POULTRY FARMER'S

HANDBOOK
OF

DISEASE PREVENTION

EXTENSION BULLETIN No. 28

POULTRY SERIES No.3

BY

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND RESEARCH LIAISON SERVICES

Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria

Published Nov. 1986.

 Acknowledgement

Our appreciation goes to the National Animal Production and

Research Institute, Shika, the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the
A.E.R.L.S. Staff, all of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria for the
contributions in making this handbook possible.

Dr. S.T. Balogun

and
Dr. S.O. Ogundipe
r
CONTENTS

PAGE
Introduction . ... ........ .. .................. . ... , . . . . . . . . . . 4
Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Source of Chicks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Brooding .. . . .. ........................ . .... . ............ . 9
Housing ........... . .. . . . .. . ...... . ...... . ..... . .. . . . . . ... 12
Restriction ......... . . .. . . ... . .. . .... . . . .... .. .. ... ... . ... . 14
Feeds and Feeding ......... .... ... . . ... ...... . . . . .. ... .. . .. 15
Vaccination . . ..... . ... . .. .. .. . ... . . . . . ... ... . . ........... . 18
Post Mortem Examination . . . . .. ... . . . . .. . .. .. . ... .. . . . .. . •. 20
Record Keeping and Disease Prevention ... ......... . . .. ..... . 22
Disposal of Dead Birds ............................. ~ ....... 25
Common Poultry Diseases in Nigeria ........ . ........ .. ...... . 28
Summary of Disease Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.... 43
 4

POULTRY FARMER'S HANDBOOK OF

DISEASE PREVENTION

(1) INTRODUCTION
Loss due to diseases is one of the greatest threats to a profitable
poultry enterprise. While a farmer keeping a few birds on range
around the house may not experience what one may consider a serious
loss, a farmer raising a sizeable number of birds ranging from
hundreds to thousands must as of necessity maintain a healthy flock
since the risk from disease becomes increasingly high.
There are more chances of disease spread especially when birds are
raised together in large numbers in a closed environment. Therefore
the need arises for a carefully planned health programme. This will
include all aspects of management to prevent or minimize the
exposure of birds to diseases and also to minimize the effects of
diseases when they occur.
This handbook has been specially prepared to help you plan an
effective health programme particularly to suit your purpose. While
the ideas contained therein are of general application, situations do
vary from farm to farm that may require different solutions, hence
you may find out that your operation requires a slightly different
approach from your neighbouring farms.
Factors that influence such differences between farms inc/ude:-
1. The size of operation;
2. The type of operation, e.g. Battery or cage system, deep
litter, free range etc;
3. Conditions prevalent in the areas, etc.
Let us now discuss those things you need to do to prevent serious
disease outbreak and hence run a profitable poultry operation.

(a) CONSULTATION
In most cases the poultrv farmers who experience serious disease
problems are those who fail to consult with those whose opinions
and advice are very essential i.e. the poultry extension specialist, the
poultry pathologist of the veterinarian.
 6

Consultation with the specialist will help to avoid some of the

common pitfalls. There is no better time to seek the advice than when
the farm is being planned. The specialists will advise you on various
management practices to prevent diseases. Some of these will be
incorporated in the planning of the farm and they include:
1. Choosing a favourable geographical location for the farm in
respect to other poultry farms in your area.
2. Proper location and orientation of poultry buildings on the
farm in relation to one another.
3. Proper design of the buildings, positiOning of the
equipments etc. to minimize the possibility of disease spread.

Fig. 2: An Aerial plan view of a typical Poultry farm

 7

The importance of consuiting expert advice at the stage of design_ing

the farm cannot be over-emphasized. This is because many of the·
errors committed at this stage are usually very critical in the control of
diseases and are usually those that are difficult to correct. Such errors
often include improper location of the farm, improper orientation of
the buildings', inappropriateness of the buildings in respect to one
another, improper location or installation of equipments and very
commonly, erection of poorly ventillated poultry houses. It is usually
very uneconomical trying to correct some of these errors once they are
made. So if you are going to invest your money on poultry project it is
advisable to seek the advice of the experts so that you can start on the
right track. There is no doubt poultry operation can be a lucrative
business, provided it is properly managed; otherwise, it can be
disastrous.
If you follow the recommendations in this handbook, you are
assured of a profitable poultry business.

(b) SOURCES OF CHICKS

It is assumed that your poultry farm is properly located, all houses on
the farm are properly designed to provide adequate ventillation and
are arranged properly in relation to one another considering wind
direction to avoid wind blowing from one poultry pen to another .
These will help to prevent or minimize disease spread. The next most
important aspect of your management is the source of your chicks
assuming you do not hatch eggs on your farm. It is important that you
purchase your chicks (preferably day-old chicks) from a .reputable
hatchery or a source that your local poultry extension specialist or the
veterinarian recommends. It must be a source .Known for producing
disease-free chicks. Many poultry diseases originate from the
hatcheries. Some of the diseases are transmitted from the hen ro the
chicks through the egg (egg-borne diseases) while others are due to
improper management of the hatcheries. Some of the diseases that
occur due to poor hatchery management are plillorum disease,
mycroplosassis, avian encephalomyelitis, omphalitis and spraddled
 8

Fig. 3: Buy your day old chicks from a reputable hatching farm .
 9

legs. A good hatchery must maintain a high level of sanitation to

prevent chicks becoming infected. The flow of traffic should be as
shown below:
Egg entry room._ _ _ _- ? Egg trayingo ---- ----)) Incubation
-----:? hatching ) holding room Van loading area.

Disease control in poultry operation starts from the hatcheries.

Effective disease control in hatcheries depends on good design to
facilitate easy cleaning and disinfection of the various rooms .
However no disease control system will be successful unless poultry
specialists, employees and the management cooperate to make the
system work.
You want to know for what diseases the day-old chicks have been
vaccinated against before they left the hatchery. This is important
because you don't want to take a chance. Your local veterinarian may
advise you Lo repeaL some of the operaLions if in his o pinion Lhis is
desirable. And of course you need to know the most serious disease
problems in your areas.

(c) BROODING
Brooding refers to the system of caring for baby chicks during the
periods when supplementary heat is provided for the birds' comfort.
It usually covers the period between day one until about 8 weeks of
age. Newly hatched chicks are very delicate and require special
attention. Therefore provision must be made to provide favourable
environment for the survival of the chicks. Basically this involves
supply of adequate heat, light, humidity, ventillation, feed and water.
Proper brooding is very important in preventing disease in chicks.
Chilling, excessive heat, starvation, dehydration etc. constitute
serious stresses favouring disease occurence and sometimes mortality
that might otherwise be overcome by young chicks if the right
environmental conditions are provided. A great loss is usually
encountered during this period if adequate care is not taken. You
 10

Fig. 4: Two Types of Brooder Bexes

 11

may find out that while chicks are dying, your neighbour, who
collected his chicks from the same batch as yours is not
experiencing any loss. The difference in many cases can usually be
traced to differences in management.
Prqper brooding is therefore one sure way of minimizing loss and
controlling disease<> in young chicks. With good management, and
proper disease prevention measures, a poultry farmer should be able
to brood successfully at least 96 per cent of the chicks he started with
up to 8 weeks of age.

Fig . 511 Correct broddtN t~mJHirllttl

Fig. Sb Tou cold

Fig. Sc Too hot

Fig. 5: Watch chicks under the brooder to know when they are too
hot or too cold
 12

(d) HOUSING
A good poultry house should aid in preventing disease occurence.
There are several ways by which a poultry house can prevent or
promote disease occurence.

Ventillation
In tropical climate heat stress is probably the most important factor to
contend with in poultry house designs. Poultry houses should be
designed to provide adequate ventillation, prevent excess dust and wet
litter which can lead to ammonia build-up.

Fig. 6: A Typical well constructed Poultry House.

r 13

I Improper ventillation may cause wet-litter which inturn promotes

I development of coccidial oocyst. Coccidiosis is a very common disease
of poultry especially when they are raised on deep litter system.
coccidial oocyst requires moisture ro develop into the infective stage.
Proper ventillation promotes dry litter and therefore inhibits the
development of coccidial oocyst, thus preventing coccidiosis. Poor

Fig. 7: A sign to Prevent unauthorised person to enter a Poultry farm

 14

ventillation on the other hand promotes rapid spread of pultry

diseases especially those that can easily spread from bird to bird
through the air e.g. Newcastle, J\1areks, chronic respiratory disease.
etc.

(e) RESTRICTION
One good way of preventing introduction of diseases from outside .to
your farm is by restricting movement of people on the farm . Not only
should unauthroized people be kept off the premises, movement of
the employees on the farm too must be restricted. Poultry diseases can
easily be spread by people from one farm to another or from one farm
house unit to another on the same farm. Where it is necessary to allow

Fig. 8: A Standard Poultry Feeder >fith guard to prevent feed wastage

 15

visitors on the farm, proper sanitary precautions must be taken to

ensure they do not bring in disease to your flock.
Vehicles i.e. lorries, trucks etc. and poultry equipments that have
been used elsewhere are other ways by which diseases can be
introduced into your farm. Such equipments and vehicles should be
disinfected properly before use on the farm. It is a good management
practice not to bring older birds from outside as replacement birds
because they may be a source of diseases to the farm. Provide
foot bath containing a disinfectant at the entrance to each pen. Change
the di sinfectant regularly to ensure it s effectiveness.

(f) FEEDS AND FEEDING

Adequate feeding a long with other management practices is very
essential for maintenance of flock health and productivity. Adequate
feeding is essential for normal growth, vigour, egg production,
hatchability and long productive life. Poultry feed rations are usually
formulated to contain all the nutrients that are essential for the proper
functioning of the body. Deficiency of any of these essential nutrients
may result in some fo rm of abnormalities and often times disease
conditions arise as a result of lack of certain ingredients in the feed.
For maximum efficiency, all the nutrients required by the chickens
must be supplied in a sufficient quantity. These nutrients are
carboyhdrates, fats, proteins, minerals , vitamins and water.
Water is the cheapest of all the feed nutrients, yet in most cases it is
the most neglected. Inadequate water supply to birds will result in loss
of production and birds will die from water deprivation sooner than
from feed starvation. Clean and fresh drinking water must be
available to the birds at all times. Water that apparently appears clean
can bring trouble to the farm. This is because it may contain some
disease-causing micro-organisms or toxic levels of minerab and salts.
It is therefore a good management practice to have your water supply
tested if you suspect that it is unsafe for poultry.
It is important that you purchase your feed from a reputable feed
manufacturer. If you are just starting, you may find out from poultry
 16

Fig. 9: A Standard Water Trough.

specialists and other poultry farmers around, what their opinions are
about the various feed brands available in your area. This will serve as
a guide. While it is important to purchase the best and most
economical feed available in your area it is your responsibility to
ensure that the birds are properly fed to minimize disease problem
that may arise due to poor quality feed.
For instance a good feed kept for too long in your store may lose
some of its essential nutrients. Crazy chicks disease is caused by loss of
essential vitamin E due to feed kept for too long before use.
Aspergillosis or Brooder pneumonia often results from the use of
mouldy feed. Also the way you feed your birds may promote or
prevent disease. Many poultry diseases can be spread through the
faeces contaminating the feeders and waterers. Feders and waterers
must therefore be designed and arranged in a way that prevents faecal
contamination.
 17

Fig. 10: Vacinate your birds according to specifications to prevent

disease outbreak.
 ,
18

(g) VACCINATION
While many poultry diseases can be prevented by good management
practices including sanitation, adequate feeding, well ventillated
hou ses etc, so me poultry diseases particularly those caused by viruses
and bacteria could easily and rapidly spread. Not only is it difficult to
stop their spread especially with diseases of viral cause it is in most
cases uneconomical because apart from the death toll that results, the
birds are usuall y rendered unproductive long after the attack.
Therefore the most reasonable and logical approach to the control
of these diseases is by vaccination. Birds should be vaccinated at the
appropriate time. Examples of those di seases that can be prevented by
vaccinal ion are Nelvcastle, mareks, Fowlpox and gumboro. The
ultimate aim of vaccination is to immunize the birds so that their
bodies are stimulated to produce antibodies. The antibodies so
produced by the b1rd in response to the vaccine is capable of
protecting the bird against future infection . The durat ion of the
immunity acquired as a result of vacination depends on the type of
vaccine used. It i important that you are familiar with the
problematic diseases in your areas for which vaccination is desirable;
your local veterinarian will advise you on this.
 19

RECOMMENDED VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR

POULTRY FARMERS

Age and Diseases and Site of lnnoculation Remarks

Type of Bird

Egg-Type Bird
1 day old and (1) 1st dose of newcastle disease. To be given by the hatchery
within 1st week Instil one drop of vaccine in each before chicks are sold,
open eye of tho chick from a otherwise should be given
dropping pipetter-vaccine use is before 14 days.
NDV i/o.

(2) 1st dose of Gumboro To be given by hatchery

3 weeks (3) 2nd dose of Gumboro disease

vaccine.

6 weeks (4) 2nd dose of newcastle disease

vaccine. NDVK.

(5 1 A dose of fowlpox vacci ne given Earlier than 6 weeks of age

via the wing web. will not assume lasting
immunity.

16-18 weeks (6) 3rd dose of newcastle disease

vaccine. Kamarov type of NDV
used.

NDV Newcastle Disease Virus

i/ o Intraocular.
 20

MEAT BIRDS (BROILERS)

Age and Disease and Site of lnnoculation Remarks

Type of Bird

1 day old Newcastle diseases vaccine To be given by the

and within Gumboro disease vacci ne h:ttchery before chicks
1st week are sold out.

3 weeks Gumboro disease vaccine

May not be necessary if

6 weeks Newcastle disease vacci ne birds attain slaughter
weight at about 6th
week.

(h) POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

The poultry business is such that even with the best of management,
occasional loss is usually encountered as a result of death due to
known and unknown causes. This is inevitable. Though a certain level
of mortality rate has become acceptable as a normal inevitable
occurence, the death of even a single bird should attract urgent
attention . Efforts should be made to find out the cause of death with
the intent to prevent recurrence. Under no circumstance should you
throw away a dead bird without ascertaining the cause of death. One
way of determining the cause of death is post-mortem examination. It
requires a trained hand and eye. You should consult your local
veterinary and poultry extension specialist to help you perform the
post-mortem examination. Whenever you find dead birds in your
flock you should immediately remove them.
A freshly killed or dead bird is the most suitable specimen for a
post-mortem examinati6n. If you cannot get your local veterinarian
on time, you can keep some of the dead birds in a refrigerator for
 21

many days. The importance of post mortem examination is that it

helps to find out what the problem is. By analysing the possible cause
you will then be able to adjust or modify your management to prevent
future occurence.

Fig. 11: Send your dead stock for post mortem examination
and diagnosis.
 22

(i) RECORD KEEPING AND DISEASE PREVENTION

The importance of record keeping in any poultry operation cannot be
overstressed. Records are kept so as to be able to determine the
performance of the birds in terms of egg production in laying birds
and growth in broiler chickens. Also of importance is the record of
feed and water consumption, mortality, medications, vaccinations;
sales, any unusual observations and symptoms and diseases diagnosed
on the farm.
Record keeping is particularly very important as it helps to give the
required warning of an impending prob lem. Most disease problems
are reflected in the feeding pattern of the birds. A drop in feed
consumption is usually one of the first signs exhibited by a sick bird.

TYPES OF RECORD
There are three types of record that all poultry farmers should keep.
They are (I) In ventory (2) Production (3) Financial Records. Among
these three, Production Record is the one that relates very closely to
poultry health management. Production Record should include
records of date hatched, date housed, source, breed or strain, number
in flock, mortality, feed consumption and dailyegg production. There
should also be a record of vaccinations, unusual conditions such as
excessive heat or cold. dampness, introduction of new birds from
outside, debeaking, deworming etc. Samples of these production
record s are provided in the appendix (Tables 1-3)
broiler/ replacement pullets and for layi ng flock.
The information necessary to help in arriving at a positive diagnosis
can be obtained from the daily production records. An example of a
form that a poultry farmer will be requested to complete for
diagnostic laboratory when submitti ng samples for diagnosis is
provided below.
r
I RECOMMENDED FLOCK RECORD CHARTS FOR
23

POULTRY FARMERS

FEEDS AND FEEDING METHODS

I. Feed consumption per day: Before disease . . ·............... . .. This date ...... . ........•....
2. Type of Ration: All mash ..... . ......... Mash & grain . .... . ......... pullets .............. .
3. RECENT STRESS FACTORS

Vaccination ....... . .. . .... . .... . .. (b) Excessive dampness

c. others birds brought ...................... (d) e xcessive heat .............. . .... . . .

d. chilling ........ (I) debeaking .. . .... . (&)Transportation ........ (h)deworming ...... . .

Disease on nearby farm ..................... . .... . .. . ......................... . .

Other stress factors ......... .. ........... . ............... . ....•.................

MEDICATION

Drugs used to treat condition . ........... . .... in feed .... . ............ in water ................ .
Injectable ...... . ... . ... level ........ . ... . . concentration . . ............ Dosatte ............. .

Duration of treatment. .................... . .... Preventive drugs used .......... . ... . .........•.
At who.t level ........ . ..................................................................... .
FLOCK AISTORY RECORD CARD

I. Poultry man's Name ........... . ......................... , ........... . ........ . ...... .

2. Town . ........... . ........ .. ........ . ..... State ............... . .... ........ ........ .
FLOCK HISTORY

3. Source of Stock ....... . ..... .... ....... . .................... . .......... . ... . ........ .
4. No. of Birds Affected ........•... ....... .... . .... ... Age .... . .....•....... .. . .........

S. Total No. on farm .. . ................ , ............ Age ......... . .......... . ... . ...... .
6. Age at purchase ....... . ..... . ............... Source of feed ................ . . . ..... .. .. .
7. Date symptoms noticed . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... . .... . .. .
8. No showing symptoms . ............................. . ................. . ... . .......... .
9. Respiratory: (a) Coughing, sneezing .. ... ....... ........ . ... . ................... ........ .

Discharge, eye, nostrils ......... .... . .. .. . ... . ........ . . . . . ...... . .......... . ...• . .....
(b) Rattle in throat .... . ............ . ........... . ....... . ... . ...... . .......... . ....... .
10. Nervous: Trembling . . .. ........... Paralysis . .. ....... . ... . Incoordination . . .... . ....... .

II. Digestive: Diarrhoea ........ . ............ . . . ...... Other ..... .. ........ ... ........... .

12. Egg Production: Before symptom staned .... . .... . ....... . .. This date ................... .
13. Mortality: No per day ............... . ........ .. Total this date . .... . ................... .
 24

Mortality and condemnation allowances for different flocks at

various age groups

1. Layer Strain Chickens

1. 20Jo Mortality during first ten days.
2. 2% additional mortality from 10 days to 20 weeks, i.e. end
of pullet grow out.
3. Slight increase in mortality from 20 weeks to initiation of egg
production (Approximately 2%)
4. 1% or less mortality per month during the laying life of 12 to
14 months.
Note: Illness at any time should not exceed 0.50Jo as this is indicative
of serious disease problems.

II. Broiler Type Chickens

1. Expected loss in first 10 days is about 3 o/o.
2. Loss from one day through 8 weeks should not be over 50Jo.
3. Condemnation should not be over 2%.

III. Turkey Breeder Flocks

Note: Poults for this type of operation are usually produced by key
breeders and enter this area as male and female lines or toms and hens
for multiplier flocks.

1. Tom mortaity for first 10 days usually exceeds the hens by

1%. This may be due to the trauma of sexing.
2. If breeder flocks are properly cared for, then the farmer
could expect about 1% additional mortality at each phase of
breeding and grow out.
,
25

IV. Commercial Turk eys

1. Between 0 and 4 weeks the anticipated mortality is
approximately 30Jo Variations above and below this figure
are quite comm o n.
2. An additional 1-2% mortality is usually encountered
before 8 wee ks or more.
3. An additional 3% mortality from 8 weeks to market (20
weeks for hens and 24 weeks for tom s) is usually anticipated.
The grower should therefore expect a sale of 92 to 94% of
the poults purchased.
4. About I% condemnation can be expected in turkeys at
processing.

Note: A condemn atio n of over 5% should be considered an abnormal

siru ar ion an d a full investigation should be initiated.

(j) Disposal of Dead Birds

As pointed out ea rlier in this book, no matter how good your
management may be, you will still encounter occasional losses as a
result of deat h of some birds which may not be traceable to any
speci fie di sease immediately. When death occurs in the flock, efforts
should be made to prevent further recurrence. It is not enough to
diagnose the cause of death , it is very important to prevent spread of
disease to li ving birds through the dead ones. One way of preventing
sp read of disease from dead birds is by proper disposal of the dead
c.)nes. Poultry diseases can be spread by dead birds scattered about the
farm. For this reason dead birds must be buried or burnt immediately.
Dogs, cats, bats, flies, beetles, mosquites and wild birds may serve as
carriers of disease germs after contacting diseased or dead birds. The
essential management procedure to minimize or prevent spread of
diseases from dead birds are:
 26

I. Immediate removal of all dead birds from cages, floor pens etc.
2. Keeping the containers used to hold the dead birds closed at all
times to prevent contact by flies, insects, dogs, cats etc.
3. The holding site for such dead birds must be well isolated from
birds and operating areas.
4. After handling the dead birds, all equipments, hands etc. should
be thoroughly disinfected.

Methods of Disposal
Disposal of dead birds may vary from one poultry farm to another
depending on the location, size of the operation, surface and ground-
water problem etc. A farmer will adopt whichever method he
cons iders s uita ble for hi s needs. The common di s posal method s a re
incineration disposal pit s, rendering, acid hydrolysis etc. Probably
incineration and disposal pit s are the ones more commonly practised
in most farms .

1. Incineration
Incineration can be an economical and effective method of di sposing
dead birds. Essentially incineration involves burning of the carcasses
completely until ash is formed . Incinerator is the place where the
burning is done. When operated correctly, improved multichamber
incinerators are nearly odourless and smokeless.

Disposal Pit
Disposal pits as used in the poultry industry employ continuous
bacterial action to break down the soft tissues as dead birds are added.
These are pits constructed in the ground for deposition of dead
birds. The carcasses can be put into the pit whole or chopped for
faster decomposition.
A disposal pit must be designed to suit the soil type on the ranch and
be constructed so that the pit will not cave in during use.
The pit should have a wood or concrete top with a fly-proof C<?Ver
through which the carcasses can be dropped . A disposal pit has the
r 27

Fig. 12: A disposal pit for dead birds

following advantages:
I. It is not necessary to dig a hole or start a fire each time a chicken
or turkey dies.
2. The odour from dead animals can be controlled.
3. Dead birds decompose in the pit rapidly without the aid of
chemicals such as quicklime.
 28

4. Dead birds cannot be dug up by dogs and rats.

With the normal mortality rate in a flock of 2,500 layers, 22,000
broilers or 5,500 turkeys, disposal pit 2 meters square and 2 meters
deep is large enough. The deeper the pit, the more rapid the
decomposition. The pit should be away from the brooder house or the
laying houses. It should be at least 35 met~rs from the water supply.
The surface drainage should be away from the pit.
Rendering
It is a very good way to recycle dead birds by converting dead
carcasses into animal by-products and feed. The method is most
practical for ranches near a rendering plant.
It may be necessary to establish collection schedules and charges
unless the poultry farm has enough dead birds to make regular pick-
ups by the renderer feasible. For rendering, the pick-up location
should be isolated from healthy birds and the areas of traffic to and
from these birds. Also contact between the renderer's trucks and your
personnel and healthy flock should be avoided.

Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis uses phospheric acid, water and heat to convert
indigestible animal tissues into a high-protein feed supplement.
Carcasses are ground and then hydrolysed by the acid and blended
directly into a feed formulation. The hydrolysis plant is however
expensive and may not be relevant for a small scale poultry operation.

Common Poultry Diseases in Nigeria

Diseases cause considerable loss to poultry industry in Nigeria. A very
conservative estimate shows that about 10 to 20o/o of the chickens
produced in the country die each year and diseases are the most
important cause of the losses. Some poultry diseases which were
unknown in the country before are now causing serious problems. A
number of these diseases have been introduced into the country
through importation of chicks from outside the country.
 .,

29

Poultry farmers need to be familiar with the causes and symptoms

of the various common poultry diseases in order to plan an effective
control programme. Poultry diseases can be classified under the
following headings: (1) Viral, (2) Bacterial, (3) Fungal, (4) Parasitic
and (5) Nutritional. It is not possible here to deal with all the diseases
under each heading. We have selected the ones we consider the most
important which we think the farmers in Nigeria have to contend with.

Viral Diseases Causing Problems in Nigeria

A. (1) Newcastle disease
Newcastle disease is a rapidly spreading, contagious disease of birds of
all ages. It is caused by a virus. It is characterized by respiratory,
nervous and gastrointestinal symptoms. The disease is now common
in Nigeria. It is highly fatal in young chicks where mortality can
approach 90 per cent. The disease causes a severe drop in egg
production in laying flocks. The virus is present in discharges of
respiratory and digestive tract of an infected chicken and gets
transmitted through contaminated feed, water, formites and by wild
infected birds.

Symptoms
The disease is characterized by sudden onset and rapid spread through
the flock. The first signs are respiratory, characterized by coughing,
difficult breathing as evidenced by hoarse chirp (in chicks) sneezing,
and watery discharge from the nostril. The respiratory signs are
followed by nervous signs. The nervous signs include twisting of the
neck, causing head to be thrown to one side over the back or under
the breast, paralysis of the legs or wings causing rolling or somersaul-
ting. There is watery greenish diarrhea which may sometimes be
blood stained. This may often be accompanied by dehydration. ln
adult laying birds, symptoms may be loss of appetite, decreased water
consumption and a very sudden drop in egg production. Production
may drop to zero.
 30

Treatment
There is no effective treatment once the outbreak occurs. Antibiotics
can however be administered for 3 to 5 days to prevent bacterial
infections.

Prevention: Strict vaccination programme is high!~ recommended.

(2) Fowlpox
It is a relatively slow-spreading disease of poultry of all ages. It i~
caused by a virus.
There are 2 forms of fowl-pox- the dry form and the wet form . The
dry pox affects mostly the unfeathered part s of the body especially the
comb and the wattles. It is characterized b y raised wart-like lesions on
the comb and wattles.

Fig. 13: Fowlpox disease attack.

 3i
The wet form is characterized by the presence of nodules in the
mouth, along the digestive and respiratory tract. Usually respiratory
signs like coughing, sneeLing, and chirping are exhibited. The wet
form is more serious than the dry form, not easily diagnosed but
causing high mortality.

Transmission
Fowl pox i~ usually transmitted by mosqu ito carrying the infective
agent, the virus, from an infected bird to other birds. Birds can also
become infected by ingesting an infective scab. This is usually how the
wet form spreads in the flock.

Treatment
There is no effective treatment when there is a majnr outhreak . With
few birds affected, however, the use of iodine and Gentian violet on
the affected area may be helpful. Prl)J1Cr hushandr~ and
administration or antibiotic to combat secondary nactcrial JJJrectJOII
and evironmental stress is advi(iahk.

Prevention
Vaccinal inn is the most reliable method of prevenl ing. fowlrox. See
vaccinatinn schedule.

(3) Gumboro disease (infectious bursal disease)

Also known as infectious bursal disease, gumboro di sease is one of
those poultry diseases that have recently been introduced into Nigeria
through importation of chicks from outside the country.
The di sease is characterized by a very sudden onset affecting young
birds of between 3 to 6 weeks. The clinical signs include white watery
droppings, severe depression and ruffled feathers. Affected birds tend
to squat around one place and when made to move have an unsteady
gait; stck. birds usually die.
 32

Tra nsm ission

Highl) contagious, i.e. bird to bird contact. Contaminated l!tter,
faeces and equipment, air and feed are some of the methods of
spreading.

Treatment and prevemion

No effective treatment. However supportive treatment and measure
include increasing ventillaiion. Antibiotic treatment may be
beneficial. Vaccination is the most effective method of prevention.
Gumboro vaccine is now produced and distributed by the Nigeria
Veterinary Research Institute, Yom, Plateau State.

(4) Marek's Disease

Mi:lrek ·~ di~c:i:l~c is one or t ho~c: new diseases that have been introduced
into the country. It is a \'ira! disease of poultry affecting commonly
birds between 3 to 16 weeks of age. In some cases older birds may be
affected.

Symptoms
Marek's disease may manifest itself in one or more of the three forms
i.e. occulor form, visceral form and neural form.
Lameness or paralysis of the legs, droopy wings, incoordination are
usually seen in the case of neural form. When the eyes are involved the
iris is discoloured gray. Blindness may eventually result. It is
commonly called "Fish eye" in cases when the occulor form is
involved.

Treatment: None. The Visceral form howe.ver, usually causes sudden

death.

Prevention
Prevention is by vaccination . Effective vaccines are commercially
available. Although the vaccines are not manufactured presently in
Nigeria, it can be ordered through the Nigerian Veterinary Research
Institute, Yom, Plateau State.
 33

B. Bacterial Diseases
(1) Pullorum Disease (Bacilliary White Diarheea)
This is principally a disease of young chicks or poults. It is caused
by a bacterium- salmonella pullorum.

Symptoms
When pullorum strikes in a flock, the first sjgns that are usually
observed is that the chicks become weak, huddle together a nd have
chalk-white faeces sometimes stained with green bile. the name
Bacilliary White Diarhoea is derived from the symptom. Mortality
begins at 5 to 7 days of age in infected chicks and reaching its peak in
another 4 to 5 days later. The disease is easily diagnosed tentatively
from the symptoms. Sources of infection -are the infected eggs and
hen, infecteed chicks in the hatchery, equipment contaminated with
excreta of infected chicken among the flock etc. The disease may
assume chronic proportion; affected birds are unthrifty since they
do not eat. Those that survive do not show any sign of the disease but
they serve as carriers.

Prevention
Pullorum eradictibn cannot be handled singly. It has to be a state wide
or nation-wide programme. This wili require testing of breeder flocks
and making sure that hatching eggs and chicks are disease-free.
High level · of sanitation must be maintained at the hatcheries.
Incubators must be cleaned and fumigated after hatching, when eggs
are set and between the 3rd and 19th day with 35-50 grammes
pottasium permanganate in lOOcc formalin.

Treatment
This is only to salvage the flock. Several drugs - such as
sulphonamides, antibiotics can be used to reduce mortality but none
eradicates the disease from the flock.
 34

(2) Fowl Typhoid

It is caused by salmonella gallinarum. The disease affects mainly adult
chicken and in some cases turkeys, however young chicks could be
affected. Turkeys, ducks guineas etc. are susceptible but are more
resistant than chickens.

Treatmenr and Prevention: Same as Pullorum.

(3) Infectious Coryza

Infections coryza is a disease of chickens caused by Haemophilus ·
gallinarium. It can take both acute and chronic courses. It is usually
associated with cold, damp weather.
The characteristic symptoms of infectious coryza are nasal .
discharge, sneezing and swelling of the face. The acute form is
characterized by a rapid onset in the flock resulting in rapid spread
and affecting many birds in the flocks.

Treatment: Antibiotics are useful.

(_4.) Chronic Respiratory Disease

This is a very serious infectious disease of poultry affecting both
chickens and turkeys. The disease is commonly referred to as CRD or
air sac infection. The disease manifests it self by its attack of the upper
and lower respiratory tract as well as the air sacs.
Signs of the disease: The disease is characterized by respiratory signs.
First sign usually observed is mild cough. fn most cases other
infections apart from the primary infection set in. It is this secondary
infections which complicate the disease that is responsible for its high
mortality. Mortality is usually very low unless secondary infection
occurs . Mortality is however high in broiler. Egg production may fall
10 to 200Jo.
Spread: CRD usually spreads very slow"ly in a herd but over-crowding
and poor ventillation promote rapid spread of the disease. Hatching
eggs is a possible means of trasmission.
 35

Cause: Pleuropneumonia like orgnism (PPLO) complicated by

Escherichia coli and other secondary bacterial and viral organisms.
Prevention:
I. Strict sanitation and management practices at all times including
good management of the hatching eggs.
2. Avoid overcrowdjng
3. Adequate ventillation.
Treatment: There are various antibiotics on the market for the
treatment of CRD. Consult with your veterinarian.

C. Fungal Diseases
(1) Aspergillosis otherwise known as Brooder preumonia among
young chicks
This is an infectious disease of birds caused by Aspergillus
fumigatus. It affects both young and old birds occuring as an acute
disease affecting many birds at a time and causing serious death toll in
young chicks. It is usually a chronic condition in old birds with low
morbidity i.e. affecting a relatively few birds at a time.
Transmission: Aspergillosis spreads in a flock by susceptible birds
inhaling Aspergillus spores from infected hatchers, brooder houses,
litter or feed. Wet litter and mouldy feed are common sources of
Aspergillus infection. There are cases when the disease is transmitted
by infected eggs.

Symptoms
The affected birds have difficulty in breathing as evidenced by gasping
and increased breathing. Other signs include dyspnea, loss of appetite,
emaciation etc. In many cases when the eye is involved one could
easily observe plaque from eye of chick with aspergillosis.

Post mortem findings

A presumptive diagnosis can be made at the time of autopsy based on
history, typical lesions in affected birds and identification of the
fungus by microscopic examination. The typical autopsy findings ~re
presence of nodules in the respiratory tract especially the lungs and air
 36

Treatmenr and Prevention

There is no cure for affected birds, howe ver the disease spread can be
controlled by medicating the fl ock with a fungistat. The most effective
method of controlling the disease is by eliminating the source of
infection. This is achieved by avoiding wet li tter, preventing feed from
getting mouldy and maintaining high level of sanitation at the
hat cheries. House mu st be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
between broods. Do not use old or rain-soaked sawdust or wood
shavings. Proper ventilation of the chicken house is highly essential.

Parasitic Diseases
(a) Coccfdiosis
Coccidiosis is caused by a protozoan parasite which resides mainly in
the intestmes of chickens. This disease, mainly occuring during the
wet season is a serious problem in Nigeria. Although caused by many
coccidia-species, the disease generally shows two main clinical
pictures. In young chickens (2-12 weeks) bloody droppings may be the
main symptom of the so-called acute ceacal coccidiosis, a ~ause of
death in many flock s. Chronic coccidiosis is generally seen in older
chickens; the infected chickens huddle and are droopy with ruffled
feathers.

Prevention and Treatment

- Keep the litter loose and dry especially around the waterers.
-Clean the house thoroughly and provide fresh clean litter before
you put in a new flock.
-Prevent the faecal contamination of the feed and the drinking
water.
-Do not mix birds of different age groups or introduce new birds into
your flock.
- Coccidiostats such as Amprollium or Deccox may be used as
preventive drugs for the first 8 weeks while Amprolium,
sulphaquinoxaline (Embazin), Sulphamezathine may be used as
curatives.
 37

-The safest way to avoid coccidiosis is to raise chickens on wire

floors where the faeces are passed out of reach.

(b) Spirochaetosis
It is an acute or chronic disease of birds caused by an organism
Borellia anserina. The disease is characterized by listlessness and leg
weakness. The birds show varying degree of droopiness, have yellow-
green diarrhoea with increased urates. Incoordination or complete
paralysis may be seen.

Diagnosis
This is based on the presence of the spirochaetes in the wet smear of
clinically affected birds. The parasites can be observed as pieces of
"threads" in spiral forms singly or in clumps between the blood
corpuscles.
Spread: The disease is spread by ticks.

Treatment and C«;Jntrol

Penicillin, streptomycin and tetracyclines are found to be effective.
Control is by preventing ticks i.n poultry houses. A void crevices in the
poultry houses where ticks can hide.

D. Nutritional Diseases of Poultry

Proper nutrition is a prerequisite to a profitable poultry operation.
Not only are the essential nutritients allowed for normal growth and
performance, their absence causes what are referred to as deficiency
diseases. The most commonly encountered deficiency diseases in
Nigeria are described below.

(1) Nutritional roup: is a condition due to deficiency of vitamin A in

the feed. Vitamin A is necessary for normal growth and repair of all
epithelial tissue i.e. the skin, mucous membrane etc. It is characterized
by whitish pustules and keratinization (thickenings) of epithelial
surfaces especially of nasal passages, pharynx and oesophagus.
 38

Vitamin A deficiency causes unthriftness, droopiness, ruffled

feathers. In adult birds there is a decline in production and reduced
hat chability of eggs. The effects of vitamin A deficiency can be
reversed by correcting the deficiency.

(2) Rickets: This is a nutritional disorder due to deficiency or

in balance of calcium, vitamin D or phosphorus. It is most commonly
seen in young birds and is characterized by abnormal skeletal
development. It is readily detected in the long bones especially in the
legs.

Diagnosis: Ricket s is usually diagnosed on the basis of flock history,

review or analysis of the feed and typical lesion . Usually the lesions
manifest in the long bones. They are soft and springy when checked
for breaking strength.

Treatmenr: Treatment of rickets is essentially the correction of the

feed-related problem. Providing water dispersible vitamins containing
vitamin D3 for three to seven days is recommended as supplementary
treatment. But most importantly, the feed must be reviewed, analysed
and necessary correction or changes effected.

(3) Crazy chick disease (Encephaslomalacia)

A disease of young chicks due to deficiency of Vitamin E in the feed.
This may be due to storing feed for an excessive long period resulting
in loss of vitamin E. The typical symptoms of crazy chick disease
include staggering, stumbling, incoordination and paralysis.
Treatment and Prevention: No cure for affected chicks but flock
treatment with vitamin E will prevent new cases. Food should not be
kept for too long a period so as to prevent loss of vitamin E.

(4) Curled toes paralysis

This is a nutritional disorder of chicks and poults caused by deficiency
of a B-complex vitamin, riboflavin in the feed.
 39

The characteristic sign of curled toe paralysis is the curling of toes

of affected chicks and poults. the toes curl inwards. Other signs of
riboflavin definciency are stunting and aiarrhoea and high mortality.

Treatment and Prevention

Mosi commcercially prepared starter feeds have riboflavin routinely
added. However, if curled toe paralysis is suspected water soluble
multiple vitamins are readily available and can be administered in the
drinking water.
It is important however to examine the feed and make the necessary
correction to prevent future occurence.

Parasitic Disease of Poultry

Parasitic diseases of poultry can be classified into two:
(1) Diseases caused by external parasites
(2) Internal parasitic disease.
External Parasites may cause considerable loss to the poultry business.
External parasites irritate poultry and sometimes kill them. The loss
due to external parasites may at ·first not be apparent because there
may not be obviously sick or dying birds to cause alarm, but the
discomfort caused to the poultry due to irritation, loss of plummage
gradually leads to deterioration in the health of the flock and
reduction in egg production among layers or retarded growth among
the young birds. The birds will be pre-occupied with scratching and do
not feed well leading to poor performance. Apart from the direct
damage to the poultry, external paras_ite can also serve as vectors
transmitting diseases from birds to birds. The fowl tick (Argus
persicus) is a carrier of a blood parasite which causes a fatal disease
called spirochaetosis.

Lice
There are two types of lice attacking animals-Blood sucking and
biting lice. Only the biting lice attack chickens. Lice can be found at
various locations on the body of the fowl. Lice can further be
 41

Treatment of roosts and Chicken house

You can spray or dust insecticide on roosts and other parts of the
poultry house. Painting of roosts is more effective. For spraying an oil
solution or water suspension or emulsion containing I o/o malathio11,
0.2% commaphos, I% rabon or 0.45kg vetox 85 in 113 litres of water
are e ffective.
Fo r painting roosts, the insecticide 3% malathion or I o/o rabon is
mi xed with kerosine, diesel oil or water.
Other external parasites of importance in poultry operation are the
mites and fowl ticks.

Disinfection of poultry houses and equiupment

In the prevention and control of poultry diseases the cardinal principle
is that all poultry houses and equipment should be cleaned thoroughly
and disinfected before introducing a new flock. This is done by
spraying the roof, walls, floors etc. with a suitable disinfectant, hot
washing soda be cleaned ana left open to dry. All equipmems used for
scrubble and cleaning the house should also be disinfected. Drinkers
should be washed regularly . It is necessary to empty watertroughs and
refill daily .

Internall'arasites
This book will discuss only internal parasites of economic significance
in the present poultry industry in Nigeria.
Besides the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae which is more
important in pigeons the most significant internal parasites are the
helminths.

Nematodes (Round Worms)

(1) Ascariasis
This disease condition is caused by Ascaridia galli which. is common
among loc::tl chicken and other poultry flocks that are not weJI .
managed.
 42

Symptoms and Control

The most observed symptom usually among your birds is cattaarha/ or
haemorhogical enteritis. Adults are usually symptom-less except loss
of conditions. ·
The practical control is separation of adult and young flocks. Treat
flock and deep litter with piperazine (once in two months) and most
importantly, keep the birds in a clean environment.

(2) Syngamosis (also commonly called Gape Worm)

This disease is caused by a parasite called syngamus trachae which
uses earth worm as a transport host. The male parasite is in permanent
copulation with the female.
Clinical SiJms and Control: Shaking of head and gasping for air are
the main clinical signs. the control is the destruction of the transport
host, mamtaining good hygienic condition of poultry unit and
treatment of infected birds with anthelminths like Thiabendazole
300-1500 mg/ k.
Cestodes (Tape Worm)
The most common and economically important are:-
Davainea p!Cglothina
Raillietina pp
Amoebotaenia Spencides
Choamotaenia infundibulun

Clinical Signs and Control: It is usually observed among young birds

and includes loss of appetite, droopiness , thirst and emaciation.
The control should be directed mainly against intermediate hosts
since different kinds of intermediate hosts are involved. They include
snails and arthropods. Molluscicides and insecticides are
recommended for usc against the intermediate hosts. The treatment of
infected chicken and maintaining hygienic conditions are also
recommended.
 43

Summary of Disease Prevention

Three main factors are involved in an effective disease prevention
programme. They are sanitation, management practices and
vaccination. Disease prevention is far more effective and economical
than disease treatment.

(A) Sanitation
All houses and equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
before new birds are introduced. Sanitary measures must be
maintained and continued throughout the life of the birds. These
include provision of clean drinking water at all times, removal of wet
or mouldy feed from the feeders, removal and replacement of wet
litter etc.

(B) Management practices

1. Oc:t your chicles (prefereably day-old) from a source that you
know very well or the source your local extension poultry worker
recommends to you. A source that is reputable for producing
disease-free chicks.
2. Chicks should be properly cared for. Proper brooding by
providing adequate warmth, feeder space, drinker space, light,
etc. is the first step in minimizing loss.
3. Raise your chicks in a clean environment. Provide adequate
housing and ventillation for your birds. Thoroughly clean and
disinfect houses between flocks.
4. Provide plenty of water, feed and avoid overcrowding by
providing adequate floor space for the birds.
5. Control movement of people, equipment etc. on your farm.
6. Do it yourself or have someone observe 'your flock everyday for
abnorm·al signs and maintain a diary of flock health.
7. Routinely analyse your poultry production feed consumption and
mortality records for signs of problems.
8. Thoroughly dispose of dead birds by burying. Don't just throw
them away. Find out what killed them from your nearest
 44

veterinary clinic. If possible submit a very sick birth to your local

veterinary clinic for examination or have your local extension
veterinarian visit your farm to assess the situation.
9. Control disease carriers such as wild birds, rodents and· insects
etc.

{C) Vaccination
Vaccinate your birds against each of the disease common in your area.
Poultry diseases for which birds are vaccinated routinely in Nigeria
presently are Newcastle disease, Fowlpox, gumbore disease and
marek's disease. Birds are also vaccinated against Fowl typhoid and
Fowl cholera where the disease is proved to be endemic.
For vaccination to be effective birds must be vaccinated at the
recommended times (see vaccination schedules). It is also important to
vaccinate properly by following the vaccine's manufacturer's
instructions.
Vaccines and drugs are useful aids to a profitable poultry
production. They do not however. substitute for good management
and sanitation. The degree of success of your vaccination programme
depends on the level of your management.