Dimensions of Ethics: Metaethics, Normative Ethics and Applied Ethics

Dr Awdhesh Singh, IRS (Retd.)

Director, Awdhesh Academy,

Former Commissioner, Customs & Indirect Taxes (Central Excise &GST)

Ethics, Morality and Legality (Contd.)

Comparison of Ethics and Morality

Ethics

Ethics are codified by philosophers, which can be studied and implemented.

The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group or
culture.

Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source i.e. society, nation or religion.

Social pressure are exerted on the people to follow an ethical behaviour.

Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines within a particular time and place

Morality

Morality is fluid that varies from situation to situation, person to person.

Morals is a personal compass of right and wrong. You choose your morals based on your personal
values.

Moral refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong. It’s source is internal.

Personal belief is behind following a moral behaviour.

Morality transcends cultural norms and quite universal.

Comparison of Morality and Legality

Morality

Depends on belief

Undefined and fluid

Tells you what is to be done and what is not to be done

Rewards and Punishment

Subjective

Social Punishment prescribed for violations

Offers choices

Legality

Depends on the words of law

Well defined and rigid

Tells you what is not to be done

Only Punishment

Objective

Specific punishment prescribed by law

Offers no choice

Branches of Ethics

Branches of Ethics

Metaethics: From where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Focusses on the issues
of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical
terms themselves.

Normative ethics: To arrive at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve
articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the
consequences of our behavior on others.

Applied ethics: It involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal
rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war.

1. Metaethics

What is Metaethics?

Metaethics is made from two words; "meta" (means beyond) and ethics. Hence, metaethics means what
is beyond ethics i.e. why ethics exists at all.

Accordingly, metaethics can be defined as the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.

It covers broadly two issues.

Metaphysical issues
Psychological issues

A: Metaphysical Issues:

A division of philosophy that is concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being.

It deals with the matter that is beyond the objective experience.

It can be further divided into

Absolutism
Relativism

Absolutism

Just like a soul is the essence of the living being, which is divine, absolute and eternal, the ethical
principles too are universal, absolute, eternal, spiritual, other-worldly and divine like God.They simply
exist like gravity

We can experience their presence in our soul, but we can’t know the reason of their existence.

We realize their presence through the voice of our conscience, inner voice or voice of our soul.

Plato believed in the divinity of moral values and ethics

The Indian concept of ‘Dharma’ is also akin to universality of ethics.

Relativism

Ethics is this-worldly and created by human mind only and hence quite subjective.

Moral values keep changing with time from one society to another.

Such thinkers or philosophers are often called skeptics, who questioned all the moral values.

Skeptics don’t reject moral values in itself, but denies that spirituality or divinity of the moral values.

This position of philosophers is often called moral relativism.

There are two distinct forms of moral relativism.

Two types of Relativism

Individual relativism

Individuals create their own moral standards.

The individual morality depends on what suits
you best.
Cultural relativism:

The basic principles of morality are decided by

the society though evolutionary process.
Moral principles thus needs the approval of
one's society.

B: Psychological Issues in Metaethics

Why do some people behave morally and others are immoral, when they are brought up in the same
society and often in the same family?

Does being ethical is a matter of faith or based on some reasoning?

Why be moral?

Are we moral because it gives us certain benefits like happiness, honour or connect with people?, or

Are we moral because we want to avoid punishment, social isolation or hatred from fellow human
being?

1: Egoism
The term “egoism” derives from “ego,” the Latin term for “I” in English.

It means that men are inherently selfish. They do everything to please themselves.

Even when they are helping others, doing charity or social work, the real purpose is to please
themselves.

2:Altruism

Man is a social animal and he can’t enjoy anything alone.

We feel empathy and sympathy with other people naturally.

When we see injustice in the world, we feel pain of the victim. We cry when others cray and laugh when
other laugh.

A Swedish Proverb beautifully says: “Shared joy is a double joy; shared sorrow is half sorrow.”

Altruism thus means that man has an inherent capacity to show benevolence to others.

Altruism is a great virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular
worldviews

3: Emotion

Moral assessments involve our emotions, and not our reason.

We do what feels good to us.

We find reasons later to justify our emotions.

‘Reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions’.(Hume)

4: Reason

Many philosophers including Immanuel Kant believed that emotions are not enough to justify our
actions.

All moral actions can be derived by reasons. For example

People avoid corruption since they can be send

to jail
People are faithful else their relationships shall
break
Emotions are subjective and temporary.

Reasons are objective and last long.

True ethics are guided by reason rather than emotions.

5: Feminine Morality

The traditional morality is masculine with more emphasis on power, and the rigid moral rules like rights
and duties.

Females constituting half of the population use different type of morality that is important for the
survival of the society.

The basis of morality would be spontaneously caring for others as would be appropriate in each unique
circumstance.

A mother may love her child sometime and also punishes her sometime depending on the situation and
in the interest of the child.

Normative Ethics

Normative Ethics

Normative ethics is the study of ethical action.

It deals with ‘ethical dilemma’ and investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how
one ought to act morally in a given situation.

It is also sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive, because it tells us how to act morality
rather than what morality is.

Types of Normative Ethics

1: Virtue ethics

Advocated by Aristotle & supported by St Thomas Aquinas.

It focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on specific actions.

Our actions are manifestation of our inner self.

If you are a good person, all your actions shall
be good.
If you are a bad person, you actions can’t be
good.
It means that if you are a virtuous person, all your action shall be ethical.

Just like a hero can’t do anything wrong, even if he kills someone, a virtuous person also always do the
right things.

A Tree Is Known by Its Fruit

“For a good tree does not bear bad fruit, nor does a bad tree bear good fruit. For every tree is known by
its own fruit. ..A good man out of the good treasure of his heart brings forth good; and an evil man out
of the evil treasure of his heart brings forth evil. For out of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaks.
(Luke 6:43-45)

Cardinal Virtues

Cardinal virtues derive initially from Plato in Republic Book IV.

These virtues were expanded by later philosophers like Cicero, Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, and
Thomas Aquinas.

These virtues are also recognized in the Bible, Old Testament, classical antiquity and in traditional
Christian theology.

Four Cardinal Virtues

Prudence: It is the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at
the appropriate time.

Courage: It is also called fortitude, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear,
uncertainty, and intimidation

Temperance: It is also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and
moderation tempering the appetition (appetite, a longing for or seeking after something).

Justice: It is also considered as fairness, the most extensive and most important virtue. It also means
righteousness.
Criticism of Virtue theory

Virtues are subjective and keep changing with time.

A virtuous woman in ancient times implies one who is quiet, servile, and productive. However, this does
not hold good today.

Action and consequence of the action is more important than the inherent quality of the person.

A true virtue is one that is universally applicable. However, most virtues have cultural and social bias.

Servility may be consider as a female virtue, but is not considered to be a male virtue.

2: Deontology

Given by Immanuel Kant, one of the greatest philosopher of all times.

Derived from the Greek word ‘deon’ meaning "obligation, duty"

An action should be judged based on laws and rules.

It is sometimes described as "duty-" or "obligation-" or "rule- based ethics”, because rules "bind you to
your duty".

This theory argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and one's
rights.

An action is more important than the consequences.

Most relevant in the civil services since your actions should always be in accordance with the rules and
laws of the country.

3: Consequentialism (Teleology)

It is derived from two Greek words: telos (end, goal, purpose) and logos (reason, explanation).

The morality of an action depends on the outcome or result of an action.

Ends are more important than the means.

Consequentialist include ethical philosophies like utilitarianism which means that an action is right if it
leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of people.

4: ‘Ethics of care’; or ‘Relational ethics’

This school of thought was founded by feminist theorists, notably Carol Gilligan.

She argues that morality arises out of the experiences of empathy and compassion.

It emphasizes the importance of interdependence and relationships in achieving ethical goals.

An ethical action is one that nurtures relationship and strengthen the family and the society.

Applied Ethics

Applied ethics

It involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights,
environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war.

Requirement 1: Is it controversial?

The issue must be controversial because significant number of people are for and against the issue at
hand.

The common moral issues like theft, murder, rape etc., which are admitted by almost everyone as
immoral are not part of the applied ethics.

Murdering people using guns is not applied ethics. However, gun control is within applied ethics.

Requirement 2: Is it a moral issue?

Some issues like reservation, affirmative action, public versus private health care systems, or energy
conservation are controversial, they also have substantial impact on the society and yet not having a
moral dimensions.

These are only issues of social policy, which may help make a better society.

Branches of Applied Ethics

Medical ethics,

Business ethics,

Environmental ethics,

Sexual ethics,

Human Right ethics

Normative Principles in Applied Ethics

Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for the
individual in question.
Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for society.

Principle of benevolence: help the people who are in need.

Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so
themselves.

Principle of harm: do not harm others.

Normative Principles in Applied Ethics (Contd.)

Principle of honesty: do not deceive others.

Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law.

Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person's freedom over his/her actions or physical body.

Principle of justice: acknowledge a person's right to due process, fair compensation for harm done, and
fair distribution of benefits.

Rights: acknowledge a person’s rights to life, information, privacy, free expression, and safety.

The Fields of Applied Ethics

Business ethics

Business ethics examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business
environment or economic activities.

It discusses ethical question in marketing, accounting, labor laws including child labor and abusive labor
practices, human resource management, political contributions, business acquisitions such as hostile
take-overs, production, use of toxic material, intellectual property, information management including
information leak, and others.

Legal ethics

Legal ethics refers to an ethical code governing the conduct of people engaged in the practice of law.

The issues involved are

client-lawyer relationship,
duties of a lawyer as advocate in adversary
proceedings,
dealings with persons other than clients,
public service,
advertising,
respect of client confidences,
professional independence.

Environmental ethics

“Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings
to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents”.

It rests on the principle that human beings are a part of the environment and so are the other living
beings, including plants and animals. They cannot be denied their right to live. They need to be
considered as entities with the right to co-exist with human beings.

The main topics included in the environmental ethics are global warming, pollution, and issues that are
closely tied poverty, sustainability, and economic and social justice.

Since environmental problems often affect beyond the boundaries of nation-states, the issues are tied
to the fields of international relations and global governance.

Medical ethics and Bioethics

Medical ethics deals with study of moral values and judgments in the field of medication and healthcare.

Bioethics deals with the ethical implications of biological research and applications especially in
medicine.

Bioethics includes the study of what is right and wrong in new discoveries and techniques in biology,
such as genetic engineering and the transplantation of organs.

It include abortion, cloning, euthanasia, eugenics, and others.