University of Perpetual Help System Laguna - JONELTA

Old National High Way, Sto. Niño, Biñan Laguna

College of Arts and Science

Psychology Department

Experiment Number 3

Formation of Word Association

And Perceptual Defense

Submitted by

De Guia, Czyvel Kryz L.

18-2226-688

Submitted to

Professor Mary Easter Claire S. Perez-Torres

February 27, 2020

I. Introduction

Association concerning mental event is basic organizational principle in memory

with essential implications for performance. The characteristics of the associative

process and the impact of established associations on cognitive processes have a long

and eminent history in cognitive research. The scope of such research was extensive,

ranging from paired associate learning of behaviorist investigations (e.g., Postman &

Keppel, 1970) and investigations of free association patterns (e.g., Deese, 1965) up to

latest computational models as a basis for computing word meaning and that model that

use is inter lexical association (e.g., Plaut, 1995). The effect of word associations on

linguistic performance has been broadly investigated using numerous tasks such as

priming in lexical access (Neely, 1991), comprehension of sentence (Seidenberg,

Tanenhaus, Leiman, & Bienkowski, 1982; Stanovich & West, 1983) and production of

language (Spence & Owens, 1990). In difference, questions regarding the method

leading to the establishment of word associations through natural language use and the

process have received less attention are the inxuence of linguistic context. Associations

between words are formed incidentally without definite intention of the subject to

memorize a particular association during the daily use of language. Much of the

research focus with the formation of word association through episodic and lexical

processing inxuence and has been conducted using paired associate learning models

(e.g., Dagenbach, Horst, & Carr, 1990; Durgunoglu & Neely, 1987; Goshen-Gottstein &

Moscovitch, 1995a; Goshen-Gottstein & Moscovitch, 1995b; McKoon & RatcliV, 1986;

Neely & Durgunoglu, 1985; Schacter & Graf, 1986; Schacter & McGlynn, 1989;

Schrijnemakers & Raaijmakers, 1997). In discrepancy in the present experiment the

subject incidentally exposed to words in a meaningful context while a semantic task

involves sentence comprehension.

Perceptual defense concept has met broad resistance inception by Bruner &

Postman (1947) they conduct Ss with taboo and neutral words on tachistoscope words

were first display presented a fast speed exposure and the slower speeds until the

subject recognized correctly the word. They found that taboo words were significantly

slower exposure speeds than neutral words, this difficulty in recognizing the taboo

words are called perceptual defense and define as recognition of threatening stimuli in

unconscious mechanism of resistance. Some studies like (Eriksen, 1951, 1954; Eriksen

& Browne, 1956; Postman, Bruner, & McGinnies, 1948) supported this experiment and

provided additional evidence for perceptual defense. Research has been done to

measure the GSR reading in tachistoscoppic experiments. McGinnies (1949) presented

measuredSs' recognition thresholds and GSR deflections and taboo words and neutral

words tachistoscopically. GSR readings, presented fluctuations before the subject

verbally acknowledge recognition indicating that Subject had recognized the taboo

words same with threshold of neutral word, similar results was found by Lazarus &

McCleary(1951)

This experiment consists of three parts, there are 99 stimulus words and the

subject will be tasked to associate the word to any words that comes first into his/her

mind. From 99 stimulus words it will go down to 15 and it will be arranged according to

the time reaction from slow, medium and fast. And last part there is 5 trials, each trials

has corresponding time when it flashes to the subject. The subject tries to remember

those 15 words after the experimenter flashed the cards.

 Hypothesis

The following hypothesis of the experiment are there is a significant relationship

between Formation of Word association, perceptual defense and external attention

factors like repetition. There is a significant relationship between reaction time and

recognition memory.

II. Method

The apparatuses that will be used in this experiment are pencil, short bond

paper, stopwatch and 99 index cards with stimulus words.

Procedures

The experiment consist of three parts, on the first part the experimenter will flash

each card to the subject. The subject will be tasked to associate the word to any word

that first comes into their mind. The experimenter will record the reaction time of the

subject and the associate word. As soon as the card is shown, the timer starts and ends

when the subject states an associated word. Each word that the subject answers has an

interpretation. If the subject answers an associated word that has a different meaning,

then this will be labeled as one of the manifestations. The following manifestations of

complex indications are longer than average reaction time to stimulus word, repeating

the stimulus word as response, failure to respond expressive bodily reactions such as

laughing or increase breathing rate, stuttering or uttering, misunderstanding some

stimulus as some other words, blushing/manifesting shyness. Some words left blank will

be recorded as the number 1 manifestation. Only the first word that subject states will
be considered. On the second part words were divided into three parts slow, medium

and fast. This means that the reaction time of the subject will be arranged according to

how slow, medium or fast they reacted. 5 cards per division will be gathered. O the last

part of the experiment the 15 words that were taken from the second part were the

words to be used. This part has 5 trials. Each trial from 1 to 5 indicates the seconds of

each card that is going to be flashed to the subject. The experimenter will then ask the

subject the words he/she remembers after each trial. Each word that the subject

answered correctly will be marked check or correct. If not it will be marked as failure to

recall.

III. Results
Table 1 Associated Words, Reaction Time and Manifestation in 99 stimulus words
of Subject 1

Stimulus Word Associated Word Reaction Time Manifestation

Maramot Kuripot 00.69
Karayom Tali 02.92 Misunderstanding
some stimulus as
some other words.
Manipis Papel 06.03 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Suplada Maganda 02.43
Gahasa Maltrato 04.83
Bulbol Buhok 01.66 Expressive bodily
reaction such as
laughing.
Araw Liwanag 2.35
Guro Guro 7.73 Longer than
average reaction
time and repeating
the stimulus word
as a response.
Kupal Matigas Ulo 03.08
Lalaki Pogi 04.32
Pantalon Maong 04.53
Matanda Maputi Buhok 02.16
Salamin Eye Glasses 12.27 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Pagkain Masarap 02.10
Mahaba Buhok 03.88
Magulang Madaya 06.05
Dalaga Single 10.20 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Asawa Mahal 04.45 Expressive bodily
reaction such as
laughing.
Camera Picture 04.83
Pantalon Maong 03.68
Supot Lagayan 04.20
Bahay Tahanan 02.78
Katawan Body 06.33 Longer than
average reaction
 time.
Tamad Bata 03.71
Digmaan Magulo 02.90
Basahan Marumi 03.32
Bituin Kumikinang 02.39
Paa Sapatos 02.89
Diwa Gising 07.26 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Aklatan Libro 02.60
Bata Kyut 04.86
Bulkan Mayon 04.08
Sapatos Paa 01.35
Maputi Makinis 03.56
Dugo Pula 01.95
Gitara Musika 02.86
Maganda Babae 03.71
Sapatos Sapatos 01.00
Panis Sira 02.43
Patayan Dugo 03.10
Tindahan Sarisari 02.72
Kaklase Kaibigan 05.09
Mainit Maaraw 04.32
Matigas Bato 02.31
Nunal Birthmark 07.03
Digmaan Duguan 02.30
Salamin Salamin 07.48 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Kasalanan Mali 05.26
Damit Sinusuot 01.86
Palayan Kanin 02.43
Halaman Bulaklak 02.06
Kasera Sakayan 05.66
Mataba Malusog 02.62
Buhok Itim 03.26
Ataol Taguan 02.39
Relo Orasan 01.75
Hayop Kaibigan 03.22
Damayan Kaibigan 05.76
Karera Unahan 01.69
Larawan Memories 03.40
Batalan Base 07.03 Misunderstanding
some stimulus as
some other words.
Talaan Sulatan 03.52
Kabayo Tumatakbo 04.16
Damuhan Garden 05.49
Bulaklak Mabango 02.80
Insekto Ipis 05.85
Tite Tamod 02.55
Kawali Lutuan 02.49
Bakla Masaya 03.42
Binata Obligado 05.82
Sombrero Sinusuot 03.66
Kerida Salot 02.92
Luslos Sakit 04.56
Kapatid Kadugo 02.95
Kasunduan Kontrata 03.26
Suso Parte ng katawan 05.30
Tinggil Tite 02.85 Misunderstanding
some stimulus as
some other words.
Larawan Memories 02.97
Katulong Katulong 04.49 Repeating the
stimulus word as a
response.
Sampayan Damit 05.33
Malaki Malaki 05.27 Repeating the
stimulus word as a
response.
Mabaho Di naliligo 04.99
Balita Importante 04.25
Palayok Pangluto 02.52
Halikan Mag asawa 01.73
Simbahan Kasal 02.16
Utong Dede 02.11
Sulat Sulat 04.93
Bibig Maingay 01.92
Tomboy Babae 02.22
Puki Babae 02.32
Alahas Dyamante 02.26
Sampayan Damit 01.41
Makinis Maputi 01.90
 Babae Maganda 02.18
Puta Salot 01.70
Dress Damit 02.55
Bibig Maingay 01.46
Dalaga Maganda 01.75

Table 1 shows the 99 stimulus word and associated words that the subject 1

state during the experiment and the result of manifestation and reaction time. Subject 1

has a total of fourteen (14) manifestations in 99 stimulus words and those

manifestations are misunderstanding some stimulus as some other words,

manifestation is longer than average reaction time, expressive bodily reaction such as

laughing and repeating the stimulus words as a response. In stimulus words karayom,

batalan and tinggil the manifestations that the subject show is misunderstanding some

stimulus as some other words, the subject state the associated word tali in stimulus

word karayom, batalan to base and tinggil to tite. The subject 1 manifestation is longer

than average reaction time are stimulus word manipis which has 06.03 seconds and the

other is guro which has 07.73 reaction time and the subject also repeats the stimulus

word as a response, salamin which has 12.27 seconds, dalaga which has 10.20

seconds, katawan which has 06.33 seconds and diwa which has 07.26 seconds

reaction time. The last manifestation that the subject 1 showed is repeating the stimulus

as a response and those stimulus words are guro, katulong and malaki. It shows that

those simple words have an impact to the responses of the subject 1 to have fourteen

(14) manifestations.

Table 2 Slow, Medium and Fast Stimulus Words and Reaction time (Subject 1)

Stimulus Word Reaction Time

 Slow
Salamin 12.27
Dalaga 10.20
Guro 07.73
Halikan 07.73
Salamin 07.48
Medium
Katawan 06.33
Insekto 05.85
Damayan 05.76
Kasera 05.66
Kasalanan 05.26
Fast
Karera 01.69
Bulbol 01.66
Sampayan 01.41
Sapatos 01.35
Maramot 00.69

Table 2 shows fifteen (15) stimulus words and its corresponding reaction time.

Those stimulus words above are arrange according to how fast, slow and in between or

medium that the subject reacted. The stimulus word that is in slow period are Salamin

which has 12.27 seconds and has the higher reaction time, the other one is dalaga

which has corresponding reaction time of 10.20 seconds, guro and halikan that has the

same reaction time which is 07.73 seconds and last stimulus word in slow phase is

Salamin which has 07.48 seconds. In the medium period the stimulus words are

katawan which has 06.33 seconds reaction time, insekto 05.85 seconds reaction time,

damayan 05.76 seconds reaction time, the other stimulus word is kasera which has

05.66 seconds reaction time and the last stimulus word that is in medium set is

kasalanan which has corresponding time of 05.26 seconds. In the fast period the

stimulus words that the subject state is Karera which has 01.69 seconds reaction time,

bulbol which has 01.66 seconds reaction time, the other stimulus word is sampayan
which has 01.41 seconds reaction time, the second to the fastest stimulus word is

sapatos which has corresponding reaction time of 01.35 and the fastest stimulus words

that has a 00.69 seconds reaction time is maramot.

Table 3 Stimulus words that subject 1 remembers from Trial 1 to Trial 5

Stimulus Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

Word (5 seconds) (4 seconds) (3 seconds) (2 seconds) (1 second)
Salamin     
Dalaga     
Guro     
Halikan     
Salamin     
Katawan     
Insekto     
Damayan     
Kasera     
Kasalanan X    
Karera     
Bulbol     
Sampayan     
Sapatos     
Maramot  x   
Total 14 14 15 15 15

Table 3 shows the fifteen stimulus words that the subject remembers from trial 1

to trial 5. Each trial indicates the seconds of each card that is going to be flashed to the

subject; in trial 1 the experimenter flashed the card in 5 seconds and nearly all the

fifteen stimulus was remembered by the subject only stimulus word kasalanan is failure

to recall and the subject has a fourteen (14) correct words. Similar with trial 2 but the

stimulus words failure to recall is maramot. In trial 3, 4 and 5 the subject got fifteen (15)

perfect score. The subject easily recalls those 15 stimulus words in trial 3, 4, and 5. The

table shows that the lesser the seconds or given time the higher the chance to recall the

stimulus words and the greater the given time the lesser the chance to recall the

stimulus words and the more the experimenter flashed the cards repeatedly from trial 1

to trial 5 the greater the chance to memorize all the stimulus words.

Table 4 Associated Words, Reaction Time and Manifestation in 99 stimulus words

of Subject 2

Stimulus Word Associated Word Reaction Time Manifestation

Maramot Ugali 00.78
Karayom Sinulid 00.19
Manipis Makapal 00.47
Suplada Ugali 00.65
Gahasa Rape 00.62
Bulbol Makapal 00.72
Araw Gabi 00.63
Guro Estudyante 01.79
Kupal Kupal 01.20
Lalaki Babae 00.98
Pantalon Jeans 00.69
Matanda Maputi buhok 01.40
Salamin Mirror Shot 01.05
Pagkain Kanin 01.63
Mahaba Maikli 00.17
Magulang Nanay 00.93
Dalaga Binata 00.16
Asawa Kasal 01.02
Camera Pose 01.25
Pantalon Jeans 01.02
Supot Lalagyan 03.88 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Bahay Kubo 00.98
Katawan Body 02.17 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Tamad Bata 01.58
Digmaan Gulo 01.34
Basahan Pamunas 01.42
Bituin Langit 00.84
Paa Tsinelas 01.24
Diwa Soul 01.62
Aklatan Library 01.52
Bata Makulit 01.47
Bulkan Pumuputok 02.07 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Sapatos Medyas 00.60
Maputi Maitim 01.80
Dugo Pula 01.59
Gitara String 01.25
Maganda Makinis 01.00
Sapatos Medyas 00.74
Panis Maamoy 01.79
Patayan Lamay 00.63
Tindahan Sari-Sari 01.34
Kaklase Katabi 01.30
Mainit Malamig 04.98 Longer than
average reaction
time.
Matigas Semento 01.50
Nunal Mukha 01.69
Digmaan Gulo 01.07
Salamin Salamin 01.50 Repeating the
stimulus word as a
response.
Kasalanan Pagkakamali 01.49
Damit Sinusuot 01.42
Palayan Punla 02.84
Halaman Paso 00.99
Kasera Ilaw 01.81
Mataba Payat 01.52
Buhok Mahaba 01.37
Ataol Patay 01.05
Relo Orasan 01.57
Hayop Animal 02.14
Damayan Kaibigan 01.35
Karera Race 01.55
Larawan Picture 01.37
Batalan Grupo 01.49
Talaan Nilalaman 01.40
Kabayo Mabilis 01.67
Damuhan Damuhan 04.02 Repeating the
stimulus word as a
response.
Bulaklak Rose 01.97
Insekto Ipis 02.70
Tite Mahaba 00.91
Kawali Pangluto 01.38
Bakla Tomboy 01.22
Binata Dalaga 01.19
Sombrero Ulo 01.19
Kerida Kabet 01.27
Luslos Bayag 02.24
 Kapatid Karamay 01.25
Kasunduan Kontrata 02.95
Suso Maliit 01.36
Tinggil Bunganga 01.55
Larawan Picture 01.25
Katulong Kasambahay 01.35
Sampayan Sipitan 01.34
Malaki Maliit 00.99
Mabaho Maalingasaw 00.65
Balita News 01.25
Palayok Pinapalo 01.42
Halikan Mag-asawa 00.74
Simbahan Kasal 01.20
Utong Dede 02.49 Expressive bodily
reaction such as
laughing.
Sulat Panget 00.75
Bibig Dila 00.84
Tomboy Babae 00.65
Puki Mabaho 02.35
Alahas Singsing 02.19
Sampayan Sipitan 01.21
Makinis Maputi 01.75
Babae Lalaki 01.02
Puta Mura 01.85
Dress Mahaba 01.39
Bibig Bunganga 01.02
Dalaga Binata 01.17

Table 4 shows the 99 stimulus word and associated words that the subject 2

state during the experiment and the result of manifestation and reaction time. Subject 2

has a total of seven (7) manifestations in 99 stimulus words and those manifestations

are manifestation is longer than average reaction time, expressive bodily reaction such

as laughing and repeating the stimulus words as a response. The subject 2

manifestation is longer than average reaction time are stimulus word supot which has
03.88 seconds and the other is tamad which has 02.17 reaction time, bulkan which has

02.07 seconds, mainit which has 04.98 seconds and has the longer reaction time. The

manifestation expressive bodily reaction such as laughing of the subject is stimulus

word utong which has associated word dede and the subject laugh while stating the

word. The last manifestation that the subject 2 showed is repeating the stimulus as a

response and those stimulus words are salamin and damuhan. The subject 2 response

quickly as the stimulus words are flashed, almost the reaction time of the subject is

below average time, only 04.98 seconds is the longest time that the subject gets in

reaction time. It shows that the subject 2 can quickly state the associated word and

presented a faster response in the experiment. The table also shows that those simple

words have an impact to the responses of the subject 2 to have more than one

manifestation.

Table 5 Slow, Medium and Fast Stimulus Words and Reaction time (Subject 1)

Stimulus Word Reaction Time

Slow
Mainit 04.98
Damuhan 04.02
Supot 03.88
Palayan 02.84
Alahas 02.35
Medium
Puta 01.85
Kasera 01.81
Panis 01.79
Makinis 01.75
Bulaklak 01.55
Fast
Sapatos 00.84
Maramot 00.78
Karayom 00.19
Mahaba 00.17
Dalaga 00.16

Table 5 shows fifteen (15) stimulus words and its corresponding reaction time.

Those stimulus words above are arrange according to how fast, slow and in between or

medium that the subject reacted. The stimulus word that is in slow period are Mainit

which has 04.98 seconds and has the higher reaction time, the other one is damuhan

which has corresponding reaction time of 04.02 seconds, supot which has 03.88

seconds reaction time, palayan that has corresponding reaction time which is 02.84

seconds and last stimulus word in slow period is alahas that has 02.35 seconds. In the

medium period the stimulus words are puta that has 01.85 seconds reaction time,

kasera 01.81 second reaction time, panis that has 01.79 seconds reaction time, the

other stimulus word is makinis that has 01.75 seconds reaction time and the last

stimulus word that is in medium set is bulaklak which has corresponding time of 01.55

second. In the fast period the stimulus words that the subject state are sapatos that has

00.84 seconds reaction time, maramot that has 00.78 second reaction time, the other

stimulus word is karayom that has 00.19 second reaction time, the second to the fastest

stimulus word is mahaba that has corresponding reaction time of 00.17 and the fastest

stimulus words that has a 00.16 second reaction time is dalaga.

Table 6 Stimulus words that subject 1 remembers from Trial 1 to Trial 5
Stimulus Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Word (5 seconds) (4 seconds) (3 seconds) (2 seconds) (1 second)
Mainit X    
Damuhan     
Supot     
Palayan     
Alahas     
Puta     
Kasera     
Panis     
Makinis     
Bulaklak     
Sapatos     
Maramot     
Karayom     
Mahaba     
Dalaga     
Total 14 15 15 15 15

Table 6 shows the fifteen stimulus words that the subject remembers from trial 1

to trial 5. Each trial indicates the seconds of each card that is going to be flashed to the

subject; in trial 1 the experimenter flashed the card in 5 seconds and nearly all the

fifteen stimulus was remembered by the subject only stimulus word mainit is failure to

recall and the subject has a fourteen (14) correct words. In trial 2, 3, 4 and 5 the subject

got fifteen (15) perfect score. The subject easily recalls those 15 stimulus words in trial

2, 3, 4, and 5. The table shows that the lesser the seconds or given time the higher the

chance to recall the stimulus words and the greater the given time the lesser the chance

to recall the stimulus words and the more the experimenter flashed the cards repeatedly

from trial 1 to trial 5 the greater the chance to memorize all the stimulus words.

14

12

10 Subject
1
Reaction Time

0
1 6 1 1 1 6 2 1 26 31 36 41 46 51 5 6 6 1 6 6 7 1 7 6 8 1 86 91 96

Stimulus Words Number

 Figure 1

Figure 1 Stimulus Words and Reaction Time of Subject 1 and Subject 2

Figure 1 shows the result of reaction time of subject 1 and subject 2 in 99

stimulus words. Subject 1 has the higher reaction time compared to subject 2 the

longest reaction time of subject 2 is 12.27 while the longest reaction time of subject 1 is

only 04.98. The fastest reaction time of subject 1 is 00.69 while subject 2 is 00.16. It

shows that subject 2 is faster to response and state association words to the stimulus

words than subject 1. Subject 2 has a greater recognition memory than subject 1.

IV. Discussion

(BDA)

Before and during the experiment the experimenter makes an observation to the

subject and she observed that the subject is in good condition because she is sitting
properly and giving her focus in the experiment or in the cards. The subject eyes are

focused on the cards and sometimes try to look in the wall and in the floors while

thinking. The subject physical response is more active when seeing the stimulus words

especially the uncommon and dirty words.

Greater difficulty of recognition accompanied in increase association time when

the subject is trying to recall those words that is fitted and can be associated to the

stimulus word to state the word and recognized it. The time pressure affects the

recognition memory of the subject and some factors that’s why the more the difficulty of

the subject in recognizing words the longest the time accompanied. The factors that

fasten reaction time and faster recognition of words are arousal reaction time is fastest

with arousal and weakens when the subject is too tense or too relaxed. The other factor

is age it may be the older people to be more monitor and careful in their reactions when

concern distraction older people tend to focus their attention in one stimulus more

completely than younger ones. Distraction is also a factor of increasing reaction time.

Expectations, preparations and familiarity if the subject responds to a defined stimulus

that she responded before the reaction time will faster, the less the information the

quicker the reaction time will be. The factors in slow reaction, fast recognition of words

are complexity of stimulus the more the information has to be managed the longer the

process it takes. The other factors are state of organism, stimulated sensory modality,

perception of the subject, processing and response. Perceptual defense the subject

may be build a block or refusal to recognize the stimuli in the context that the subject or

culturally threatening or unacceptable like in the experiment some words like tite,

bulobol and dede the subject can state to those words positively.
V. Conclusion

Based from the experiment the experimenter concludes that there are

some words that the subject struggle in recognizing and makes her more

hesitant to answer the stimulus and it takes longer time for her to respond. The
experimenter also concludes that there were different degree of threshold for

each selected stimulus words and different signs of emotional complexes. The

subject had difficulty in responding to a certain stimulus word and sometimes

felt unpleasant in the stimulus word and the subject express bodily reactions

like laughing. The more the repetition of the words flashed the greater the

chance of the subject to recall and memorize the stimulus words and the lesser

the reaction time the higher the recognition memory of the subject.

Appendix
This is the materials that are used in the experiment stopwatch, pencil, 99 stimulus
cards and bond paper.

This is the experimenter and subject 1 during the experiment.

 This is the experimenter and subject 2 during the experiment.

This is the picture of the subject and the experimenter after conducting the experiment.

Reference

BROWNE, C. T. An experimental and theoretical analysis of perceptual defense.

Journal of Abnormal & SocialPsychology, 1956,52,224-230.

Dagenbach, D., Horst, S., & Carr, T. H. (1990). Adding new information to semantic

memory: how much learn

Deese, J. E. (1965). The structure of associations in language and thought. Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins Press

ERIKSEN, C. W. Perceptualdefenseas a function of unacceptable needs.Journal of

Abnormal& SocialPsychology, 1951,46,557-564. ERIKSEN, C. W. The casefor

perceptualdefense. Psychological Review, 1954,61,175-182. ERIKSEN, C. W., & Prior,

A., & Bentin, S., Word associations are formed incidentally during sentential semantic

integration, Acta Psychologica (2007), doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.01.002

LAZARUS, R. S., & McCLEARY, R. A. Autonomic discrimination without awareness: A

study of subception. Psychological Review, 1951,58,113-122.

McGINNIES, E. Emotionality and perceptual defense. Psychological Review, 1949, 56,

244-251. McGINNIES, E., &SHERMAN, H.Generalization of perceptual defense.

Journal of Abnormal& SocialPsychology, 1952,47,81-85.

Plaut, D. C. (1995). Semantic and associative priming in a distributed attractor network.

In Proceedings of the 17th annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 37–

42). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Postman, L., & Keppel, G. (Eds.). (1970). Norms of word association. NY: Academic

Press.

Schacter, D. L., & McGlynn, S. M. (1989). Implicit memory: eVects of elaboration

depend on unitization. American Journal of Psychology, 102(2), 151–181

Seidenberg, M. S., Tanenhaus, M. K., Leiman, J. M., & Bienkowski, M. (1982).

Automatic access of the meanings of ambiguous words in context: Some limitations of

knowledge based processing. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 489–537