Commercial energy auditing reference handbook pdf

Updated and expanded, this edition includes new materials on the rationale for early business replacement, lease agreements and impact on ECM project interest, upstream/downstream setpoint coordination, semiconductor FAB multi-stage HVAC air quenching, commissioning, HVAC heating and cooling overlap, and more. The book begins with the premise that when commercial properties are
divided into categories based on the type of business, many useful features can be identifiedwhich become becomeapplicable for conducting an effective energy audit. The author discusses procedures and recommendations for a wide range of business and construction types, such as schools and colleges, restaurants and fast food outlets, hospitals and medical facilities, grocery stores,
laboratories, residential, residential and office buildings, retail, public safety, data centers, churches and religious sites, libraries, laundries and warehouses. It also covers all major areas of energy auditand structures. constructions'.including building enclosures, lighting, HVAC, control systems, heat recovery, thermal storage, electrical systems, and utilities. 1. Handbook of energy audit ninth
edition albert Tumann, P. E., C. E. M. Terry nichus, P. E., C. E. M. William J. Younger, C. E. M. 2. Library of Congress cataloging-in-publication data Thumann, Albert. The Handbook of energy audits / albert Thumann, Terry Niehus, William J. Younger. -- 9th ed., see Alsolinks and index ISBN 0-88173-685-6 (ALK. paper) books books(electronic) ISBN 978-1-4665-6162-5 (Taylor & Francis
Distribution : alk. paper) 1. Energy auditing--handbooks, manuals, etc. Niehus, Terry. Second. Jr., William J. section III. Title. TJ163.245.T48 2012 658.2’6--dc23 2012015906 Handbook of energy audits / albert Thumann / Niehus, Terry / William George. Younger ©2013 by the Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means,or mechanical, including photocopy, photocopy,or any system for storing and searching information, without the written permission of the publisher. Published by Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; Fax: 770-381-9865 distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA E-mail:
orders@crcpress.com distributed by Taylor & Francis Ltd. 23-25 Blades Court Deodar Road London SW15 2NU, United Kingdom E-mail:Printed in the United States 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 0-88173-685-6 (the Fairmont Press, Inc.) ISBN 978-1-4665-6162-5 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.) While every effort is made to provide accurate information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held
responsible for any errors or omissions. 3.when the first edition of the energy audit Handbook was published in 1980, the field of energy audit was in its infancy. More than 30 years have passed since its creationreference guideThe energy audit served as a reference to thousands of energy auditors who evaluate the efficiency of buildings. This book also serves as a reference text for the certified
energy auditor (CEA) exam developed by the Association of energy engineers. The goals of the certified energy auditor program are: to improve the professional standards of individuals engaged in energy audits. Improve the practice of energy auditors by encouraging energy audit professionals toeducational program. Identification of persons with exceptional knowledge of the principles and
practices of energy audit, by passing an examination for compliance with the established standards of activity and behavior. Special recognition is given to those specialists in the field of energy audit who have demonstrated a high level of competence and ethical suitability in the field of energy audit. Increased awareness causes a demand for energy audits. For example, the better buildings
initiative establishedincrease the energy efficiency of commercial buildings by 20 percent by 2020. As companies seek LEED certification for existing buildings, energy audits play a crucial role. In addition, cities such as new York require energy audits of buildings. The publication has been completely revised and includes important chapters on modernization and investment-level energy audit.
The 9th edition is more important than any previous one. Albert Thumann, PE, CEMNiehus, PE, Cem William J. John.CEM Barney Capehart, Ph. D., CEM James brown, PE 4. V contents Preface.................................................................................................................vii blagodarnosti...........................................................................................ix 1 Fundamentals of energy
auditing.........................................................................1 2 energy accounting and analysis...................................................... 19 3utility account...........................................................45 4 Energy Economy ............................................................................... 55 5 Instrument The Survey.......................................................................95 6 Audit Of Buildings And
Constructions.......................................................... 123 7 Audit Of Electrical System............................................................. 169 8 heating,and andAudit...............215 9 modernization of the HVAC systems to check the efficiency of the system................................................ 241 10 Physical Audit Of The Plant..................................................................253 11 Considerations For The Modernization Of
The Central Plant............................................. 269 12 maintenance and energy audit..................................................... 279 13 self-Esteem305 14 in transition from energy audits to industrial assessment......................................................................327 15 a collection of handy working AIDS..................................... 337 16 Directory Of Software For Energy Audit.............................................. 391 17
commissioning work.......................................................................... 451 18 Energy Audit Investment463 463Index 475 ...............................................................................................................487 5. 1 Chapter 1 Fundamentals of energy auditing energy audits can mean different things to different people. The volume of energy audits, the complexity of calculations and the level of economic
assessment are all issues that each individual auditor can solve in different ways and that must be determined before any audit activity begins. In this Chapter we will look at variations-approaches to energy audit and outline a standard approach to the organization and conduct of energy audit. Energy audits can simply be defined as the process of determining the types and costs of energy use in
a building, evaluating where a building or plant uses energy, and identifying opportunities to reduce consumption.there is a direct relationship between the cost of the audit, how much data will be collected and analyzed, and the number of energy conservation opportunities identified. Thus, aa distinction is made between the cost of the audit, which determines the type of audit to be performed.
The second difference is between the object type. For example, a building audit may emphasize requirements for building envelope structures, lighting, heating, and ventilation. On the other hand, the audit of an industrial enterprise emphasizes the technological requirements. Types of energy audits before starting an energy audit, it is useful to have some idea of the scope of the project and the
level of its implementation.this is necessary to meet expectations. There are four main types or levels of energy audit, any of which can meet your requirements. The main levels of audit, in order of increasing complexity, are: type 0-Benchmarking audit this audit includes conducting a detailed preliminary analysis of energy consumption and costs, as well as determining basic indexes such as Btu
per square foot per year and energy cost dollars per square foot per year, E 6. 2for energy audits based on utility bills. Very expensive expensivefor multiple objects. EPA / DOE EnergyStar Portfolio Manager is one of the best and easiest tools to use—and it's free. Type I-end-to-end audit end-to-end audit, as its name implies, is a visual inspection tour of each of the energy consumption systems.
It usually includes an assessment of energy consumption data to analyze quantities and patterns of energy consumption, and provides a comparison of industry averages or benchmarksfor similar objects. It Isan expensive audit, but can provide a preliminary assessment of the potential for savings and provide a list of opportunities for low-cost savings through improved operating and
maintenance methods. A first-level audit is also an opportunity to gather information for a more detailed audit later, if the preliminary savings potential seems to justify expanding the scope of audit activities. Type II-standard audit the standard audit goes on to theestimates of energy consumption and losses using a more detailed overview of the surveyanalysis of equipment, systems, and
performance characteristics. This analysis may also include some on-site measurements and tests to quantify the energy consumption and efficiency of various systems. Standard energy engineering calculations are used to analyze efficiency and calculate energy savings and costs based on improvements and changes in each system. The standard audit will also include an economic analysis
of recommended conservation measures. Typemodeling of the third levelit will include more detailed information on energy use by function and a more comprehensive assessment of energy consumption patterns. This is achieved using computer simulation software. The auditor will develop a computer simulation of building systems that will take into account weather and other variables and
forecast year-round energy consumption. The purpose of the auditor is to build a comparison base that is consistent with the actualenergy by object. After building this baseline the auditor is the auditorchanges are then made to improve the effectiveness of various systems and measure effects compared to the baseline. This method also takes into account the interaction between systems to
prevent savings from being overestimated. Because of the time spent collecting detailed equipment, operational data, and creating an accurate computer model, this is the most expensive level of energy audit, but it can be justified if the facility or systems are more complex in nature.7. Energy EnergyFundamentals 3 of the ASHRAE definition of energy audit (Ref. Procedures for commercial
buildings, energy audit, 2005 ASHRAE), which classifies ASHRAE as a set of energy audit definitions that are widely used by energy auditors. The source of the following definitions is the ASHRAE 2005 guide to HVAC systems. - Preliminary Analysis Of Energy Consumption. This includes analyzing the historical use and cost of energy use, as well as developing an indexbuildings (EUI).
Compare the EUI of a building with similar onesdetermine whether further engineering research and analysis can lead to significant energy savings.” We have also identified this as a follow-up audit. - Level I: End-To-End Analysis. This allows you to evaluate the current energy costs and efficiency of the building by analyzing the energy bills and a brief survey of the building. The auditor must be
accompanied by the building operator. The level I analysis identifies low-cost / no-cost measures and capital improvement measures that deserveconsideration, and alsoinitial estimation of costs and savings. The level of detail depends on the auditor's experience and the client's technical characteristics. A level I audit is most applicable when there is some doubt about a building's energy saving
potential, or when the owner wants to determine which buildings in the portfolio have the greatest potential savings. The results obtained can be used to develop a priority list for level II or III audits.* Also known asor "end-to-end" audit, this ap-ap-includes a cursory analysis of energy bills and a brief overview of the building to make a rough estimate of how efficiently energy is being used in the
building • this level of effort will reveal at least some of the “low-hanging fruit” and may suggest other options worthy of more study, but should never be considered exhaustive. • Although this option is the simplest, it also gives the roughest results, so don't be temptedwhat you're done with, once you've done it a lot—you really just got got- Level II: energy survey and analysis. This includes a more
detailed survey of the building and energy analysis, including a breakdown of energy consumption in the building, an analysis of the savings and costs of all practical measures 8. 4 energy audit Guidelines that meet the owner's restrictions, and a discussion of any impact on operational and maintenance procedures. It also lists potential capital-intensive improvements that require more careful
collection anddata, as well as an initial judgment aboutcosts and savings. This level of analysis is adequate for most buildings."*By putting more effort into building surveys and energy analysis, as well as adding some system performance tests, this method provides a breakdown of how energy is used in a building, as well as a broader range of savings options, including simple capital
investments. * It takes into account the " people factor” and its impact on savings uncertainty, and explores maintenance proceduresassesses any consequences consequencesmeasures can have an impact on them. * Many institutions will consider this level of analysis sufficient. "Level III: detailed analysis of capital-intensive modifications. This focuses on potential capital-intensive projects
identified at level II, and includes more detailed field data collection and engineering analysis. It provides detailed information about project costs and cost savings with a confidence level high enough to make major investment decisions. Energy audit levels do not havejumps jumpsThey are General categories for determining the type of information that can be expected and indicating the level of
confidence in the results. In a comprehensive energy management program, second-level energy audits should be formed at all facilities. A thorough systematic approach gives the best results. This approach has been described as starting at the end, not at the beginning. For example, consider a plant with steam boilers in a continuous mode of operation. Appropriate (and oftenthe approach is to
measure the combustion efficiency of each boiler and improve the efficiency of the boiler. Starting at the end requires searching for all or most of the final steam applications in the plant, which can reveal significant waste by releasing to the atmosphere, defective steam traps, uninsulated lines, and lines through unused heat exchangers. Eliminating end-use waste can lead to more savings than
improving boiler efficiency. The detailed process of thedescribed in ASHRAE (2004).” (2004).”Even more detailed data is collected from field equipment. Extensive test measurements are being carried out, which may include spot 9. energy audit Basics 5 Measurements and short-term energy monitoring. Possible risks are assessed, and intensive engineering and economic analysis allows us to
obtain reliable estimates of the project's energy and financial indicators with a high degree of confidence required for large capital projects. • Although not defined according to the classificationas an investment quality audit, it is often referred to as thisenergy auditor. * This analysis delves into the details of any major capital projects that you may consider as a result of previous, simpler audits.
AEE, like many others, requires computer modeling to be part of an investment-level audit. • These approaches to audit tend to overlap in practice. All three options reflect the potential energy savings and the initial cost of various energy saving strategies, so in this sense they are allThe difference is in your confidence that you really reallyall your savings opportunities, the accuracy of the
expected savings and initial costs, and how much information you have about the complexity of the project and the likely savings over time. The devil is definitely in the details. • All level II and level III audits include the collection of General building data (location, size, type of use, energy sources), historical energy use data, and energy systems data (type of equipment, in an envelope,ventilation
and air conditioning,water, etc.) to get a description of the object. The more detailed the available data, the more complete this description can be. For example, dipping into a building makes it easy to call up specific end-use areas or objects, and having daily or even hourly consumption data allows you to call up temporary patterns that are usually buried in the monthly payment cycle. • All this
data is then fed an energy consumption analysis that shows how much energy is consumedeach primary end-use in the system. system.such as room heating, room cooling, lighting, air circulation, etc. This determines the baseline scenario for future years, since no energy projects are being undertaken. A similar analysis can be made for peak energy demand 10. 6 energy audit guide • if you are
serious about saving as much energy as possible with the fastest payback time and the least hassle, take the time to plan correctlyenergy project. Conduct a good energy audit and carefully evaluate its results based onyour property, whether based on annual savings, upfront costs, payback time, synergistic comfort benefits for residents, or repetitive maintenance chores. The reward is worth the
effort. Investment-level energy audits in most facilities, companies, and other corporate structures that raise the level of a facility's energy infrastructure should compete for capital financing with non-energy-related investments. Assimilarly, non-energy investments are usually measured by a standard set of financial indicators. indicators'.this usually highlights the expected return on investment
(ROI) and often the lifecycle costs. The projected operating savings from energy projects should be designed in such a way that it provides a high level of confidence. In fact, investors often require guaranteed savings. Investment level audits extend detailed audit levels II and III above and rely on full engineering research to detail technical and economic issuesrequired to justify the
justificationrelated to conversions. In most cases, detailed hour-long computer simulations will be required. The formal description of an AEE investment-level energy audit is as follows: investment-level audit • this audit includes weighing financial risk in the economic calculations of a type II or III energy audit. • It often includes computer simulations and advanced financial analysis tools, such as
cost-of-living calculations.Additional requirements can be defined by individual clients. • •the audit can be used to obtain funding for identified projects. The Association of energy engineers has developed three certification programs for energy audit practitioners: the certified energy auditor (CEA) program, the master's level CEA certification program, and the certified energy Manager (CEM)
program. 11. Fundamentals of energy audit 7 the certified energy auditor (CEA) program for professional certification of ceaCERTIFIED ENERGY AUDITORMark of an Energy Professional ProfessionalIn 2006, the Certified Energy Auditor (CEA) and Certified Energy Auditor in Training (CEAIT) certificates were developed and added to the impressive portfolio of certificates offered by the
Association of energy engineers. Growing energy costs and inefficiency of factories and buildings constantly cause the need for trained and experienced energy auditors. The CEA certification is one that identifies professionals as having the necessary knowledge and experience needed to succeed inscope of energy audit. Tasks * improving the professional standards of persons engaged in
energy audits. * Improve the practice of energy auditors by encouraging energy audits as part of a continuing professional education program. * Identification of persons with acceptable knowledge of the principles and practices of energy audit, through examination and compliance with established standards of performance and behavior. * Award special recognition to those energy companies
thatprofession-specialists who have demonstrated a high level of competence and ethical suitability in the field of energy audit. Certified Energy Manager (CEM) program for professional CEM® certification when you have earned the right to put the initials " CEM” behind your name, you have distinguished yourself among energy management 12. 8 directory of energy audit specialists. Simply put,
the CEM designation, which stands for Cer-tified Energy Manager, recognizes individuals who have demonstrated a high level ofcompetence, professionalism and ethical suitability in the energy management profession. With CEM status, you will join an elite group of 6,000 professionals serving industry, business, and government across the United States and in 22 countries abroad. These highly
efficient people make up the" who's who " of energy management. The master's certified energy auditor (CEAM) program, new for 2012 and developed under the grantUs Department of energy, USA,The Level Certified Energy Auditor (MCEA) certification is designed to go beyond typical equipment replacement and develop a plan that takes into account additional energy areas such as indoor air
quality, Code compliance, operation and maintenance, risk reduction, commissioning, and investment-grade details. Tasks * improving the professional standards of persons engaged in energy audits. • To improve the practiceby encouraging energy auditing in a continuous mode; mode;professional development program. * Identification of persons with acceptable knowledge of the principles and
practices of energy audit, by passing the examination and fulfilling the prescribed standards of work and control. * Award special recognition to those energy audit professionals who have demonstrated a high level of competence and ethical fitness in the field of energy audit. Mark of a professional in the field of energy since its Foundation in 1981, certified energy Manageraccounting data is
widely recognized and used as a measure of professional achievement in the field of energy management. It has received widespread industry application as a standard for qualified energy professionals both in the United States and abroad. It is recognized by the US Department of energy, the Office of Federal energy management programs (FEMP), and the US Agency for international
development, 13. energy audit Fundamentals 9, and numerousenergy departments, the main maincorporations and energy service companies. The first step in any energy audit should be to collect energy bills and conduct a control audit. Once you have set the level of actual audit that will be performed, you can start collecting information about the structural and mechanical components that
affect the building's energy consumption, as well as the operational characteristics of the facility. Most of this information can and should be collected before the actual visitThorough Thoroughusing energy and systems before going on site will help you identify areas of potential savings and help you make the best use of your time on site. An organized approach to audit will help you gather useful
information and reduce the time spent evaluating your abilities. By dividing the audit process into three separate components: pre-site work, site visits, and post-site work, it becomes easier to allocate your time for each step and leads to a more complete and efficient audit process.auditThe following sections describe the tasks associated with each stage of the audit process. Pre-production work
pre-production work is important to familiarize yourself with the main aspects of construction. This training will help you make the most efficient use of your time on site and minimize disruptions to construction personnel. A thorough pre-audit will also reduce the time required to complete the on-site part of the audit. During the pre-series analysis of construction systems andyou should create a
list a listquestions and issues to be discussed during the actual site visit. Preliminary tasks 1) Collection and analysis of data on municipal energy for one to two years. Combine the data in a table and graph. Check out seasonal patterns, unusual spikes in the data and the accuracy of billing. Charting consumption and costs makes it easier to understand how each building uses energy. By
determining seasonal and base loads, then apportioning energy consumption between specificsystems such as heating, cooling, lighting, and hot water. water.it becomes easier to identify areas with the highest 14. 10 reference Guide on energy saving potential of energy audits. It is also important to include in their assessment of the kilowatts of demand for electricity and pay for it. (For more
information about analyzing utility bills, see In the section calculating AC power.) Pie charts of energy consumption and costs by fuel type can offer convincing documentation of total energy consumption and costs. 2) get mechanical,and electrical drawings and specifications for forthe building, as well as for any additional or remodeling work that may have been done. Try contacting your local
building Department or the original architect if the owner doesn't have one. If any energy audits or studies have been conducted in the past, get a copy and review them. 3) draw a simple floor plan of a building on 8-1/2 × 11 or 11 × 17 inch paper. Make multiple copies to use for notes during the actual visitUse separate copies to record information about the location of HVAC equipment and
andheating zones, light levels, and other energy-related systems. Plot Sketch North Building#1 Built In 1975 30,000 Sq. Ft. 3 Floor 0 Electric Meter # 0021055 Building#2 Parking Lot Built 1996 Lot 3 Floor 18,000 Sq. Ft. #2 fuel oil 10000 Qallon underground boiler -0 gas meter # 7414 3 Packed roof units 0electric meter # 0043026 15. Basics of energy audit 11 4) calculate the gross area of air-
conditioned space using the external dimensions of the building,by the number of floors. Significant Significantwhat is not air-conditioned and occupied can be subtracted from the total area of square meters. 5) Use audit data forms to collect, organize and document all relevant data about buildings and equipment. Audit books containing checklists, equipment schedules, and other forms are
available from a variety of sources, including the U.S. Department of energy,Energy - Star, ASHRAE, and Your state energy administration. You may also find it useful to developcustom forms to meet your specific needs. To save time, fill out the formmost of the form is used as much as possible using construction plans and specifications before starting work on the site. 6) develop a description
of the building profile that includes the age, occupancy, description, and existing conditions of the architectural, mechanical, and electrical systems. Pay attention to the main power-consuming equipment or systems. 7) calculate the energy consumption index (EUI) in BTU / sq ft / year and compare it with the EUI of similar building types usingin the energy accounting section. EUI is thisby
converting the annual consumption of all fuels to Btus, and then dividing by the gross square meter of the building. This can be a good indicator of the relative energy saving potential. A relatively low EUI indicates less potential for large energy savings. An excellent, free resource is available from EnergyStar. Portfolio Manager is an easy-to-use, free benchmarking program available at
EnergyStar.this process is now called a control audit.site preview, please note: attention:write down all the questions you may have in advance, especially carefully. Typical questions may relate to the type of lighting and control, HVAC zone management, or morning warm-up. Other questions may relate to maintenance methods for certain items of equipment that you define that usually require
regular maintenance. If you are conducting an audit of a building other than the one you manage, get the data described above and confirm your preliminary datawith the building Manager or operator bybefore your visit. Ask them if they are interested in specific environmental projects or 16. 12 energy audit guidelines planning changes to a building or its systems. Try to schedule an audit while
the systems you want to check are in operation, and arrange for the building operator to accompany you during your site visit. Develop a list of potential energy saving measures (ECMs) and operating and maintenance procedures(O&M) as this preliminary study is conducted. Your Yourthe energy Department or local utility companies should be able to provide you with more detailed information
about environmental technologies and O&m recommendations. If you do your homework first, you can better discuss energy-saving measures with the building Manager. Prepare a sketch of a section of a building or complex that contains the following information: • relative location and outline of the building (s). * Name and building number of each building.the building number, ifexist.) * Year of
construction of each building and extension. * Square meters of each building and extension. * Location, fuel type, and utility meter identification numbers. * Areas served by each utility meter. * Location of heating and cooling installations and equipment. * North orientation arrow. Visiting a site with completed pre-production work, you should have a basic understanding of the building and its
systems. During a site visitan inspection of real systems was conducted and answers to specific questions were givenyour preliminary review of the site. Plan to spend at least one day on the territory of each building. The amount of time required will vary depending on the completeness of the pre-production information collected, the complexity of the building and systems, and the need for
equipment testing. Smaller buildings may take less time. Large buildings can take two days or more. Here are a few steps to help you perform an effective audit: • have all the necessary tools in placeTry to anticipate the main hand tools and andyou will need the equipment to perform tor-17. Fundamentals of energy audit 13 ough inspection. Some basic audit tools that you will want to take with
you include: - laptop-calculator-flashlight-tape measure-pocket thermometer —light Meter —pocket knife —camera —binoculars —mini data recorders more detailed description of specialized audit tools is included in Chapter 4. • Before viewing the object, sit next to the building Manager to view profilesto discuss aspects of aspectsan object that you can't see, such as employment schedules,
operating and maintenance methods, and future plans that may affect energy consumption. * Confirm the floor plan in your drawing for the actual building and mark the main changes. Use copies of the floor plan to mark where equipment is installed, such as boilers, chillers, DHW heaters, kitchen appliances, exhaust fans, and so on, as well as lighting types, levels, and switching,the location of
the photos, the room temperature, the General terms of conditionsother observation. * Fill out the audit data sheets. Use them to organize your site visit and as a reminder to collect information that is not included in pre-site documents. * Look at the systems related to ECMs and O&Ms in your preliminary list. Analyze the application of your recommendations and note any problems that may
affect their implementation. Add additional measures to your list during a tour of the facility. 18. 14 energy audit guidetake pictures as you walk through the building. To Include To Includetechnical equipment, lighting, internal workspaces, common areas and halls, as well as the exterior, including the roof. They are useful when documenting existing conditions, discussing issues and questions with
colleagues, and serve as a reminder of what you have checked. Building managers will find them useful in explaining conservation measures to building administrators and residents. * Perform basic measurements of light levels, temperature, relative humidity, and stress. POST-SITEthis is a necessary and important step to ensure that audit becomes a useful planning tool. The auditor should
evaluate the information gathered during the site visit, explore possible conservation options, organize the audit as a comprehensive report, and make recommendations for mechanical, structural, operational, and operational improvements. Post-site work includes the following steps • * immediately after the audit, review and Refine your notes. Fullwhich you didn't knowtime to record during the
audit. Use copies of the floor plan to clear notes for permanent entries. * Review and review your proposed ECM and O&m lists . Eliminate those measures that don't have the potential and document why they were eliminated. Conduct a preliminary study of potential conservation measures and note conditions that require further assessment by an engineer or other specialist. * Process your
photos and insert or import themon pages 8-1 / 2 × 11 inches. Number of photos and andthe floor plan shows the location where each photo was taken. Define and add notes under the images as needed. * Organize all charts, graphs, building descriptions, audit data sheets, basic measurements, notes, and photos into a 3-ring folder. 19. Basics of energy audit 15 energy audit can be a
continuous process. By storing all build information in a special folder or file, records can be easily added or updated and can be very useful to architectsfor engineers, if future work is completed.building. The overall flow of audit activities is to identify all types of energy consumption and costs, identify energy systems, assess the state of systems, analyze the impact of improvements on these
systems, and compile an energy audit report. This report explains the existing conditions of the building (s) in terms of enclosure, equipment, lighting, and occupancy, and provides recommendations for improving efficiency by improving elementsand maintenance, maintenance,(O&Ms), and by installing energy-saving measures or ECMs. Effective communication of audit results and
recommendations increases the likelihood of taking measures to reduce energy consumption. When preparing an audit report, consider the different audiences that will use each section, and try to configure each section so that it most effectively reaches this audience. Typical audiences for audit reports include: * general manager,Director, administrator, superintendent • facilities and plant• CFO,
controller • plant engineer * operations and maintenance personnel the following are the main components of a well-organized audit report: I. summary the summary Should be a simple, direct and accurate explanation of the current situation, recommended improvements, and the benefits of taking recommended actions. Include a brief introduction to the object and describe the purpose of the
audit and General conclusions. The Manager can't read any morethis is one or 20. 16 energy audit guide is a two-page introduction so make sure you are very clear about what specific actions you want them to take. II. construction information this section provides General information about the facility, its operation, mechanical systems, and operational profile. It should include a description of the
building's enclosing structure, age and construction history, operating schedules, number of employees, and structureas well as a discussion of the operation of the operationmaintenance program. It is also useful to include a floor plan, individual photos of the facility and mechanical systems, a description of the types of energy used in the plant, and a description of the main mechanical systems
and controls. III.this section includes a summary of energy accounting for utilities for the past one or two years. Attach the selected charts and graphs that were developed for analysis, which are easy to understand and demonstrate common modelsthe company. the company.Select information for each chart according to each target audience. For example, the actual monthly consumption of
electricity and fuel may be of more interest to engineering and technical staff, while information about annual expenditures or dollar savings may be more appropriate for administrative staff. Pie charts of energy consumption and costs by fuel type can serve as convincing documentation of total energy consumption and costs.include data on both energy use and peak demand. From Fromit is
important to study the use of water and sewage in facilities. Reducing water and sewer use is a mandatory requirement for many facilities, including Federal facilities. Include a summary of overall facility benchmarks, energy consumption indicators, and comparisons with industry averages. You can also include a copy of utility rate schedules and any discussion or evaluation of alternative rates
that may be affectedthis feature. IZH. Energy conservation measures (ECMS) we begin this sectiona summary list of energy-saving measures that meet the financial criteria set by the owner or Manager of the facility. For each measure, include the measure's name, estimated cost, estimated savings, and simple payback in the summary chart. Description of each energy saving measure and sup-
21 on one or two pages. Energy audit basics 17 port calculations should follow this summary chart. Include a description of the ECM, calculations of energy consumption and savings, andpayback, bid rateprofitability, as well as analysis of net present value or life cycle cost. It is also a good idea to discuss any assumptions that have been made regarding the operation or efficiency of the
equipment. ECMS that were reviewed but did not meet the current financial criteria should also be listed and identified as having been evaluated. V. operation and maintenance measures (O & Ms) This section will address the issues of operation andservices observed during site visits. Include descriptions of specific low cost operational anditems that require attention. Include elements that will
reduce energy consumption and costs, solve existing problems, or improve practices that will help extend the life of equipment in systems that do not need to be upgraded. In addition, it is useful for the owner to include an estimate of costs and savings based on O&m VI recommendations.additional material and technical information that is not included in other sections of the report may be
added to the appendices. Typical information in this sectionincludes floor plans and a websiteas necessary, photos, audit data forms, inventory of engines, equipment and lighting, and equipment cut out sheets of existing or recommended systems. When you complete your audit activity, you should have a good understanding of the main factors that affect the energy consumption of the facility.
By identifying the energy-consuming components of a building or installation and documenting existing conditions, you can identify and prioritize opportunitiesenergies. Set up a meeting with the building buildingfactory Manager to view your report. Discuss your recommendations on environmental measures and methods of financing SEM. Include recommendations for training building operators
and occupants that will improve the efficiency of building operation, as well as training required for maintenance and operation of newly installed measures. 22. 19 Chapter 2 energy accounting and analysis s it was previously stated that the overall purpose of an energy audit is to assess the effectiveness in whichbuilding. building.use energy to ensure a comfortable working environment. In this
assessment, the energy auditor usually starts with utility meters to determine the location of all energy sources entering the facility. The auditor will then determine the energy flows for electricity and each type of fuel, quantify these energy flows into discrete functions, evaluate the effectiveness of each of these functions, and identify opportunities for energy and cost savings. For electricity
considerelectric power, and electric peak peakThe first task is to collect and analyze two-year data on utility energy for all fuels. This includes electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, and any other fuel supplied. This information is used to analyze performance, calculate energy benchmarks for comparison with industry averages, assess potential savings, set a target for reducing energy consumption, and
establish a baseline forefficiency of implemented measures. You will need to take several steps to make sure that you have all the necessary tools. tools.a thorough and accurate assessment of energy consumption data is required. • Make sure that you receive copies of all monthly utility bills and fuel invoices. * Sort utility bills by building or meter and organize them into 12-month blocks using
the meter reading dates. * Locate all the counters and symmetry. If multiple counters are used, it is useful to clearly mark them on the site plan for each building being evaluated. *that all the counter numbers match the numbers on the invoice. score.multiplier counter on the account. A 23. 20 energy audit guide * determine which building or room is served by each meter. * Calculate the air-
conditioned area (in square feet) for each building. Configuring a spreadsheet configuring a spreadsheet for entering, summarizing, calculating benchmarks, and graphical service information. The sample energy accounting form in figure 2-1 can be used as a template for organizing your data. Write down the unitsenergy (kWh, therms, gallons, etc.), electricity demand (kW) , and dollars spent
ontype of fuel. Production units (number of units, occupied premises, students, persons served, etc.) can also be included in your analysis if such production is directly related to energy consumption. By analyzing the data, you can identify relationships between energy consumption and other factors, such as occupancy, sales, floor space, production rates, and outdoor temperature. The energy
consumption index for each type of energy will be converted into a common unit(Btus) for comparison and calculation of the calculationtotal energy consumption. The energy consumption index (EUI) is the most common means of expressing total energy consumption for each building. EUI is expressed in BTU / square foot / year and can be used to compare energy consumption relative to similar
building types or to track consumption from year to year in the same building. EUI is calculated by converting the annual consumption of all fuels to Btu, and then dividing by gross square meterair-conditioned space) of the building. It could bea good indicator of the relative potential for energy saving. A relatively low EUI indicates less potential for large energy savings. Figure 2-2 shows typical
total energy consumption ranges for different types of commercial buildings. Use the EnergyStar portfolio Manager to help you do this. It's free. To calculate Btu and dollars per square foot, an accurate estimate of the heated area must be calculated for each building. It's possibleby contactingin the drawings, or 24. EnergyAccountingandAnalysis 21 Object Name:
___________________________________ Object Type: ___________________________________ Supply: ___________________________________ Electric Meter # _______________ Electric Rates: _______________ Gas Service: ______________________________________ Gas Meter # ___________________ Gas Rates: __________________ Rough Square Meters:
_____________________________Energy per Year: Electricity, Natural Gas Totals use Index ------------------------------------------------- Month # Days electric electric electric electric Load Factor GAS GAS GAS gas (A) (B) (C) (D) in the use of accounts require costs per unit cost BTE use costs per unit cost BTE BTE cost th term cost kWh kWh $ $ / × kWh kWh .003413 Therms $ $ / Therm
Therms/×.10 energy consumption BTE /$/Square.Ft. ------------------------------------------------- January JanuaryFebruary ------------------------------------------------- Mar ------------------------------------------------- April ------------------------------------------------- May ------------------------------------------------- June ------------------------------------------------- July ------------------------------------------------- August -----------------------------------------
September ------------------------------------------------- OctoberNovember NovemberDecember ------------------------------------------------- annual results ------------------------------------------------- data entry and calculations A. transfer of information on consumption and costs from energy bills E. Total all columns (calculate the average value for demand, unit cost, and load factor). to the technical sheet. Add columns
for other fuels as needed. F. calculate the annual energy consumption index in Btu / square foot / year byB. convert kWh and terms to MMBtu using formulas in total MMBtu MMBtu(Column a) by 1,000,000, and then divide by building on top of each column or conversion below. Rough Square Meters. (Electric kWh × .003413, Gas Terms × .10, Btu / square foot / year = column a total × 1,000,000
/ Building Sq. Ft. #2 Gallons of Fuel oil × .14, gallons of Propane × .0915) G. calculate dollars per square foot by dividing the total cost of energy C. calculate the specific fuel cost and electrical load factor using the formulas (column B) per square footbuilding. at the top of each column. columns.Foot / year = column in total / building area.5. D. the total electricity and fuel consumption of Mmtty and
their costs for each month and are entered in the totals column. ------------------------------------------------- Figure 2-1. Sample form of energy accounting kWh - - - - - - kW × days × 24 25. 22 Reference book on energy audit figure 2-2. Energy consumption index by building type by measuring the external dimensions of the building (length × width) and multiplying this area by the number of floors. As a
rule,premises and androoms are not included as air-conditioned areas unless HVAC equipment is installed and operating. Estimating electricity costs per kWh, kW, and power coefficients separately (figure 2-3) can be useful when assessing the impact of demand penalties and power coefficients on the monthly electricity bill. High demand costs can sometimes be reduced by simply rescheduling
or alternating the running time of individual pieces of equipment. Savings from the installation of the devicesthe power factor often has a lower payback ratetwo years. Although demand and power factor indicators do not save much energy, significant cost savings and relatively short payback periods make them attractive for inclusion in an audit analysis. Electricity demand should be carefully
distinguished between invoicing and actual (measured) demand for a utility bill. The actual demand is the figure registered 26. 23 energy Accounting and analysis on the meter and should be used for estimatingto the power supply and load factor of the loadbelow)object's. Payment demand is the amount of demand that the object is actually billed for. This figure may differ from the actual demand
due to different types of bid schedules. Tariff schedules that include a ratchet condition, power factor adjustment, or the first block of kW for free may cause payment demand and actual demand to differ. For a more detailed discussion of the structure of tariffs for utilities is given in Chapter 3. The load factor of the object infrom the object, object,the fee can be a significant part, as much as 20 to
40% of the cost of utilities. The consumer will get the most electricity per dollar if the facility's load factor is maintained as high as possible, thereby minimizing the impact of the demand charge by distributing it over a relatively larger base of kWh. A low load factor means that a high peak demand cost is added to each kWh of electricity cost. The goal of demand management is to,align the peaks
and troughs of consumption consumptionpostponing or rescheduling energy usage during peak periods. A measure of an object's electrical efficiency can be found by calculating the object's load factor. The load factor of an object is the ratio between electricity consumption per kWh and demand per kW for the same billing period. It is usually calculated by dividing the monthly consumption of kWh
by the demand of kWh multiplied by the number of hours in the calculation period. This is called the monthly load factorThis gives a aaverage demand to peak demand and is a good indicator of the potential for cost savings when transferring some electrical loads to off-peak loads Fig. 2-3. Breakdown of Electricity Costs 27. 24 guide to energy audit hours to reduce overall demand. kWh per time
period load factor = ---------------- peak kWh × # hours per time period kWh per month monthly load factor= --------------- peak kW × # hours per month if the object will consumeat a constant speed with the highest demand recorded on the marketmeter, the load factor would be 1.00 (one), the theoretical maximum. This indicates that the item does not have any deviations in consumption or the time
of day of peak demand. Apart from installing more efficient electrical equipment, there is little that can be done to reduce demand, since this facility is already taking full advantage of the demand that is being billed. A low load factor is a good indicator that an object has spikes in demand at some point in the calculationIn this case, the case,measures should be taken to determine when spikes
occur, and the operation of non-essential equipment should be restricted at this time or moved to non-business hours. The ideal load factor should be as close as possible to 1.00. However, most facilities do not operate 24 hours a day, so load factors are usually significantly lower than the theoretical maximum. If the build works, for example, only 12 hours a day, the load factor is .50be the
highest possible for this thisIt is important to monitor the load factor and determine what is normal for each object and meter, noting any significant changes in the ratio of kWh consumption and demand for kWh. Object load factors can be calculated hourly, daily, weekly, and yearly, as well as monthly. Each of these different load factors can provide information leading to more efficient and/ or
less costly operation of the facility. Many management systems(EHR) have the restriction of demand and reduction in loadwhich can help maintain acceptable load factors when used correctly. SIM 2-1 what is the load factor of a continuously operating facility that consumed 800,000 kWh of energy during a 30-day billing period and set a peak demand of 200 kW? (Note that few utilities use a
permanent 30-day billing period.) 28. Energy accounting and analysis 25 response 800,000 kWh load factor= ---------------- = 0.55 2000x 30 days x 24 hours a day please note that if this is for a three-shift facility per day, then this iswe have many opportunities for peak demand savings. Graphs and reports after collecting and organizing energy data, they should be clear to the energy auditor for
analysis purposes, as well as to those who will receive the energy audit report. Creating graphs, tables, and pie charts provides essential information, but in a more visually appealing form than text. Plotting consumption and expenditure data makes it easier to view consumption trends and understandhow each one of themuse energy. Analyzing energy data analyzing graphs and consumption
data is important for understanding how energy is used at a facility and what factors affect consumption the most. This is done by identifying the energy consumption systems in the building and determining how each system works throughout the year. Some systems will work all year round, while others may only work during the summer or winter months. Then the annual energy consumptionfor
basic and seasonal loadsequipment fits into each category. This helps you determine which equipment or systems are the most energy-intensive, so that you can evaluate measures that reduce energy consumption in these areas. Base loads are energy-intensive systems that consume a constant amount of energy throughout the year. The base load can be set by drawing a horizontal line
through the energy consumption or cost graph at the midpoint of the lowestfor each type of energy. The base load is as followsconsumption or costs below the line, as shown in figure 2-4. Typical base loads include lighting, office equipment, appliances, hot water, and ventilation. High base loads indicate that conservation efforts should be focused in these areas. 29. 26 energy audit guide
seasonal loads seasonal loads, such as heating and air conditioning, are identified as a part of consumption or expenditure located above the line used forbase loads on the chart. Seasonal loads can be the highestweather changes or building operations, such as the school season. High seasonal loads can make it possible to reduce consumption by improving heating and air conditioning
equipment, temperature control, building enclosures, or other systems that are subject to seasonal influences. One of the easiest ways to evaluate consumption data is to track up or down trends in kWh, demand, natural gas, or costs. It's possibleplotting two or more years of monthly data on a single graph, or by plotting only annual totals for several years. Another useful method for evaluating
monthly data is a rolling summary, in which a new 12-month total is calculated each month, discarding the oldest month and adding the newest. This type of graph will remain relatively flat unless there are significant changes in energy consumption. Since each monthly figurean annual amount, any sudden change is thisabout this new month's operation. This is a good figure of 2-4. Basic and
seasonal loads 30. Energy accounting and analysis 27 graph for the energy auditor to see the overall consumption trends of the facility. A gradual increase, for example, may indicate an increase in employment or production, or that the efficiency of the system is slowly declining. The graph shown in figure 2-5 can be a useful estimation tool because it shows monthly consumption as well as a
rolling annualon a separate y-axis. How Howas you can see, it takes 12 months of data to start plotting the annual trend. An increase in annual natural gas consumption may be the result of several factors, such as weather conditions, increased employment, added equipment, or increased production. Further analysis can determine which of these factors is the most likely cause of increased
consumption. Using the following steps can be useful: 1) Determine the terms / degree-day consumedprevious year. 2) 2)by the number of degree days for the current year, get the estimated consumption of natural gas. Fig. 2-5. 31. 28 energy audit guide 3) if the actual consumption is equal to or less than the estimated consumption, the increase is due to weather conditions. 4) if the actual
consumption significantly exceeds the estimated consumption, the reason for this increase is factors other than the weather. 5) Determine whether new gas-consuming equipment has been installed or addedgender. 6) If there is noequipment or floor space has been added, the increase in consumption is most likely the result of a problem in the heating system. Provide corrective maintenance
and continue to monitor monthly consumption. Energy consumption systems after the utility usage has been broken down into seasonal and base loads, make a list of the main energy consumption systems at each facility and estimate when each system is running throughout the year. Devisingplease think about how each system uses energy and wheresavings may exist. You can add more
specific components to the list when you learn more about the plant or building. By identifying seasonal and base loads, and then distributing energy consumption among specific building systems such as heating, cooling, lighting, and hot water, it becomes easier to identify areas with the greatest potential for savings and target energy audit activities to these systems. Use of comparative final
energy consumptionthe table 2-1 will help you rank your final energy consumptionbased on climate zones. Although each individual building should be analyzed separately, research has shown that similar buildings in similar climates tend to exhibit repetitive patterns of energy consumption. Commercial energy consumption profiles the following tables illustrate the variation in usage (in%) of
different energy functions for several types of commercial buildings. Compare the functions of the object being checked with each of these categories towhich object profile will be the most appropriateresemble. These tables will serve as a General guide to help identify the main energy consuming systems. Keep in mind that energy consumption in individual buildings and similar types of buildings
will vary in different climates. 32. Energy accounting and analysis 29 table 2-1. Comparative energy consumption by system -------------------------------- heating cooling power domestic building climate & ventilation - & ventilation-lighting &type area lation Lation process water -------------------------------- school and 4 41 5 2 B 1 4 2 5 3 C 1 4 2 5 3 -------------------------------- Colleges A 5 2 1 4 3 B 1 3 2 5 4 C 1
5 2 4 3 -------------------------------- Office A 3 1 2 4 5 Buildings B 1 3 2 4 5 C 1 3 2 4 5 -------------------------------- Commercial A 1 2 3 4 5 B 1 2 3 4 5 C 1 3 2 4 5 -------------------------------- Religious A 3 2 1 4 5 Buildings B 1 3 2 4 5 C 1 3 2 4 5 -------------------------------- Hospitals A 4 1 2 5 3 B 1 3 4 5 2 C 1 5 3 4 2 -------------------------------- Climate Zone And:less than 2500 degree days of climate zone B: 2500-5500
degree days of climate zone C: 5500-9500 degree days note: the numbers indicate energy consumption relative to each other. (1) highest consumption (2) lowest consumption source: recommendations for energy conservation in existing buildings ECM-1 -------------------------------- 33. 30 energy audit Reference table 2-2. Energy use in office buildings ------------------------------- power consumption
range inbuildings ( % ) norm (%) (%)Space heating 45-65 50 ------------------------------- air conditioning 20-30 25 ------------------------------- lighting 15-25 20 ------------------------------- special functions 5-10 5 (elevators / escalator, General power, security lights, domestic hot water, cooling, cooking) ------------------------------- table 2-3. Energy use in retail stores ------------------------------- energy consumption in
retail stores range ( % ) norm (%)lighting 40-75 60 60HVAC 20-50 30 ------------------------------- special functions 5-20 10 (elevators / escalators, General catering, security lighting, household hot water, cooling, cooking) ------------------------------- table 2-4. Energy use in schools ------------------------------- the range of energy consumption in schools ( % ) rate (%) ------------------------------- HVAC 45-80 65 -------
------------------------ lighting 10-20 15 ------------------------------- food5-10 7 ------------------------------- hot water water3 ------------------------------- Special Functions 0-20 10 ------------------------------- 34. Energy accounting and analysis 31 table 2-5. Energy use in hospitals ------------------------------- energy consumption in hospitals range ( % ) norm (%) ------------------------------- environmental control 40-65 58 --------------
----------------- lighting 10-20 15 ------------------------------- Laundry 8-15 12 ------------------------------- food service 5-10------------------------------- special special5-15 8 ------------------------------- table 2-6. Energy use in supermarkets ------------------------------- energy consumption in supermarkets range ( % ) norm (%) ------------------------------- refrigeration equipment 40-50 45 ------------------------------- lighting 17-24 20 --
--------------------------- fans and devices to protect from sweat 10-15 12 ------------------------------- HVAC 8-14 12 ------------------------------- special features 8-12 10table 2-7. Energy use in an apartment apartment——————————————————————————————— The range of energy consumption in apartment buildings ( % ) rate (%) ------------------------------- environmental control 50-80
70 ------------------------------- lighting / plug load 10-20 15 ------------------------------- hot water 2-8 5 ------------------------------- special functions 5-15 10 (Laundry, swimming pool, elevators, security lighting) ------------------------------- 35. 32 the leadership in energy audit to identify potentialafter the end-use profiles will beit is estimated that the auditor will use this information to develop an initial list of potential
energy conservation measures (ECMs) and prioritize on-site audit activities. The most common ECMS found in existing commercial buildings are usually divided into the following categories. Table 2-8. Energy use in hotels / motels ------------------------------- energy consumption in hotels / motels range ( % ) norm (%)heating of premises 45-70 60 ------------------------------- lighting 5-15 11 11Air
conditioning 3-15 10 ------------------------------- refrigeration equipment 0-10 4 ------------------------------- special functions 5-20 15 (Laundry, kitchen, restaurant, swimming pool, elevators, security lighting, hot water) ------------------------------- table 2-9. Energy use in restaurants ------------------------------- energy use in restaurants, fast food table------------------------------- HVAC 32 36 ------------------------------- lighting
8 26food food45 27 ------------------------------- Cooling 2 6 ------------------------------- Sanitation 12 1 ------------------------------- More 1 4 ------------------------------- 36. Energy accounting and analysis 33 • building Operation • lighting systems • HVAC systems • HVAC distribution systems • energy Management systems • building envelope structures • energy systems • water heating systems • heat recovery
capabilities • renewable energy sources-solar,geothermal • water supply and Sewerageeither by implementing operation and maintenance measures (O&M), or by implementing existing technologies by installing energy conservation measures (ECMs), or water and sewer conservation measures. Building operation a huge amount of energy is wasted because construction equipment is operated
incorrectly or unnecessarily. The amount of heat (sensitive and latent) supplied to or extracted from the room to maintain a comfortable indoor environmentdirectly directlyto the difference in temperature and humidity inside the room and outside. Therefore, you should lower the heating temperature and increase the cooling temperature setpoints and/or lower the humidification setpoints and
increase the dehumidification setpoints to minimize space conditioning requirements whenever possible. When the building is not occupied, the building's systems must be disabled or kept to a minimum. Depending on the construction operations, the following systems work:-opening hours may be reduced during unoccupied periods: * HVAC systems • water heating systems • lighting systems •
escalators and elevators • other equipment and appliances. Care must be taken to ensure that any reduction in equipment working hours does not adversely affect construction operations and systems, safety or security. 37. 34 reference Book on energy audit of lighting systems Lighting usually accounts for a significant portion of the electrical energy consumed inbuildings. Energy is saved
savedthe demand for electricity is reduced by reducing the level of illumination, improving the efficiency of lighting systems, reducing working hours and using daylight. Reducing lighting energy can also increase the energy consumption of building heating and reduce the consumption of the cooling system, as internal heat gains are reduced. This heat of light is a relatively expensive method of
heating a building, and if it is used in a building, there are much cheaper waysspace heating. If Ifthe cooling unit is subject to replacement, and the implementation of lighting measures reduces the required installation size. HVAC systems in a building consist of energy conversion equipment that converts electrical or chemical energy into electrical energy, as well as distribution and ventilation
systems that transport heat energy and supply fresh outdoor air to the air-conditioned space. Energy can be saved in HVAC systems byrequirements for ventilation; increase the performance of HVAC systems. HVAC.air conditioning equipment such as boilers, stoves, chillers, air conditioners, and heat pumps; use of energy-efficient cooling systems; and reduce the likelihood of reheating or re-
cooling. HVAC distribution systems HVAC distribution systems transport heating and cooling liquids (usually air, water, or steam) from Central installations (chillers, boilers, etc.) to a specified space. The system consists of a network of pipes and air ducts,pumps, grilles, etc. Energy is needed in order toand pumps that transport working fluids. In addition, heat energy is lost from distribution
systems, reducing heat or cooling capacity. The conservation opportunities for distribution systems are divided into two areas: reducing the energy required to transport liquids, and reducing energy losses during transportation. Energy management systems or building automation systems energy can be saved by automating managementwith management energy management the energy
management(EMCS) or build-38. Energy accounting and analysis 35 ing automation systems (BAS). Rising energy prices and lower prices for computers and microprocessors have encouraged the use of energy management and control systems. EMS or BAS can effectively manage heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting, and other energy-intensive equipment in a building. It selects the
optimal operating time of the equipment and the setpoint depending on the demand for electricity, time, weather conditionsas well as requirements for heating and cooling. The main principles of building energy conservation management are: * use equipment only when necessary • * eliminate or minimize simultaneous heating and cooling; • supply of heating and cooling according to actual
needs; • supply of heating and cooling from the most efficient energy source of the building envelope is saved by reducing heat exchange between the building and the environment and/or controlledand internal heat gain. Pre-election electionsreduced thermal conductivity through ceilings / roofs, walls and floors is due to the addition of insulation. Installing vapor barriers in ceilings / roofs and
walls, caulking engineering passageways, and maintaining door closures and weather Stripping are also effective in reducing infiltration. To control or reduce the flow of solar heat through the roof or glazing, you can use a reflective surface or film. For glazing of premises installation of internal or externaland the films will also help to control controlheat leakage. Installation of storm Windows,
multi-glazing and low-e glazing will also reduce heat conduction and long-wave radiation through glazing areas. Today, new automatic curtains and electrochromic Windows are on sale. Power systems inefficient operation of power systems is mainly due to a low power factor. The power factor correction cost-effective in the imposition of fines for utilities. Low power factors canimproved with
power factor correction devices and andengines. Additional energy can be saved by installing energy-efficient transformers and replacing existing motors with engines of lower and/or higher efficiency, as well as by installing variable speed drives. Other problems may occur due to power quality issues, such as harmonics. Objects with a large number of VFDs or with spot welders may 39. 36 the
energy audit Handbook needs harmonic correction equipment. Peakthe need for electricity can be reduced by reducing the load, cogeneration or cold storage systemsproduce cold water or ice outside of business hours. Reducing the load can also reduce overall energy consumption as well as demand. Cogeneration systems will increase on-site energy use, but can also replace electricity
consumption with less expensive fossil energy. In addition, the waste heat from the cogeneration equipment may correspond to thermal loads. Cold storage systems shift the need for coolers to off-peak periods, reducing demand at peak times.measures to control energy consumption requires requiresTion of the demand profile for buildings. Several weeks of data with 15-minute intervals should
be taken using a recording meter. Measurements may have to be carried out both in the cold and in the heating season. Most electric networks have interval data or will provide recording services for a nominal fee. A separate power quality audit may be required. Hot-water heating systems in General, heating and distribution of hot water consumes lessthan air conditioning and lighting. However,
forin cases such as hospitals, restaurants, kitchens, and laundries, heating water is a significant energy consumption. Water heating energy is saved by reducing load requirements, reducing distribution losses, and improving the efficiency of water heating systems. Today, new water heaters with a heat pump are on sale. Heat recovery capabilities heat recovery is the reclamation and use of
energy that is otherwise discarded from a building. With the correctheat recovery systemsit can be used to reduce energy consumption, as well as peak demand for electricity. The efficiency of heat recovery systems for energy saving depends on the amount and temperature of heat available for recovery, as well as on the application of the heat being recovered. Heat recovery capabilities exist
where it is necessary to discard heat from a constant supply of high-temperature liquid, such as air, water, or refrigerant. Heat recovery from air conditioners and chillers becomesmore effective efficientfor the production of hot water in buildings. Industrial energy consumption while the energy audit process for a commercial building emphasizes the dimensions of the building envelope, heating and
ventilation, air conditioning, 40. energy Accounting and analysis 37 and lighting functions, an industrial facility audit should also include consideration of the process. Figures 2-6 to 2-9 show how energy is used in a typical industrial plant. It is important to consider total consumption,and how energy is used forproducts such as steam, water and compressed air, as well as natural gas and electricity.
This procedure is necessary to develop an appropriate energy saving strategy. The upper part of figure 2-6 illustrates how much energy is used by fuel type and its relative percentage. The pie chart below the energy consumption profile shows how much is spent on each type of fuel. Using a pie chart can be very useful for visualizing how energy is used and howthe cost of it.fuel. Figure 2-7, on
the other hand, shows how much energy is used for each function, such as lighting, process, heating of buildings and installations, and process ventilation. Pie charts like figure 2-8 should be made for each category, such as compressed air, steam, electricity, water, and natural gas. Nodal flow diagrams, such as in figure 2-9, illustrate an alternative representation of the steam distribution profile.
These Diag-grams can alsoto the auditor in explanation explanationflows and strategies for improving efficiency. Industrial audit capabilities several audits are required to build a profile of industrial energy consumption. The first two-envelope audit and functional audit-are similar to audits in commercial buildings, but the focus of improvements may differ significantly. In an industrial plant, for
example, the shell may not be very well insulated, but the plant may be very thermal. Adding isolation may interfere with the ability to discardIn addition, the plant may have significant requirements for ventilation and make-up air, which are usually not present in a commercial enterprise. * Envelope audit-like a commercial audit, this audit examines the building envelope for losses and gains due to
leaks, building construction, entrance and Bay doors, glass, lack of insulation, etc. * Functional audit-this audit determines the amount of energy 41. 38 energy audit Reference figure 2-6. Examples of the energy consumption profile andrequired forbuilding functions and identifies energy-saving features in office and factory HVAC systems, lighting, domestic hot water, and other building functions
similar to commercial buildings. Industrial energy consumption profile example natural gas 5000 MMBtu 50% industrial energy consumption profile example diesel fuel $12.50 o / year 13% electricity $50.00 o / year 49' / O gasoline $8.50 o / year 9% natural gas $29.00 o / year 29 ' 4 42. Energy accounting and analysis 39 figure 2-7.profile by function Fig. 2-8. Par Parfor function 43. 40 energy audit
guide • process audit-this audit determines the amount of energy required for each process function and determines the energy conservation capabilities of process equipment, heat treatment, Furnaces, pumps and engines, transport systems, and other process loads. Water use is also being studied. * Utility audit-this audit analyzes the daily, monthly, or annual usage of each utility,steam,
compressed air, process hot water, sewage, etc. • Transportationthe audit determines the amount of energy required for forklifts, trucks, and other vehicles. Industrial energy consumption profiles energy consumption profiles for multiple end users are summarized in the following tables. Figure 2-9. Example of a Nodal diagram of the distribution of steam 100% of the heat of a building P g. @do
30% 44. Energy accounting and analysis 41 table 2-10. Energy use in bakeries -------------------------------- percentage of household energyroom heating 21.5 air conditioningLighting 1.4 household hot water 1.8 -------------------------------- total 26.3 -------------------------------- percentage of process energy-------------------------------- baking ovens 49.0 pan washing 10.6 mixers 4.1 freezers 3.3 cooking 2.0 deep
fryers 1.8 safety boxes 1.8 other processes 1.1 -------------------------------- total 73.7 -------------------------------- data for a 27,000-square-foot bakery in Washington, DC, tableEnergy use in injection molding plants ———————————————————————————————— ————————————————————————————————Energy cent -------------------------------- space
heating 24 2 conditioning lighting appliances 2 hot water 2 -------------------------------- total 30 -------------------------------- the percentage of energy of the process -------------------------------- a melting hearth Quiet pool 30 20 10 molding machines air compressors other processes 5 5 -------------------------------- total 70 -------------------------------- 45. 42 Handbook on energy audit table 2-12. Usingin transport
terminals terminalsEnd-use range ( % ) of the norm (%) -------------------------------- room heating from 50 to 75 60 air conditioning from 5 to 25 15 lighting from 5 to 25 15 special functions elevators, General catering, Parking, security lighting, hot water from 3 to 20 10 -------------------------------- table 2-13. Energy use in warehouses and storage areas (vehicles are not included) --------------------------------
end-use range ( % ) of the norm-------------------------------- room heating from 45 to 80 67 air conditioning from 3 to 10 6 6From 4 to 12 7 refrigeration equipment from 0 to 40 12 special functions elevators, General catering, Parking, security lighting, hot water from 5 to 15 8 -------------------------------- *the standards for a warehouse or storage facility are highly dependent on the products and their specific
requirements for temperature and humidity control. One of the most important aspects of energy management and energy conservation is the measurement and accounting of energy consumption. An important part of the overall energy auditthis is an opportunity to measure where you are and determine where you are going. It is extremely important to create an energy accounting system at the
very beginning of the program. This information will be used to assess the overall energy consumption trends of the facility, establish benchmarks to determine a realistic estimate of energy saving potential, disaggregate energy consumption into discrete functions, and establish a baseline for comparing energy consumption after upgrading and calculating energy savings.and andenergy
consumption data as part of the audit process, the auditor can also help create a system 46. 43 tracking energy use versus production to monitor production efficiency and answer questions commonly asked by plant engineers and business managers, such as: • how much have we saved as a result of energy efficiency improvements? • If we save energy, why is our total energy consumption
increasing? • If we savewhy doesn't our electricity bill go down? • If we have no changes in efficiency, why is our consumption changing? • To what extent is our energy consumption due to factors beyond our control, such as weather, legal control of the environment, etc.? • What part of our energy consumption is directly related to production? * And similar issues for water and sewer use. By
addressing such questions, the auditor generates an awareness of,energy is consumed, and provides information thatlead to energy savings through behavioral changes caused by this increased understanding. 47. 45 Chapter 3 understanding the utility bill analyzing energy consumption and controlling energy costs are the main goals of successful energy management. As a result, it is important
to understand energy tariffs, tariff schedules, accounting methods, and characteristics of the various fuels used at each facility. No matter what type of fuel is used, understanding howenergy, is isto learn how to control energy consumption and costs. Look at your gas or electricity bill. It always tells you how much to pay, when to pay, and where to send the receipt. It should also show how much
gas or energy you used, but it can't give you a breakdown of all charges or indicate how the total amount was obtained. The best way to understand these costs is to get a copy of the pricing schedule that applies to the account and recalculate the total amount using the information aboutfrom fromThe bid schedule is your guide to determining how expenses are distributed. The pricing plan that
applies to your facility is usually indicated in the billing statement. Once you understand your utility bill, it can serve as a tool to reduce utility costs as well as use energy more efficiently. Most gas and electricity bills include several different charges. The following are typical fee and rate structures that you can usein most applications. Maintenance fee for electric charges chargesa monthly fee,
sometimes called a base or customer fee, pays for fixed utility costs and is included in each bill. These fixed costs are independent of energy consumption and help M 48. 46 the energy audit manual covers part of the ongoing maintenance costs, such as the operation and maintenance of distribution systems, as well as administrative costs for accounting, invoicing and collection of payments.
Electricity charges are standard and calculatedfor electricity, it is a kilowatt-hour or kWh of electricity. electricities.energy. This is a measure of the intensity or speed of energy use multiplied by the length of time it is used (kWh = kWh). Thus, the higher the rated power of your electrical equipment and the longer you use it, the more kWh or energy you consume. Most tariff schedules include
electricity charges per kWh of electricity consumption. The electricity fee is calculated based on the total amountregistered during the billing period, usually about one month. Some utilities charge the same feeall the energy you use, while others charge different rates for different” blocks " of energy. For example, the first 20,000 kWh may be charged at a single rate, and all additional kWh may be
charged at a higher or lower rate. Electricity charges may also vary depending on the season, depending on the utility's energy resources and peak loads. Adjustment of electricity or fuel costs this adjustmentthe difference between the budget and actual electricity costs of your utility company. This allows the utility to adapt to uncertainties, uncertainties,just as fuel costs and the availability of
generating and supply resources change rapidly, these additional costs are passed directly to consumers. Utilities charge commercial consumers based not only on the amount of energy consumed (kWh), but also on the peak demand (kW) for each month. Demand charges are charged by utilities in an effort to be fair to all their commercial customers. The need arisesthat not all businesses use
energy in the same way. Some businesses may havefor large amounts of energy for a short period of time, while others may require constant power at a lower level. While both businesses can use the same amount of kWh, one requires the utility to have more generating capacity than the other. The demand charge pays for your share of the company's generating, transmitting and distributing
capacity, which is ready to meet your greatest needs. Expenses forthey may form a significant part of the total invoice. If you can't do it do itthe amount of the demand fee from the monthly 49. Understanding the utility bill and utility bill, it is a good idea to recalculate the bill with a rate schedule to determine the actual cost of demand. Demand is a charge based on your maximum or peak energy
usage rate. The term "power" refers to the speed of energy use. Power is measured in kilowatts (kW). One kilowatt is equivalent to 1000 watts, and this is the amount of energy neededlighting ten 100-watt bulbs. Some utilities do not do thissmall commercial consumers with a need of less than 30-50 kW, for example, for demand. To determine peak demand during the billing period, the utility sets
short time intervals called the demand interval, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. The demand meter continuously registers the rate of electricity consumption and averages it over a given interval period. Actual demand is defined as the highest average demand recorded during any given perioddemand during the billing period. (See (See3-1.) Payment demand is the part of actual demand for which a
fee is charged. Demand charges may also vary depending on the season. In addition to these typical charges, other charges may apply: Ratchet Clause some utilities may have items in their tariff schedules that base your on-demand charges on a certain percentage of the highest consumption, figure 3-1. Peak Demand 50. 48 energy audit Guide for the previous 11 months.can have a potentially
significant impact on your usefulnessif you have a month or two of high demand, such as for summer air conditioning, and lower demand for the rest of the year. These two summer months will set your demand charges for the entire year, and you will be invoicing at this rate every month, regardless of whether you reach this peak kW or not. Focusing on reducing demand during these months of
greatest use will be a top priority for reducing demand charges throughout the year. Coefficientpublic utilities usually charge a fine for"power factor" for some large commercial and industrial consumers. The reason is that not all the power you use is registered on energy and demand meters. Energy (kWh) and demand (kW) meters record the “real” consumption of energy and power that perform
useful work or produce heat. In addition to energy and demand “ "reactive power" is used by asynchronous motors and transformers to excite magnetic fields and drivespartial output of electric current from the phase. When this happens, some additional current is currentyou will be delivered something that is not registered on the energy and demand meters. Excessive reactive power has a
negative impact on the distribution system of utilities and can lead to a decrease in their capacity, as well as the capacity inside your facility. If you use more than a certain amount of reactive power measured in "kvar" or kilovolt-amperes of reactive power, your utility company will probably stop a separate meter for measuring and invoicingfor the reactive power used. In General, you can count on
the power of powercharge if your power factor is less .95 or 95%. The power factor is billed in various ways, including kVAR, kVAR-hour, by adjusting your demand charges by increasing the billed kW for each percentage when your power factor falls below the acceptable 95%, or by measuring and invoicing the demand in kVA. Power factor charges may not make up a large part of your utility bill,
but it's important to be aware of them and accept themmeasures if the fee becomes significant. Installation of capacitors and high highfactor equipment can reduce power factor penalties. Electric tariff structures each utility has different tariff structures or rates for different types of users, such as residential, small commercial, large commercial, industrial, farm, irrigation, and outdoor lighting. In
addition, each of these user groups may have different schedules depending on capacity, usage time, or other variables. 51. Understandingfor utilities 49 fixed rate fixed rate, as the name suggests , is a flat rate ratenot change. Each kilowatt-hour costs the same, regardless of how much electricity is used and when. Seasonal rates seasonal rates vary depending on the time of year, usually with
one rate for summer and another for winter. This type of bid usually reflects seasonal differences in demand and generating costs. As demand increases, generation costs tend to increase, as less efficient and more expensive generating capacity needs to be used.services that are experiencing their highest demand in thegenerally, rates will be higher in summer, while utilities may have higher
rates in winter. Understanding seasonal differences in rates can help you make a more economical choice of heating systems. In areas with low winter rates, electric heating can be quite economical, while in other areas with high winter rates, a fossil fuel system may be a more economical choice. Multi-level or block rates for multi-level orthe cost of kWh varies depending on the amount of
electricityused in the billing period. The first" block " of kWh is paid at a certain rate, the next block-at a different rate, and so on. In most commercial and industrial cases, the cost of a kilowatt hour decreases with increased consumption, although in other cases, where demand control is critical, the cost may increase with increased consumption. Time of use tariffs time of use tariffs helps utilities
to manage electricity demand,off-peak use by lower tariffs and punishing peak electricity use by higher tariffs by tariffsThis means that you can have multiple meters measuring energy and demand for different periods throughout the day. One measures demand during certain "peak" hours, such as Monday-Friday from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m., and the other measures demand during” off-peak " hours,
such as nights and weekends. By shifting the use of your main equipment to non-working hours, you can reduce your electricity bills without sacrificing comfort and convenience. The more power consumption you haveswitch to onhours, the more you save. To save time using bids, you need to know what times are counted at the peak and off-peak. Generally, at night and early in the morning-52.
50 ing energy audit guide hours are considered off-peak, while daytime hours are considered on-peak. Some utilities have up to four different time periods with different rates assigned for each period. Other betting options there are also several other betting options,currently being proposed or considered by some somemunicipal services. "Real-time pricing" uses interactive computer technology
to change rates over time, based on the cost of generating a utility. By controlling tariff fluctuations, consumers can manage their electricity consumption to take advantage of low tariffs and minimize their use at high tariffs. Some utilities also offer "green tariffs" that allow customers toyou can pay a slightly higher rate to support electricity generation using solar power or other environmentally
friendly technologiesAs the industry moves toward greater competition, load aggregation, intermittent maintenance, self-generation, and retail are all potential ways to reduce costs. It's a good idea to review all available rates and discuss options with a utility representative. SIM 3-1 the current tariff structure is as follows: demand fee: first 25 kW of payment demand $4.00 per kW per month next
475 kW of payment demand $3.50 per kW per month1000 kW $3.25 per kW per month energy fee: first firstkWh per month at 8 cents per kWh the next 18,000 kWh per month at 6 cents per kWh the next 180,000 kWh per month at 4.4 cents per kWh, etc. The new proposed schedule removes price breaks for use. Billing months billing months June-September October-may demand fee $13.00
per $5.00 per kW / month energy fee kW / month 5¢ per kWh 3¢ per kWh demand fee is based on the highest billing demand of the month. 53. Understanding the utility bill 51the proposed account, as it will affect the industrial customer who475 kW for 330 hours per month. For 8 months of winter, the demand is 900 kW. For 4 months of summer, the demand is 1200 kW. Analysis of the proposed
schedule of rates has two major changes. First, demand for invoicing is on a ratchet basis and prevents peak demand for several months. High demand charges encourage the plant to increase its overall load factor. The increased demand charge is partially offset by lower energy consumption. Initialwinter demand: first 25 kW $100 next 475 475$1,662. 50 next 400 kW $1,300 total $3,062. 50 /
summer MO demand: $4,037. 50 / MO total demand payment: 8 MO × $3062.50 / month + 4 mo × $4,037. 50/MO = $40,650 total usage fee per month: 475 kW × 330 hours = 156,750 h First 2000 h @ 8¢/kWh = $160 next 18,000 kW @ 6¢/kWh = $1,080 next 136,750 kW @ 4.4¢/kWh = $6,017 total = $7,257 total usage: $7257 × 12 = $87,084 total charge = $40,650 + $87,084 = $127,734 = 6.8¢
per kWh average cost of the proposed payment method1200 kW × ($13.00 / kW * month) x 4 months = =900 kW × ($5.00 / kW * month) x 8 months = $36,000 total demand: $ 98,400 usage: 475 kW × 330 × 5¢ × 4 = $ 31,350 475 kW × 330 × 3¢ × 8 = $ 37,620 total usage: $68,970 total charge = $98,400 + $68,970 = $167,370 = 8.9¢ per kWh = 31% increase increase commercial energy auditing
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