicit drug plants as unwanted plants and mainly saw possums as unwanted
animals in New Zealand. Their knowledge about unwanted microorganisms in
New Zealand was dominated by human-disease-causing microbes. A lack of
knowledge of biosecurity issues in New Zealand was seen as the major factor in
these students limited understanding of biosecurity.
Conclusions: Based on these findings, it can be said that knowledge of an issue
is critical in enabling individuals to develop an understanding about biosecurity.
Explicit teaching of biosecurity-related curriculum topics could provide New
Zealand Year 9 students with an opportunity to develop knowledge about
biosecurity in New Zealand.
Keywords: biosecurity; New Zealand Curriculum (NZC); unwanted animals,
plants, microorganisms; science education

Introduction
New Zealand’s reliance and dependence on agricultural production to drive its
economy brings with it immense problems (Jones, Hussein, and MacLeod 2012).
Notably its major land-based primary-produce industries of forestry, horticulture,
farming and aquaculture industries are vulnerable to biosecurity threats (The New
Zealand Biodiversity Strategy 2000). Consequently, achieving and maintaining
effective biosecurity is crucial but increasingly challenging as New Zealand’s

*Corresponding author. Email: rajesh.ram@auckland.ac.nz

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 70 R. Ram et al.

interactions with the world become more complex due to the globalisation of trade
and the movement of people across continents. Such activity could provide
opportunities for an invasion and establishment of exotic organisms that could pose
a significant and ongoing threat to New Zealand’s economy and its unique native
biodiversity.
In spite of New Zealand’s world-class biosecurity system, a number of invasive
exotic organisms like the Varroa bee mite (Varroa destructor) have established them-
selves. The arrival and spread of the Varroa bee mite in New Zealand has devastated
the apiculture industry. The reduced numbers of bees are not only affecting the prof-
its of honey-producing businesses but the impact on crop pollination is equally
damaging, especially the pollination of pasture legumes (MPI 2013a). It has been
forecasted that New Zealand will lose between NZ $400 and $900 million from its
economy over the next 35 years (National Bee Keepers Association of New Zealand
2014).
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

New Zealand’s biosecurity system is administered by The Ministry for Primary

Industries [MPI] which is the leading government agency responsible for maintain-
ing biosecurity. This Ministry administers the Biosecurity Act (1993) which provides
the legal mandate for ‘excluding, eradicating and effectively managing pests and
unwanted organisms’ (MPI 2012a para.1). This mandate is reflected in the multiple
roles undertaken by the MPI and is expressed in their vision of biosecurity. The
MPI see biosecurity as ‘the protection of New Zealand’s economy, environment, and
people’s health and social and cultural well-being from pests and diseases. Its role is
to prevent new pests and diseases arriving, and eradicating and controlling those
already present’ (MPI 2012b para.1). This statement from MPI identifies its four
responsibilities. First is a wide-ranging protective role. For example, the MPI aims
to protect the economy because the introduction and establishment of an exotic
organism could have a disastrous effect on New Zealand’s primary produce and
aquaculture industries. Of equal importance is the protection of New Zealand’s
unique biodiversity which has evolved during its long geological isolation. The
introduction of an exotic organism has the potential to impact negatively on this
endemic biodiversity, especially when the organism is a cultural icon such as the
kiwi (Apteryx) and the giant kauri tree (Agathis australis) there is a societal as well
as an environmental impact. The societal function of protection also occurs when
MPI protects New Zealand society from organisms that either cause or are vectors
for human diseases, such as the Southern Salt Marsh mosquito (Ochlerotatus camp-
torhyncus Syn. Aedes camptorhynchus) which is a vector for the Ross River Virus.
This vector was discovered in the Hawkes Bay region of New Zealand in 1988 and
successfully eradicated. Another role taken on by the MPI is to prevent exotic
organisms from crossing New Zealand’s borders. In this role, the MPI polices entry
points mainly airports, seaports and mail systems through x-rays of baggage,
detection dogs and inspections.
A further role is the eradication of exotic organisms that have crossed New
Zealand’s borders. For example, in 2003, an adult Asian Gypsy Moth
(Lymantria dispar) that is internationally considered to be amongst the most
serious of forest insect pests, was found in Hamilton. An eradication programme
was put into place by MPI that consisted of aerial spraying, the use of
pheromone traps and the control of the movement of plant material in and out
of the affected area.
 Research in Science & Technological Education 71

Its final role is to control exotic organisms already established in New Zealand.
Didymo (Didymosphenia geminata) is an example. It is a diatom that forms a dense
brown suffocating colony over rocks, submerged plants and other materials in
freshwater waterways. The MPI has declared the whole of the South Island of New
Zealand a controlled area, meaning that people are legally bound to prevent the
spread of didymo. This control extends to the development of a long-term manage-
ment plan to raise public awareness and change the behaviour of people who use
freshwater waterways. The control plan includes the monitoring of waterways
throughout New Zealand.
Consequently, the role of MPI has become progressively more challenging, not
only because of the diverse ways in which exotic invasive species can be introduced
into New Zealand, but also because people are increasingly becoming divorced from
the concept of biosecurity in New Zealand. Because of increasing non-compliance
the MPI employs a punitive regulation system that carries the threat of criminal or
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

other potentially severe penalties for people not complying with regulations
(Baldwin 2004). The justification of such punitive measures can be explained
through an examination of theories based around human action and consequence.
The Deterrence and the Rational Choice theories are used to explain an
individual’s behaviour towards enforcement initiatives such as biosecurity at the
border (Winter and May 2001). Deterrence and Rational Choice theories appear to
be similar in the sense that both theories suppose that human actions are based on
logical decisions.
The main tenet of the Deterrence Theory is that the fear of legal punishment will
deter the crime and the MPI’s current system of biosecurity fines for incursions
appears to be based around deterrence. For example, failing to declare risk goods
upon entering New Zealand may result in a fine up to a $100,000 and/or five years
imprisonment (MPI 2013b). However, researchers see the Deterrence Theory as con-
frontational and predictive of human behaviour. For example, Gunningham (2010)
argues that the Deterrence Theory assumes that people are sensible, which means
that if enough offenders are apprehended at sufficient frequencies and punished, then
the punished and other possible offenders will be deterred from breaking the law.
The Rational Choice Theory proposes that an individual’s action, either criminal
or legitimate, is dependent upon which action maximises gain at minimum cost
(Akers 1990). However, it has been argued that the Rational Choice Theory does
not explain certain non-compliant behaviour. For example, researchers postulate that
people may choose not to follow rules even if it is not in their self-interest (Frank
1987; Sutinen and Kuperan 1999).
However, the current way of dealing with biosecurity non-compliance does not
appear to be working as more and more people choose to break the law. Rather than
deterrence, another way of maintaining biosecurity in New Zealand could be
through sharing the responsibility of biosecurity with the rest of New Zealand’s
population. It is argued that why have a few hundred people trying to maintain
biosecurity in New Zealand when you can have the whole country behind the
biosecurity cause? Following this inclusive path would align with the MPI’s goals
as they publically state that ‘it is critical that all New Zealander’s participate and
take responsibility for risks’ (MPI 2012c para.3).
In order for the community to be an effective force of biosecurity-responsible
citizens that can contribute to the biosecurity initiative, they would require knowl-
edge about biosecurity to make informed decisions and take correct action.
 72 R. Ram et al.

Researchers in the field of environmental education have theorised the link

between knowledge and action. For example, Hines, Hungerford and Tomera (1987)
identified knowledge of issues, knowledge of action strategies and strong attitudes
as significant precursors for pro-environmental behaviour. In contrast, Kollmuss and
Agyeman’s (2002) meta-analysis of knowledge-attitude-action concluded that the
knowledge-attitude-action relationship existed but was weak.
Jensen (2002) also sees a strong link between knowledge and taking action and
identifies four types of knowledge needed to take effective action. He postulates four
dimensions of knowledge through which problems like biosecurity could be
investigated. They start with: knowledge about nature and prevalence of the issues;
knowledge related to the root cause of environmental problems; knowledge about
how to effect change; and knowledge about developing a vision for the future.
To engage the help of the community in the biosecurity initiative as engaged citi-
zens the researchers believed that it would be beneficial to first find out what New
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

Zealanders knew about biosecurity. Hence, it was decided to investigate a subsection

of the community by establishing the research question as what do New Zealand
Year 9 (13-year-old) students know about biosecurity.

Research design
An interpretive mode of inquiry was adopted for this research because it allowed the
researcher to gather students’ personal points of view and then interpret their mean-
ing by using the MPI’s definition as an analysis tool (Neuman 2003). Purposive
sampling was used to identify two urban multicultural schools from Auckland
because these school populations represented the multicultural nature of Auckland
City. Thirteen-year old students (Year 9) were chosen for this research because it
was the researchers view that they could reflect the next generation of New
Zealanders’ views of biosecurity and their opinions about its importance to the
economy, environment and society.
Two data-gathering methods were used, a questionnaire and interviews. The
questionnaire was based on Shelly, Jacob, and Floyd’s (1996) noxious weed survey
which was used to investigate the public’s knowledge about noxious weeds through
a telephone survey. The specific objectives of their research were to determine peo-
ple’s knowledge level about noxious weeds, their attitude towards noxious weeds, if
people were aware of how they could be spreading noxious weeds and the best
methods of distributing information to people who were unaware of noxious weeds.
The questionnaire was adapted by rewording the questions. For example, Shelley
et al. asked, ‘In your opinion, how serious a problem are noxious weeds in
Montana?’ was reworded to ‘In your opinion how serious a problem are unwanted
organisms in New Zealand?’.
The questionnaire was administered to 171 students – 89 males and 82 females.
The questionnaire included Likert-scale-type questions and open-ended question
where students’ knowledge of biosecurity was explored together with their knowl-
edge about the exotic organisms that cause biosecurity issues. Some components of
the questionnaire have not been included in this research report.
Students were purposively chosen for individual interviews. The criterion for
choice were those students who had provided detailed accounts of their biosecurity
experience. It was hoped that this additional questioning would enable the researcher
to gain a deeper understanding of these students’ understandings about biosecurity.
 Research in Science & Technological Education 73

Five males and four females were interviewed. Questions were asked that allowed
students to expand on their questionnaire responses.

Data analysis
The analysis of the open-ended questions and interviews were based on the MPI’s
definition of biosecurity which is, ‘the protection of New Zealand’s economy,
environment and people’s health and social and cultural well-being from pests and
diseases. Its role is to prevent new pests and diseases arriving, and eradicating and
controlling those already present’ (MPI 2012b para.1).
The analysis of the open-ended questions was conducted by thematic categorisa-
tion. For example, preventative measures are frequently taken by the MPI to stop
the spread of harmful agents, like the advice given to recreational fly fisherman in
the South Island of New Zealand to wash their fly fishing gear before moving into
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

new waterways to prevent the spread of didymo (Didymosphenia geminata) (MPI

2013c). Hence, all responses related to ideas such as, ‘preventing extinction’ and
‘preventing overseas animals causing harm to the country’ were allocated the ‘Pre’
code. The ‘Pre’ abbreviation stood for the Prevention category (see Table 4.51).
Categorised and Likert-scale-type-related question data were entered into the
SPSS qualitative analysis software programme through which frequency tables for
each question was generated (SPSS 2013). This allowed data related to each
response to be viewed as a frequency and percentage and enabled the researchers to
determine patterns and trends in the students’ responses.
Interview data was transcribed and thematically analysed and linked to categories
developed from the questionnaire analysis. As a result, the interview data could be
matched and compared to the questionnaire data to look for similarities or new con-
cepts not mentioned in the questionnaire which provided a deeper insight into the
reasoning for students’ questionnaire responses.

Findings
Dimensions of student knowledge
To gauge the knowledge of biosecurity of Year 9 students, they were asked to write
a statement explaining biosecurity. This request provided students with the
opportunity to state their understanding of biosecurity. Some students had more than
one idea in their explanation of biosecurity and this resulted in multiple response
data which was thematically analysed and grouped into six categories. The
categories, the frequency of student responses and the percentages are displayed in
Table 1.
One dimension of students’ ideas related to protection. The Protection category
had the highest number of response rate at 29.8%. Responses in this category were
related to ideas such as, ‘protecting animals and plants in New Zealand’, ‘protecting
ecosystem’ and ‘protecting borders’. Protection, one of the dominant ideas used by
these students to define biosecurity, relates to one aspect within the definition of
biosecurity that is based on the MPI’s definition of biosecurity. This level of
response indicates that these students have an understanding that biosecurity is a
form of protection. However, students may not be clear in their understanding of the
specific dangers that the New Zealand biosecurity system is designed to protect.
 74 R. Ram et al.

Table 1. Students’ understanding of biosecurity.

Categories Frequency of student responses Percentage (%)
Protection 57 29.8
Prevention 49 25.7
Stewardship 13 6.8
Outcome-related 39 20.4
Agent 2 1.0
Monitoring 31 16.2
Total 191 100.0

The second highest response rate was in the Prevention category at 25.7%.
Responses were related to ideas such as, ‘preventing extinction’ and ‘preventing
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

overseas animals causing harm to the country’. Preventative measures are fre-
quently taken by the MPI to stop the spread of harmful agents, as in the afore-
mentioned example of recreational fly fisherman in the South Island being
advised to wash their fly fishing gear before moving into new waterways to pre-
vent the spread of didymo (Didymosphenia geminata) (MPI 2013c). This cate-
gory of responses appear to be in line with the MPI’s biosecurity protocol of
dealing with unwanted organisms.
Outcome-related was the next highest category with 20.4% of responses. This
category consisted of ideas that related to an outcome, rather than an action. For
example, responses were related to ideas such as, ‘removal of unwanted diseases’
and ‘removal of biological threat’. These responses illustrate a view of a biosecurity
system as designed to achieve a sole purpose, to protect us from the threat from
unwanted diseases.
The Monitoring category was coded to include ideas around the checking of
goods, plants and organisms in and out of the country and included 16.2% of
responses. Examples of responses in this category included, ‘managing and control-
ling organisms coming into New Zealand’ and not ‘allowing any foreign plants into
the country’. Monitoring the spread and health of native flora and fauna in any given
area is an important way for the MPI to determine the activity and spread of
unwanted animals. This type of response aligns with the MPI’s role of monitoring,
and surveillance of exotic organisms that have entered New Zealand.
The Stewardship category (6.8%) stemmed from ideas around guardianship and
preventing damage to native species. Examples of responses in this category
included statements such as, ‘stopping disturbance to the food chain’ and ‘keeping
New Zealand safe’. The concept of guardianship is expected as the MPI states, ‘it is
critical that all New Zealanders’ participate and take responsibility for risks’ (MPI
2012c para.3). However, only 6.8% of responses were received for this category
suggesting that the biosecurity message put out by the MPI is not apparent for this
cohort of Year 9 students.
Agent was the last category with 2 (1%) responses. These two responses related
to the activity or the cause of harm. For example, ‘preventing overseas animals from
causing harm to the country’ were recorded. Ensuring the well-being of the environ-
ment is part of the mandate of the MPI’s biosecurity strategy. Consequently, it could
be implied that two students were aware of the end point of the MPI’s biosecurity
goal.
 Research in Science & Technological Education 75

Complexity of ideas present in students’ definition of biosecurity

A further analysis was conducted to uncover the complexity of ideas present in stu-
dents’ definitions of biosecurity. This analysis enabled the researcher to determine
individual students’ level of understanding by uncovering the complexity of ideas
they held about biosecurity. Data were gathered by further analysing the categories
already developed in Table 1. Each student’s response was analysed by identifying
the number of different ideas present and tallying the results into a table. The
complexity of ideas present in students’ responses is shown in Table 2.
This analysis revealed that 75/171 (43.9%) of students did not provide an answer
for this question. This result is significant as it could mean that these students either
did not know about biosecurity, so did not know how to provide a definition, or
knew something about biosecurity but were unable to put it into meaningful
sentences.
Table 2 shows that one quarter (24.6%) of students provided one idea in their
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

biosecurity explanation. This level of response indicates that these students have a
narrow understanding of biosecurity and are unaware of the multiple roles adopted
by MPI. An example of this type of narrow understanding was:
Biosecurity means keeping unwanted pests out of NZ. (S 9)
This response suggested that New Zealand could be protected by keeping unwanted
pests out and it was placed in the Protection category. However, biosecurity involves
more than protection so this response can be regarded as indicating that students
with one idea in their definition of biosecurity had a simplistic view of biosecurity.
Twenty-five (14.6%) students had two ideas in their definitions of biosecurity.
An example of such a response such as:
Biosecurity is keeping pests and animals out of NZ that can be dangerous or cause
problems in NZ environment. (S 27)
In this response the student (S 27) saw biosecurity as protecting New Zealand by
keeping unwanted organisms out but also linked the activity of the unwanted organ-
ism to preventing negative future outcomes to the New Zealand environment. This
response was placed in the Protection and Prevention categories as two different
ideas were identified. It could be said that this group of students had a deeper
understanding of biosecurity.
Twenty students (11.7%) had three ideas in their definition of biosecurity. An
example of a response was:
Basically biosecurity is for keeping unwanted harmful foreign pests or diseases out of
the country. To stop the country from getting sick. For example few years back there
had been a case of an Australian, Queensland fruit fly that came to New Zealand.
Biosecurity is also about people wanting to ruin our country by bring foreign diseases/
problems. (S 45)

Table 2. Complexity of ideas in students’ responses.

Number and complexity of ideas present in students’ definitions of biosecurity
Number of ideas 0 1 2 3 4
Number of students 75 42 25 20 9
Percentage % 43.9 24.6 14.6 11.7 5.3
 76 R. Ram et al.

In S 45’s response, three ideas related to their understanding of biosecurity were

identified. The first idea alluded to keeping unwanted organisms out which was
placed in the Protection category. The second idea related to stopping the country
from getting sick, and was put in the Prevention category. The final idea in this
definition was placed in the Outcome related category because the student appeared
to believe that an outcome of biosecurity is to identify and prevent people from
harming New Zealand.
Nine students (5.3%) had four ideas in their definitions of biosecurity and an
example of a more comprehensive response was:
Biosecurity is about the protection of animals and plants in NZ, in biosecurity we try
to keep unwanted pests out of our country so that our wildlife is safe from predators
from other countries that NZ has not already been exposed to. (S 15)
Four different categories were allocated to this student’s response. The first idea
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

identified was protection of animals and plants and this was put in the Protection
category. The second idea related to monitoring, because only through constant
monitoring, unwanted pests can be kept out and consequently this was put into the
Monitoring category.
The third idea was related to stewardship where the student uses the term ‘our
country’ and ‘our wildlife’. Here the student showed concern for organisms living in
New Zealand and was allocated the Stewardship category. The final idea identified
in this definition of biosecurity related to the preventing organisms in New Zealand
from coming into contact with predators from other countries and was put in the
prevention category.
Students that were identified as having more than two ideas in their definitions
of biosecurity can be said to have a comprehensive understanding of biosecurity as
they were able to see the biosecurity system as having multiple roles. Interpretations
of biosecurity with two or more ideas can be likened to the MPI’s interpretation
where biosecurity is seen as an all-encompassing system.
With 43.9% of students unable to provide a written statement about their under-
standing of biosecurity and 39.2% of students having simplistic understanding of
biosecurity, it was decided to further explore levels of understanding by asking stu-
dents to identify an unwanted plant, animal and microorganism. This research focus
was important as it would allow the researchers to determine the specific knowledge
this cohort of students possessed relative to unwanted organisms in New Zealand.
Findings related to each will now be discussed.

Unwanted plants in New Zealand

Information about plants that are a biosecurity threat was collected by asking stu-
dents to name an unwanted harmful plant. These names were categorised and the
different categories of unwanted harmful plants and the number and percentages of
student responses are displayed in Table 3.
Fifty-seven (33.3%) students chose not to respond to this question as is shown
by the high number recorded in the No response category. Based on this level of
response it could be said that one-third of the students were not aware of unwanted
harmful plants.
Of those who did identify a harmful plant, the highest number of responses at 79
(46.2%) referred to a plant used for illicit drugs. For example, responses like,
 Research in Science & Technological Education 77

Table 3. Students’ knowledge about unwanted plants.

Name of unwanted harmful plant Number of students Percentage of students
Illicit drug plant 79 46.2
Pest plant 15 8.8
Poisonous plant 7 4.1
Cultivated plant 8 4.7
Unrelated 5 2.9
No response 57 33.3
Total 171 100.0

‘weed’, ‘cannabis’, ‘marijuana’, ‘heroin’, ‘magic mushroom’ and ‘poppy’ were

given to identify unwanted plants. These responses were placed in the Illicit drug
plant category and showed that these students’ perceptions of an unwanted harmful
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

plant in New Zealand was an illicit drug plant.

Many different species of pest plants are present in New Zealand. With 15
(8.8%) responses the Pest plant category received the next highest number.
Examples of student responses of pest plants included, ‘gorse’, ‘cutty grass’ and
‘thistle bushes’.
Poison ivy was identified as an unwanted plant so the Poisonous plants category
was created. Although many different species of poisonous plants exist in New
Zealand, the seven responses received all indicated poison ivy as the poisonous
plant.
The Cultivated plants category included the sub-categories of ‘Garden plants’
and ‘Agricultural plants’. The ‘Garden plants’ sub-category had six responses.
Examples of garden plants included, ‘palm tree’ and ‘cactus’. The ‘Agricultural
plant’ sub-category had two responses. Examples of agricultural plants included
‘tobacco plants’ and ‘pine trees’.
The Unrelated category was used to include plants that were native and
non-poisonous or non-living plants. Examples of responses placed for this category
included ‘mangrove’ and ‘plastic plants’. Only five responses were placed in this
category.
These data showed that only 8.8% of students were able to identify a pest plant.
But even more significant was that 46.2% of students thought that an unwanted pest
plant was an illicit drug plant. These results show that this cohort of students have a
lack of knowledge of specific unwanted plants in New Zealand and consider
unwanted plants to be drug plants.

Unwanted animals in New Zealand

Unwanted animals pose a major threat to the native flora and fauna in New Zealand
and so it was important to gauge how much knowledge students had of unwanted
animals. Data for this question were gathered by asking students to name an
unwanted animal in New Zealand. These responses were categorised as follows, and
the different categories of animals, the frequency of student responses and the
percentages are displayed in Table 4.
The highest number of responses was 53 (31%) and recorded in the No response
category. This lack of response could indicate that these students were unable to
name an unwanted animal and illustrates a lack of specific knowledge of unwanted
 78 R. Ram et al.

Table 4. Students’ knowledge about unwanted animals.

Unwanted animal Frequency of student responses Percentage (%)
Possums 48 28.1
Rats 16 9.4
Arthropods 16 9.3
Mustelids (stoats, ferrets) 14 8.2
Exotic animals 13 7.6
Non-native birds 6 3.5
Domesticated animals 5 3.0
No response 53 31.0
Total 171 100.0

animals in New Zealand. The data from the categories Possums, Rats, Mustelids,
and Domestic animals showed that nearly half (48.7%) of students identified a range
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

of mammalian unwanted predators. Possums were a popular choice at 48 (28.1%)

responses. Possums are responsible for destroying native flora and fauna and the
high number of responses in this category suggests students are aware of the damage
caused by possums. Other mammalian predators included Rats with 16 (9.4%)
responses, Mustelids (stoats and ferrets) with 14 (8.2%) responses. The Domesti-
cated animals category which included the sub-categories ‘Cats’ with three
responses and ‘Dogs’ with two responses. It appears that students have knowledge
of these unwanted predators.
The Arthropod group consisted of the ‘Insects’ and ‘Arachnids’ sub-categories.
With 10 responses ‘Arachnids’ was one of the sub-categories that had a high
response rate (9.3%) with examples that included, ‘scorpions’, ‘white-tailed spiders’
and ‘poisonous spiders’. From these examples it appears that students have a general
knowledge of the Class Arachnids but were not clear in their understanding of the
different species of venomous and non-venomous spiders present in the Order Ara-
neae in New Zealand. The sub-category ‘Insects’ had six responses. Examples of
responses in this category included ‘flies’, ‘ants’ and ‘foreign fruit flies’. The threat
from insect pests like non-native ants and foreign fruit flies is very real and the MPI
mitigates this threat through monitoring (MPI 2013d).
Included in the Exotic animals category was the ‘Reptiles’ sub-category which
had seven responses. Examples of responses included, ‘lizards’, ‘skunk’ and ‘snake’.
Many native and rare species of skinks and lizards are found in New Zealand but
not ‘skunks’ and ‘snakes’. Similarly, not found in New Zealand are animals such as
‘tigers’, ‘elephants’ and ‘hippos’ that were given as responses and included in the
Exotic animals category with six responses. From these examples, it appears that
students may be unclear in their understanding of reptiles and perceive zoo animals
as invasive.
Six responses were placed in the Non-native bird category. Examples of non-
native birds included ‘black bird’, ‘red bird’ and ‘white bird’. Although, many species
of unwanted birds are found in New Zealand it appears that these students are una-
ware about unwanted birds because of the colour-related terms used to describe them.

Unwanted harmful microorganisms in New Zealand

Microorganisms do not appear to pose a threat because they largely remain
unseen. However, microorganisms are capable of causing widespread damage to
 Research in Science & Technological Education 79

New Zealand’s economy and ecosystem, so it was important to find out if

students could identify them. Data for this section was gathered by asking stu-
dents to name an unwanted harmful microorganism. Students’ responses to this
question were categorised and the different categories, the frequency of student
responses and the percentages are displayed in Table 5.
This question about naming an unwanted microorganism appeared to have been
answered with much uncertainty. Out of the total number of respondents (171), 126
(73.7%) students did not provide a response for this question. This was worrying as
it pointed to a lack of knowledge of harmful unwanted microorganisms and it could
be surmised that these students do not see microorganisms as capable of causing a
biosecurity threat to New Zealand.
The category Diseases included the sub-categories ‘Disease human’ and ‘Disease
plant’. The ‘Disease human’ sub-category included 19 responses and was created for
ideas that related to diseases caused by microorganism activity. Responses like,
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

‘hepatitis’, and ‘salmonella’, both microorganisms capable of causing serious harm

to humans were given for this category. In this category students’ responses
appeared to reflect a view that mainly related microorganisms causing human
disease.
One response was recorded for the ‘Disease plant’ sub-category where, ‘kauri
disease’ was given. In this instance, the respondent provided a specific example of a
disease caused by a microorganism. The disease is known as Kauri dieback and is
reported to be caused by Phytophthora taxon Agathis (PTA). PTA belongs to a dis-
tinct group of organisms commonly known as water moulds (Northland Regional
Council 2013a).
The Microorganisms category included the sub-categories ‘Bacteria’ and ‘Plank-
ton’. This category had 15 responses in total. The sub-category ‘Plankton’ had three
responses with examples such as, ‘plankton’ and ‘botulism’. Recent reports in The
New Zealand Herald about Fonterra milk products causing botulinum disease could
be an explanation for the latter. Botulism is a disease caused by the bacterium
Clostridium botulinum (Ministry of Health 2013). Plankton is a term used to refer to
many different kinds of microscopic organisms that spend their lives drifting in the
ocean. These responses seem to show that students could not differentiate between
beneficial and harmful microorganisms, or terrestrial and ocean-living microorgan-
isms. The ‘Bacteria’ sub-category had 12 responses with examples such as,
‘bacteria’ and ‘germ’ given.
The Fungi category included seven responses with examples such as, ‘fungi’ and
‘mold’. Examples of responses provided for these two categories suggested a lack of
understanding about unwanted harmful microorganisms because the students

Table 5. Students’ knowledge of unwanted harmful microorganisms.

Name of unwanted
harmful microorganism Frequency of student responses Percentage (%)
Diseases 20 11.7
Fungi 7 4.1
Microorganisms 15 8.7
Unrelated 3 1.8
No response 126 73.7
Total 171 100.0
 80 R. Ram et al.

appeared to have used the term bacteria, germs and fungi generally to encompass all
microorganisms, good and bad. Another possible explanation for using germs and
bacteria could be because of the wide use of the terms when referring to sickness in
humans.
The Unrelated category had three responses with examples such as, ‘rats’ and
‘dust mites’. This shows that these students might lack knowledge about
microorganism biology.
In summary, data from this section indicated that students lacked knowledge
about unwanted plants, mainly knew possums as unwanted animals and saw
microorganisms as mainly human disease-causing agents.

Discussion and conclusions

The focus of this research was to find out (Year 9/13-year-old) New Zealand teenage
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

students’ knowledge of biosecurity. The dimensions and complexities of their

biosecurity knowledge were analysed and their specific knowledge about unwanted
plants, animals, and microorganisms were investigated. It was hoped that this
information could provide an indication of the level of biosecurity knowledge and
understanding present in a sub-set of the community which would indicate the
potential of these people to make biosecurity-responsible decisions as future citizens
of New Zealand.
The evidence from this study suggests that students have a very low level
knowledge of biosecurity knowledge. The results show these students lack specific
knowledge about unwanted plants and microorganisms and mostly know possums
as unwanted animals.
Although a range of unwanted exotic animals were named, students failed to
identify larger mammalian unwanted animals such as deer goats and pigs. Instead,
students mentioned a number of zoo mammals, reptiles and arachnids that are not
found in New Zealand. Possums were named by 28.1% of these students and may
reflect publicity from non-governmental organisations such as The Royal Forest and
Bird Protection Society of New Zealand.
What is encouraging from the high (28.1%) number of responses in the possums
category (see Table 4) is that it is common knowledge amongst New Zealand
students that possums are unwanted animals.
The researchers wanted to find out if students’ understandings of biosecurity
reflected the complexity apparent in the definition of biosecurity provided by the
MPI (MPI 2012b). This statement identifies a number of roles including protection,
monitoring, prevention, eradication, control and the complex task of management
and eradication of well-established exotic harmful species already present in New
Zealand. These dimensions were not obvious in this cohort of students’ responses,
as only16.2% of the multiple response data showed an awareness of the manage-
ment/monitoring role. Even fewer responses identified a stewardship role for
biosecurity (6.8%).
This lack of awareness of eradication and management was particularly evident
when the complexity of students’ ideas about biosecurity were analysed. Here only
29/171 (17%) of students could identify three or more aspects of biosecurity.
It was postulated by these researchers that knowledge about biosecurity could be
substantiated by students being able to provide specific examples of organisms
identified as biosecurity issues. When asked to name a harmful plant nearly half of
 Research in Science & Technological Education 81

these students (46.2%) named illegal drug plants as a biosecurity issue. It could be
said that these students see unwanted plants as illicit drug plants in New Zealand.
Only 8.8% of students were correctly able to identify an unwanted plant. This was
disconcerting as over 700 exotic plants capable of self-propagation are found in the
Auckland region alone with a large number classed as weeds and capable of
becoming a serious biosecurity threat (Auckland City Council 2010).
Students’ knowledge of microorganisms was limited even though their effect
would be potentially dramatic on New Zealand’s dairy-based economy. For example,
potentially catastrophic effect on the bovine population if it was infected with foot
and mouth disease. These students associated unwanted microorganisms activity to
negative human health but were unaware of the existence of pathogenic microorgan-
isms capable of harming plants and animals other than humans.
This lack of knowledge, both of the biosecurity process and the details about the
organisms that contribute to biosecurity issues, meant that these students would have
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

limited capacity and potential to act in a biosecurity-responsible manner. This

research has shown that this group of students had a limited, narrow view of
biosecurity. What appears to be evident is that students see the biosecurity system
from one point of view as is evident in their responses which reiterate concern about
protection of New Zealand’s ecosystem from foreign harmful organisms, plants and
microorganisms. It appears that the concept of biosecurity and its link to New
Zealand’s economy and its importance to other sectors of New Zealand society
appears to be lacking with most of this cohort of students.
There is a need for students to be aware of the economic, environmental and
societal implications of any biosecurity incursion. The MPI’s website provides
examples of the economic cost that our primary produce industries could face if not
kept safe from exotic organisms. For example, the recent invasion of the kiwi fruit
vine killing bacteria Psa (Pseudomonas syringiae) p.v actinidiae that devastated the
kiwi fruit industry (Morton 2012).
The MPI’s vision of biosecurity action reflects the complexity of the issues that
face the New Zealand Government’s need to enforce the fullest expression of
biosecurity. In order to realise this comprehensive goal it will take more than Deter-
rence and Rational Choice theories to alter people’s perceptions to the MPI’s
biosecurity demands. The researchers have postulated that New Zealanders need to
be aware of biosecurity issues and this research demonstrated that this group of
young people were unaware of the devastating effects of biosecurity incursions not
only on the economy, but on the environment. The researchers suggest that such a
paucity of knowledge could be remedied with educational programmes and the
following section provides some educational pathways.

Implications for education

A lack of understanding and awareness of biosecurity in New Zealand could be due
to a lack of educational materials available to Year 9 students. Biosecurity as a topic
is not taught to Year 9 students in New Zealand. However, one of the key factors of
The New Zealand Curriculum, (2007) (NZC) is that curriculum content is not speci-
fied and this lack of specificity provides opportunities for teaching biosecurity in
context (MoE 2007). A number of examples will be presented to show how biosecu-
rity could be implemented in different learning areas of the NZC.
 82 R. Ram et al.

The learning area of Science provides overt signals for the inclusion of
biosecurity concepts. For example, students can be asked to investigate how an inva-
sive species interacts with native species and the consequences of this interaction in
an ecosystem. In ecological studies, learning objectives can occur through ‘investi-
gating the interdependence of living things (including humans) in an ecosystem’
(MoE 2007, Achievement Objectives by Learning Area, Science, Level Five, Living
World, Ecology).
Social science also offers opportunities to introduce biosecurity concepts. For
example, students can investigate the relationship, both past and present between the
people and the animals that were brought to New Zealand, and the environment. A
classic example is the release of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) previously
called rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD), into New Zealand in 1997. The RCD virus
was illegally imported from Australia by farmers in New Zealand to control rabbits
which had multiplied to plague proportions’ and were causing millions of dollars of
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

damage to pasture (Science Learning 2008). Here learning objectives state that
learning should occur through ‘understanding how the ideas and actions of people in
the past have had a significant impact on people’s lives’(MoE 2007, Achievement
Objectives by Learning Area, Social Science, Level Five, Social studies).
The Technology learning area also appears to offer biosecurity concept learning
opportunities. For example, regional councils encourage individuals to eradicate pos-
sums (Trichosurus vulpecula) from their properties. Students can begin to develop
an understanding of why regional councils around New Zealand recommend the use
of the Timms trap to eradicate possums (Northland Regional Council 2013b). Here
the learning objectives state that students develop an ‘understanding of how materi-
als are selected, based on desired performance criteria’ in a critique of different pos-
sum traps (MoE 2007, Achievement Objective by Learning Area, Technology, Level
Five, Technological Knowledge, Technological products).
The English learning area could be another avenue through which biosecurity
concepts could be introduced. There are many different avenues of biosecurity
communication and these could be used in context. For example, some biosecurity
information is developed to inform the public, others to warn of potential danger,
and then there is communication that provides information about punitive costs if
biosecurity rules are ignored. Students can begin to analyse these different types of
communication styles such as visual, written, static and moving images. Hence,
learning objective states that students ‘show an understanding of how texts are
shaped for different purposes and audiences’ (MoE 2007, Achievement Objective by
Learning Area, English, Level Five, Listening, Reading and Viewing, Purpose and
Audiences).
Biosecurity presented as a socioscientific issue also allows biosecurity concepts
to be introduced to students and encourages scientific learning in students. Socio-
scientific issues (SSI) are polemic social issues with conceptual and technical links
to science (Sadler, Chambers, and Zeidler 2004). For example, Brush-tailed possums
(Trichosurus vulpecula) are pests in New Zealand not only because they damage our
native trees by browsing on the leaves, eating the eggs and young of native bird spe-
cies, but they are vectors of bovine tuberculosis. The ethical and political issue of
possum trapping versus eradication by 1080 poison could provide students with an
opportunity to examine the social, economic, as well as scientific evidence given to
justify the eradication of this mammal.
 Research in Science & Technological Education 83

As well as SSIs there is another avenue that would allow students to develop
knowledge about biosecurity. This route is when students are focussed on Education
for Sustainability (EfS) and which provides a space for them to take action about an
issue. This component of EfS is called action. Action about biosecurity could be
making responsible decisions at the border or assisting with the eradication and
management of exotic organisms already present. Researchers have argued that
knowledge and action are linked (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). Birdsall (2010)
has adapted Jensen’s (2002) four dimensions of knowledge into a model where stu-
dents not only learn about the issue, but they use their knowledge to act. This model
relates knowledge and action relationship as learning about, learning through and
learning from action.
In a global context New Zealand students’ are well ahead of their contemporaries
in terms of knowledge about other issues. For example, knowledge about ecology
and conservation are taught in schools and this is strongly reflected and acknowl-
Research in Science & Technological Education 2016.34:69-84.

edged in the findings where possums have been identified by students as the most
common unwanted animal in New Zealand. Although there are parallels between
conservation and biosecurity, biosecurity science is different, hence new knowledge
is required to understand it. In light of this it is argued that students lack biosecurity
knowledge.
The importance of biosecurity to this country warrants the future generations of
New Zealanders to have knowledge of biosecurity issues facing New Zealand to
make informed decisions. Thus far, New Zealand’s biosecurity initiatives have been
successful in keeping out many unwanted organisms. The continued success of
present and future biosecurity initiatives lies in having a well-informed community
of citizens who understand the serious threat of not maintaining biosecurity in New
Zealand and can take informed action.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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