chapter 5

An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Steps in Quantitative Research (1 of 35)

Research
• First step: Identification of problem
Comparison of Qualitative and
Quantitative Research (1 of 4) • Final step: Communication and utilization of
research findings
• Quantitative Research • Some variation in the steps between, same
– Systematic empirical approach to general progression
understanding phenomena
• Number varies from author to author.
– Numeric, observable, and measurable data
• Authors may combine several steps into one step.
– Not completely unbiased, but provides a
Steps in Quantitative Research (2 of 35)
level of objectivity
– Based on: • The scientific research process
▪ Concepts of manipulation – Identify the research problem.
▪ Control of phenomena – Determine the purpose of the study.
▪ Verification of results – Formulate the research question.
Comparison of Qualitative and – Review the literature.
Quantitative Research (2 of 4) – Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework.
– Identify the study assumptions.
• Qualitative Research
– Acknowledge the limitations of the study.
– Focuses on gaining insight into a
phenomenon or understanding about an
Steps in Quantitative Research (3 of 35)
individual’s perception of events
– Does not rely on manipulation and control – Formulate the hypothesis.
– Focuses on observing and describing things – Define study variables and terms.
as they naturally occur – Select the research design.
– Identify the population.
Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative
Research (3 of 4) – Select the sample.
Quantitative Qualitative – Conduct a pilot study.
Objective data Subjective data – Collect the data.
Explanation Discovery – Organize the data for analysis.
Parts are equal to the Whole is greater than
whole the parts Steps in Quantitative Research (4 of 35)
One truth Multiple truths
– Analyze the data.
Large sample sizes Small sample sizes
– Interpret the findings.
Random samples Deliberately selected
samples – Communicate the findings.
Participants or Participants or – Utilize the findings.
subjects informants
Results presented as Results presented as Steps in Quantitative Research (5 of 35)
numbers/statistics narrative data
Researcher separate Researcher part of the • Identify the Research Problem
from the study study – Research problem
▪ Area where knowledge is needed to
Comparison of Qualitative and
advance practice
Quantitative Research (4 of 4)
▪ Generally broad then narrowed to specific
• Nature of nursing lends itself well to both problem
quantitative and qualitative research. ▪ Should be of interest to researcher
▪ Should be significant to nursing
• Both research methods share some commonly
accepted steps in the research process.
– Most quantitative studies follow similar steps.

Steps in Quantitative Research (6 of 35)
– Terms goals, objectives, problem area,
problem statement, purpose, and
research question sometimes used
interchangeably
– State problem as a question
▪ Interrogative sentence that asks a
specific question about the topic of
interest
Steps in Quantitative Research (7 of 35)
• Determine the Purpose of the Study
– Difference between purpose and problem
▪ Problem tells what is studied.
▪ Purpose tells why study is being done.
– Studies may have one or both.
Steps in Quantitative Research (8 of 35)
• Formulate the Research Question
– Specific question researcher expects to be
answered
– Specify variables and populations
▪ Variables are attributes that differ among
persons, objects, events, and subjects
being studied.
Steps in Quantitative Research (9 of 35)
• Review the Literature
– Find out what knowledge exists on the topic.
– Search a variety of sources
▪ Indexes
▪ Abstracts
▪ Computer-assisted research
Steps in Quantitative Research (10 of 35)
– Look at theory and framework
– Plan study methods
– Continues until time to collect data has ended
– Initial review may actually occur before
identification of problem.
Steps in Quantitative Research (11 of 35)
• Develop a Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
– Research helps test, develop, and refine
theories.
– Process assists in selection of study variables.
– Directs hypothesis and interpreting findings
– Answers the “so what” question(s)
– Adds to our nursing body of knowledge
– Research without theory provides a set of
isolated facts.
Steps in Quantitative Research (12 of 35)
• Identify the Study Assumptions
– Assumptions
▪ beliefs held to be true, but not necessarily
proven
– Each investigation is based on assumptions.
▪ Should be stated explicitly
▪ Often implicit
Steps in Quantitative Research (13 of 35)
– Three types of study assumptions
▪ Universal assumptions
– Assumed to be true by a large
percentage of society
▪ Assumptions based on theory or research
findings
▪ Commonsense assumptions
Steps in Quantitative Research (14 of 35)
• Acknowledge the Limitations of the Study
– Limitations
▪ Uncontrolled variables
▪ May affect study results
▪ May limit generalization of the findings
Steps in Quantitative Research (15 of 35)
– Extraneous variables
▪ Researcher either has no control, or
chooses not to exercise control
– Explain limitations at end of study
Steps in Quantitative Research (16 of 35)
• Formulate the Hypothesis
– Hypothesis
▪ Predicts relationships between variables
–Independent
–Dependent
▪ Predicted answer to research question
▪ Must be testable or verifiable empirically
Steps in Quantitative Research (17 of 35)
– Types of hypothesis
▪ Directional research
–Contains direction of researcher’s
expectations
Preferred for nursing studies Steps in

Quantitative Research (25 of 35)
– Types of samples
▪ Probability samples
–Random selection process in which
each member of population has a
chance
▪ Nonprobability samples
–Researcher has less confidence that
sample is representative
– Nursing research is generally conducted with
human beings.
▪ Voluntary participation
Steps in Quantitative Research (26 of 35)
– Conduct a Pilot Study
▪ Pilot study
–Miniature trial version of planned study
–Helps examine issues
• Design
• Sample size
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis approaches
▪ Revisions made for larger study
after pilot is conducted.
▪ Null hypothesis
–Predicts no relationship exists
between variables
Steps in Quantitative Research (18 of 35)
• Define the Study Variables/Terms
– Variables and terms must be clear to
researcher and reader.
▪ Conceptual definition
–Dictionary definition of an abstract idea
▪ Operational definition
–How variable will be observed
–Allows for replication of study
– Population for study should be defined or
narrowed.
Steps in Quantitative Research (19 of 35)
• Select the Research Design
– Plan for how study will be conducted
▪ Type of data collected
▪ Means used to obtain data
Steps in Quantitative Research (20 of 35)
– Varies with the type of study conducted
▪ Quantitative versus qualitative
▪ Experimental versus nonexperimental
Steps in Quantitative Research (21 of 35)
▪ Experimental
–True experimental
–Quasiexperimental
–Pre-experimental designs
–Investigator has more active role/control.
Steps in Quantitative Research (22 of 35)
▪ Nonexperimental
–No active manipulation of variables
–Sometimes difficult to conduct
experimental research with human
beings
Steps in Quantitative Research (23 of 35)
• Identify the Population
– Population
▪ Complete set of subjects possessing
some common characteristic of
interest
– Target population
▪ Also called the universe
▪ Group of subjects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize study
findings
– Accessible population
▪ Group available for study
– Two populations must be similar for study to be
applicable.
– Generalization
Steps in Quantitative Research (24 of 35)
• Select the Sample
– Sample
▪ Subgroup of population
▪ Represents population
▪ Helps make generalizations
Steps in Quantitative Research (27 of 35)
• Collect the Data
– Data
▪ Pieces of collected information or facts
– Variable or variables must be measured
Steps in Quantitative Research (28 of 35)
– Systematic data collection procedures
▪ Who will collect the data?
 ▪ When will the data be collected?
▪ Where will the data be collected?
▪ What data will be collected?
▪ How will the data be collected?
Many research projects use more than one data-
collection method.
Steps in Quantitative Research (29 of 35)
• Organize the Data for Analysis
– Should be planned before data collection
▪ Decisions will have to be made about
missing data.
– Consult with statistician.
▪ Determine what data is needed
▪ Appropriate statistical procedures for analysis
Steps in Quantitative Research (30 of 35)
– Less formal
Steps in Quantitative Research (35 of 35)
• Utilize the Findings
– Researcher’s involvement in implementation
▪ Recommendations
▪ Consultant
▪ Disseminating findings
Qualitative Nursing Research (1 of 22)
• Nursing value system is more consistent with
qualitative research.
• Individual’s perspective is very important.
• Important source of knowledge about nursing

• Analyze the Data Qualitative Nursing Research (2 of 22)

– The process is easier now.
– Data are placed into computerized data • Types of Qualitative Research
analysis programs. – Action research
– Results are analyzed almost instantaneously. ▪ Case study
Steps in Quantitative Research (31 of 35) ▪ Critical social inquiry
▪ Discourse analysis
• Interpret the Findings ▪ Ecological psychology
– Does data support research hypothesis? ▪ Ethical inquiry
– Is framework supported? Qualitative Nursing Research (3 of 22)
– Problems encountered should be discussed.
Limitations of study design can influence results. – Ethnography
Steps in Quantitative Research (32 of 35) ▪ Ethnology
▪ Ethnomethodology
– Results of present study compared with
▪ Ethnonursing
previous studies that investigated same or
similar variables. ▪ Ethnoscience
– Implications for nursing are indicated. ▪ Feminist inquiry
– Recommended changes to nursing practice,
Qualitative Nursing Research (4 of 22)
nursing education, or nursing administration
should be based on findings.
– Grounded theory
– Recommendations for future research are
▪ Hermeneutics
proposed
Steps in Quantitative Research (33 of 35) ▪ Historical
▪ Phenomenology
• Communicate the Findings ▪ Philosophical inquiry
– May be most important step ▪ Symbolic interaction
– Findings have little value without dissemination.
– Nonsignificant findings have value in publication. Qualitative Nursing Research (5 of 22)
Steps in Quantitative Research (34 of 35)
– Depending on design chosen, steps may vary.
– Variety of mediums – Research process is seldom linear.
▪ Research journals ▪ Constant comparison
▪ Clinical journals
Qualitative Nursing Research (6 of 22)
▪ Presentations at conferences
▪ Poster presentations • Steps in the Qualitative Process
 – Identify the problem to study
– State the purpose
– Select the research design
– Review the literature
– Select the sample
– Gain entry to the research site
– Protect the rights of participants
Qualitative Nursing Research (7 of 22)
– Collect the data
– Analyze the data
– Interpret the data
– Utilize the study results
Qualitative Nursing Research (8 of 22)
• Identify the Problem of the Study
– Problem area of study may remain
general until researcher enters field
setting
– May indicate:
▪ General nature of phenomenon to be studied
▪ Group or community that will be studied
Qualitative Nursing Research (9 of 22)
• State the Purpose
– One-sentence statement of purpose
Qualitative Nursing Research (10 of 22)
• Select the Research Design
– Depends on phenomenon that will be studied
▪ Phenomenological approach
▪ Grounded theory
▪ Action research
▪ Other options
Qualitative Nursing Research (11 of 22)
• Review the Literature
– Researchers debate about timing.
– Some qualitative research may not start with
review.
▪ Few believe review may bias the study results
–Prefer to review literature at end of study
–Tells how results fit with the body of
knowledge
Qualitative Nursing Research (12 of 22)
• Select the Sample
– Generally smaller in size
– No set rules about size
– Quality of data over quantity
▪ Data often deeper and richer than in
quantitative studies
– Saturation
▪ Researcher hears a repetition of themes or
salient points
▪ Data become redundant.
Qualitative Nursing Research (13 of 22)
• Gain Entry to Research Site
– Research in field or where participants live or
work
– IRB approval
▪ Before approaching potential participants
▪ To receive funding
– Gatekeepers
▪ Key people in area of interest
▪ Key informants In ethnographic research
Qualitative Nursing Research (14 of 22)
• Protect the Rights of Participants
– Close interaction between researcher and
participants
– Ethical considerations
– Anonymity versus confidentiality
Demographic information may be omitted
Qualitative Nursing Research (15 of 22)
• Collect the Data
– Interview
▪ Probably most common method
▪ Interviewer obtains responses from a
participant
– Participant observation
▪ Direct observation and recording of
information
Qualitative Nursing Research (16 of 22)
– Time frame not specified
– Focus groups
▪ Small group of individuals meeting
together and being asked questions
Qualitative Nursing Research (17 of 22)
– Rigor
▪ No one way to assess or assure rigor
▪ Rigor in terms of trustworthiness
1) credibility
2) transferability
3) dependability
 4) confirmability
Qualitative Nursing Research (18 of 22)
• Analyze the Data
– Analysis begins once data collection begins.
▪ Involves an examination of words
rather than numbers
– Can take months
– Content analysis
▪ Creating categories of data
▪ Developing rules for coding data into
categories
Qualitative Nursing Research (19 of 22)
– Coding is basic data analysis tool.
– Data can be analyzed manually or through
computer software programs.
▪ QDAS
Qualitative Nursing Research (20 of 22)
• Interpret the Data
– Occurs simultaneously with data collection
– Looking for themes and patterns
– Consider how study results can be applied
Qualitative Nursing Research (21 of 22)
• Communicate the Study Results
– Variety of mediums
▪ Peer-reviewed journals
▪ Nursing research journals
▪ Clinical journals
▪ Nursing conferences
▪ Posters
Qualitative Nursing Research (22 of 22)
• Utilize the Study Results
– Findings should be used in nursing practice.
– Implications for nursing practice
– Most physicians, nurses, and assistive
personnel operate as separate healthcare
providers.
▪ Little communication
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative
Methods (1 of 2)
• Using mixed methods research is fairly new
practice for nurse researchers
– Variety of methods used in a single study to
answer a question
– Most comprehensive point of view
– Often most efficient and cost-effective
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
(2 of 2)
• Triangulation
– Important concept in mixed methods studies
– Most often indicates use of two or more
different sampling strategies, data
collectors, data-collection procedures, or
theories in one study
– Using more than one means of gaining
understanding about phenomenon
Chapter 6
Identifying Nursing Research Problems
Introduction (1 of 2)
• Clearly identified research problem area is not
typical.
• Mistake to try to examine too much in one study.
• Number of potential nursing studies is infinite.
Introduction (2 of 2)
• Critical first step
– Delineate study area clearly
– State research problem concisely
• Difficult for beginners
• Expectation of nursing students
– Identify problems appropriate for nursing
research studies
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (1 of 5)
• Personal experiences
• Literature sources
• Existing theories
• Previous research
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (2 of 5)
• Personal experiences
– Important source
– Instances have produced questions.
– A topic for study may be easily identified.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (3 of 5)
• Literature sources
 – Recommendations for further studies
▪ Conclusion of published and unpublished
studies
– Contemporary nursing leaders continually
plead for nursing research.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (4 of 5)
• Existing theories
– Desperately needed research
– Research is a process of theory
development and testing.
– Theories may need to be adapted for
individual patients or clients in specific
healthcare settings.
– Generally, an entire theory is not tested.
– Testing of an existing theory, or deductive
research, is definitely needed in nursing.
Sources of Nursing Research Problems (5 of 5)
• Previous research
– Importance of replication studies
– If nursing practice is to be guided by
research, results of studies must be verified.
– Repeating a study with all essential
elements of original study held intact
▪ Replication of a previous study does not
always imply plagiarism.
– Investigations are also needed that
address shortcomings of previous
research.
Research Problem Considerations (1 of 13)
• Many factors should be considered:
– Ethical issues
– Significance of study for nursing
– Personal motivation of researcher
– Qualifications of researcher
– Feasibility of study
Research Problem Considerations (2 of 13)
• Ethical issues
– Many unethical studies have been
conducted since WWII and continue today.
– Responsibility of researchers to guarantee
research is conducted in an ethical manner.
– Ethical guidelines
▪ Federal government
▪ Professional organizations
Research Problem Considerations (3 of 13)
• Significance to Nursing
– Every nursing study should have
significance for nursing.
– Researcher should ask questions:
▪ Will clients benefit from the findings?
▪ Will health care professionals benefit
from the findings?
▪ Will the findings add to our nursing
body of knowledge?
▪ Can nurses use the results?
▪ Is there a gap in knowledge that will be filled?
Research Problem Considerations (4 of 13)
• Personal Motivation
– Researcher must be interested in the topic.
▪ Nurses should choose research
questions that they “care deeply about.”
– Research can become
fascinating.
▪ Study becomes a treasure hunt.
Research Problem Considerations (5 of 13)
• Researcher Qualifications
– Advanced educational preparation
– Beginning research skills should be
learned at the undergraduate level.
– Healthy competition may be fostered.
– Collaboration among varying skill levels.
Research Problem Considerations (6 of 13)
• Feasibility of Study
– Many questions need to be answered
▪ How long will the project take?
▪ Are appropriate instruments available?
▪ Can subjects be obtained?
▪ What is the cost?
▪ Does the researcher have support for the
project?
Research Problem Considerations (7 of 13)
• Time
– Always a factor to be considered
– Wise to allow more time than seems to be
needed
▪ Unexpected delays frequently occur.
Research Problem Considerations (8 of 13)
• Cost
– Some studies are much more expensive than
 others.
– Financial resources must be considered.
– Many sources of outside funding exist.
Research Problem Considerations (9 of 13)
• Equipment and supplies
– Making an accurate determination of needed
equipment and supplies before making final
decision to conduct a study is essential.
– Important questions include:
1. What equipment will be needed?
2. Is this equipment available and in proper
working order?
3. Is there a qualified operator of the
equipment?
4. Are the necessary supplies available or
can they be obtained?
Research Problem Considerations (10 of 13)
– Common pieces of equipment are used in
nursing research.
▪ Physiological data-gathering devices
▪ Office equipment
▪ Computers and data analysis programs
Research Problem Considerations (11 of 13)
• Administrative support
– Release time to conduct research
– Ask for funds
– Faculty expectations and support varies
Research Problem Considerations (12 of 13)
• Peer support
– Without support, many research ideas
are not developed.
– Collegial relationship is important.
– Climate of shared interest is essential.
Research Problem Considerations (13 of 13)
• Availability of Subjects
– Subjects are not always available.
▪ May not meet inclusion criteria
▪ Be unwilling
▪ May already be in other studies
Research Question Criteria (1 of 7)
• Interrogative sentence form
• Includes population
• Includes variable(s)
• Empirically testable
Research Question Criteria (2 of 7)
• Written in Interrogative Sentence Form
– Not declarative
– Demands an answer
– Grammatically correct and complete sentence
– Understandable and facilitates response
Research Question Criteria (3 of 7)
• Includes the Population
– Narrow down to main group of interest
– Does not identify specific study population
Research Question Criteria (4 of 7)
• Includes the Variable(s)
– One-Variable Studies
▪ Exploratory in nature
▪ Univariate or single-variable study
▪ Frequently beginning step in research project
Research Question Criteria (5 of 7)
– Two-Variable Studies
▪ Research in nursing is frequently
concerned with two variables.
▪ Bivariate study
–Independent variable-cause
–Dependent variable-effect
▪ Correlation studies
–Independent and dependent variable
are not identifiable
–Research variables
Research Question Criteria (6 of 7)
– Multivariate study
▪ More than two variables
▪ Multivariate
▪ Becoming increasingly common
▪ Interaction of the variables
Research Question Criteria (7 of 7)
• Empirically Testable
– Variables that can be measured by researcher
– Data gathered through sense organs
– Ethical and value issues are not appropriate.
– Avoid words like cause and effect.
Research Question Format (1 of 2)
• Correlational and Comparative Research Questions
– Correlational statement
▪ More than one variable
▪ Seeks relationship between
independent and dependent variables
– Comparative statement
▪ Descriptive or experimental study
▪ More than one variable
▪ Differences between independent and
dependent variables
Research Question Format (2 of 2)
• Neutral and Nonpredictive
– Several reasons for leaving the research
question neutral or nonpredictive.
– Little knowledge or information at study onset
– Literature review may help in developing
framework.
Critiquing Problem Statements, Purpose
Statements, and Research Questions (1 of
6)
• Reader will need to locate problem statement,
purpose statement, or research question.
– Information should be presented at
beginning of report.
– Difficult to evaluate study without this
information
Statements, and Research Questions (2 of
6)
• Problem Statement
– Purpose statements and research
questions are easily identifiable.
▪ Problem statements may not be.
▪ Either incomplete or absent
– Designed to get the reader’s attention to the
problem
Critiquing Problem Statements, Purpose
Statements, and Research Questions (3 of
6)
– Four components
a)Lead-in
b) Declaration of originality
c) Indication of central focus
of the study d)Explanation of study
significance
Critiquing Problem Statements, Purpose
Statements, and Research Questions (4 of
6)
• Purpose Statement
– Is the purpose of the study clearly stated?
– Is the purpose of the study concisely stated?
– Does the purpose of the study logically flow
from the problem?
Critiquing Problem Statements, Purpose
Statements, and Research Questions (5 of
6)
• Research Questions
– Based on the problem statement, purpose
statement, or research question:
1. Is the research problem area clear?
2. Is there a succinct problem statement,
purpose statement, or research
question?
3. Are the study variables and the
population included?
4. Was the study quantitative or qualitative?
Critiquing Problem Statements, Purpose
Statements, and Research Questions (6 of
6)
5. Were empirical data gathered on the
topic of interest?
6. Was the study ethical?
7. Is the feasibility of the study evident?
8. Is the significance to nursing apparent?
Chapter 7
Review of the Literature
Purposes of the Literature Review
• Determine what is already known about the
topic of interest
– Locate previous studies in that area
– Specify problem to be studied
• Help locate a framework for proposed study
• Help plan study methodology
• Idea for a study may actually be formed during
review.
Literature Sources (1 of 7)
• Types of Information Sources
– Finding tools are used to locate literature
sources.
▪ Resources or search tools
Literature Sources (2 of 7)
– Reference materials
– Books
– Scholarly journals
– Magazines
– News sources
– Statistics
– Reports, research studies, and conference
papers
– Theses and dissertations
– Social media
Literature Sources (3 of 7)
• Primary and Secondary Sources
– Primary sources
▪ Written by original investigator or researcher
▪ Frequently found in journal articles
▪ Should be read whenever possible
▪ Start by reading abstract or summary
▪ Frequently contain reference citations
Literature Sources (4 of 7)
– Secondary sources
▪ Summary or description of research study
written by someone else
▪ May provide valuable insights
▪ Risk of misinterpretation or omission
Literature Sources (5 of 7)
• Grey Literature
– Gray literature
– Not controlled by commercial publishers
– Not indexed or available in major databases
– Examples
▪ Conference proceedings
▪ Dissertations
▪ Fact sheets
▪ Technical documents
▪ Unpublished research reports
Literature Sources (6 of 7)
– Publication Bias
▪ No significant findings
▪ But findings should not be omitted
– Much designed to make technical material
or research findings more easily
understood by a lay audience
Literature Sources (7 of 7)
– Research institutes produce working
papers and issue briefs.
– Organizations write policy briefs to
summarize findings of a number of
individual research studies.
– Indexes
▪ CINAHL and Scopus Index often provide
access to grey literature.
Search Strategies (1 of 32)
• Develop a Search Strategy
– Planning can make the search easier, faster,
and often yield better results.
Search Strategies (2 of 32)
– Decide on your search question
▪ Question provides framework for literature
review.
▪ Provide a clear focus.
▪ If question is too broad it may lead in
many directions.
Search Strategies (3 of 32)
– Question whether the topic needs to be more
specific
▪ What do certain terms and criteria mean?
▪ What factors might be important?
▪ Changes will be made as you see what
has been studied and those results.
Search Strategies (4 of 32)
– Create a set of search terms or phrases
▪ Use nouns, noun phrases, keywords.
▪ Expand search words with synonyms,
antonyms, other relevant words.
▪ Limit catalog search to specific materials by
adding terms such as reference or
encyclopedia.
▪ In databases, add terms such as study,
research, measurement, statistics,
randomized, validity, and narrative to
retrieve research studies.
▪ Include Medical Subject Headings (MeSH).
Search Strategies (5 of 32)
– Decide if currency is important
▪ May want to limit search to past five or ten
years
▪ Research studies often cover a
significant time period.
Search Strategies (6 of 32)
 ▪ Unique number
– Use options and limiters
▪ Vary according to specific resource Search Strategies (12 of 32)
▪ Recommend using “advanced search”
when available • Finding Tools
▪ Examples of advanced search options and – Other terms for finding tools are indices and
limiters resources.
–and/or/not/ – Catalogs
–as a phrase – Databases
–without the word – CINAHL
–date range – MEDLINE
–language – Cochrane

Search Strategies (7 of 32) Search Strategies (13 of 32)

▪ Examples of advanced search options and – Ovid Nursing

limiters
–includes references
–audience
–URL
–research type
–age
–peer reviewed
Search Strategies (8 of 32)
• Ask a Librarian
– Libraries contain a wealth of information.
– Tour the library and consult the staff.
– Librarians have skills and expertise.
Search Strategies (9 of 32)
– Before beginning research project, make
appointment with librarian
▪ “Research informationists”
▪ Prepared to work with research teams
– Librarians love research.
▪ Knowledgeable and helpful
Search Strategies (10 of 32)
– Evaluate results
▪ Check title, abstract, description, or
keywords for search terms
▪ Source authoritative?
▪ Publication date in line?
Search Strategies (11 of 32)
– Follow instructions for reference
citations in the assigned style.
▪ American Psychological Association (APA)
– “Record references accurately” (RRA)
– Digital object identifier (DOI)
– Joanna Briggs EBP
– PsychINFO
– ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis databases
– Science Direct
– Scopus
Search Strategies (14 of 32)
– Catalogs
▪ Index print and electronic holdings
▪ Most are available online.
▪ Give information on how or where to
access sources
Search Strategies (15 of 32)
▪ WorldCat
–Listing of library collections
throughout the world
–Nonprofit, membership computer library
service and research organization
▪ Discovery catalogs
Search Strategies (16 of 32)
– Databases
▪ Index research reports
–Journal articles
–Dissertations
–Research reviews
–Many other sources both published
and unpublished
▪ Some address specific topics.
▪ Others are multidisciplinary.
Search Strategies (17 of 32)
▪ Several index and provide abstracts of
articles from nursing, medicine, and other
health sciences.
 ▪ Access to many databases through
institution- based subscriptions
–Others are available online at no cost
• PubMed
• Cochrane
Search Strategies (18 of 32)
▪ Many databases will link directly to
full-text sources.
–Might locate source on your library shelves
–Ask librarian to request source from
another library
Search Strategies (19 of 32)
• Selected Databases for Nursing Students
– CINAHL Databases
▪ Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health
Literature
▪ Indexes top nursing and allied health
literature available
▪ Covers a wide range of topics
▪ Provides access to:
–Healthcare books
–Nursing dissertations
–Selected conference proceedings
–Standards of practice
–Audiovisuals and book chapters
Search Strategies (20 of 32)
▪ Provides access to:
–Legal cases
–Clinical innovations
–Critical paths
–Research instruments
–Clinical trials
▪ Available as an institutional based
subscription only
Search Strategies (21 of 32)
– MEDLINE Databases
▪ National Library of Medicine
▪ Provides access to journals in life sciences
▪ Concentration on biomedicine
▪ Includes information from nursing,
dentistry, veterinary medicine, and
pharmacy
Search Strategies (22 of 32)
▪ MEDLINE With Full Text
–Most comprehensive source for full-text
articles
• Coverage from 1949 to present
• Full-text material from 1965 to present
–Institutional subscription only.
Search Strategies (23 of 32)
▪ MEDLINE®Plus
–Free website for consumer health
information
–Covers topics of interest to
healthcare consumers
–Written in plain language
Search Strategies (24 of 32)
▪ PubMed
–Official Database of NIH
–Provides free access to MEDLINE database
Search Strategies (25 of 32)
– Cochrane Database of Systematic Review
▪ Global independent network
▪ Cochrane Library
–Collection of databases
–Available as an online subscription database
–Working toward achieving universal
open access
Search Strategies (26 of 32)
– Ovid Nursing database
▪ Institutional subscription database
▪ Provides content through Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
▪ Also provides access to:
–The Joanna Briggs Institute EBP
Database of Evidence Based
Recommended Practices
–Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Library
website
Search Strategies (27 of 32)
– PsychINFO
▪ Prepared by American Psychological
Association
▪ Literature from psychology and related
disciplines
–Such as nursing
▪ Available as
–Institutional subscription
 –Individual pay-per-use access
Search Strategies (28 of 32)
– ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Database
(PQDT)
▪ Comprehensive collection of
dissertations and theses
▪ Available as
–Institutional subscription
–Individual pay-per-use access
Search Strategies (29 of 32)
– ProQuest Nursing & Allied Health database
▪ Abstracting and indexing for
–Nursing journals
–Videos
–Dissertations
–ebooks
–Conference papers
–Other sources in nursing
–Allied health
–Alternative and complementary medicine
–Other health sciences
Search Strategies (30 of 32)
– Science Direct
▪ Elsevier product
▪ Abstracting and indexing for scientific,
technical, and medical peer-reviewed
journals and books
▪ Database includes nursing, allied health,
and other health science sources.
▪ Available as an institutional subscription
Search Strategies (31 of 32)
– Scopus
▪ Elsevier product
▪ Abstract and citation database of
scientific journals, books, and
conference proceedings
▪ Features smart tools to track,
analyze, and visualize research
▪ Available as an institutional-based subscription
Search Strategies (32 of 32)
– Search Engines
▪ Finding tools to help find literature sources
online
▪ Biggest challenge is sorting through
information
▪ Google Scholar
▪ Don’t pay for articles that your library already
owns
▪ Information becomes somewhat outdated
almost as soon as it becomes available
Writing the Literature Review (1 of 9)
• Literature review
– Must include organized information from
sources found through a comprehensive
search
– Purpose is to offer a data-based synthesis of
existing research relevant to a topic.
– After information sources are analyzed,
researcher will combine information and
summarize what was discovered.
Writing the Literature Review (2 of 9)
• Extracting Information from Literature Sources
– Each literature source must be
analyzed and interpreted.
– Findings and conclusions will be used.
– Do not omit important information.
▪ Better to have too much information
Writing the Literature Review (3 of 9)
• Critiquing the Literature Review in a Research
Article
– Difficult to evaluate if you are not
familiar with literature and previous
research for the topic
– If sources appear to be older than 5
years, some recent references may have
been omitted.
– Determine if the researcher is citing primary
sources or secondary sources.
– Some sources listed in the references
may be important.
– Parallel searching
Writing the Literature Review (4 of 9)
• Components of a Literature Review
– Critique Checklist
1. Is the literature review comprehensive?
2. Is the literature review concise?
3. Does the review flow logically from the
purpose?
4. Are all sources relevant to the study topic?
5. Are sources critically appraised?
Writing the Literature Review (5 of 9)
 6. Are both classic and current sources included?
7. Are paraphrases or direct quotes used most
often?
8. Are both supporting and opposing
theory and research presented?
9. Can a determination be made if
sources are primary or secondary?
10. Are all sources that are cited in
the article on the reference list?
Writing the Literature Review (6 of 9)
11. Does review include an
introduction, analysis, and synthesis of the
literature sources; suggestions for further
research; and a summary of findings?
12. Are sources cited fully, offering
clear access to evidence?
13. Will reader find the review
interesting and informative?
Writing the Literature Review (7 of 9)
– Most literature reviews include:
▪ Introduction
–An overview of the topic
–Objectives of the review
–Research question and thesis statement
–Description of methods used to locate
sources
–Justification used for inclusion and
exclusion of sources
–Explanation of how sources were
evaluated and categorized
Writing the Literature Review (8 of 9)
▪ Body
–Where you document what is known
about the research topic
–Answer the question, “What is the
evidence?”
–Provide an analysis of how each
source supports or opposes a
particular position or varies from the
other research
Provide conclusions about which materials most
strongly support your arguments
Writing the Literature Review (9 of 9)
▪ Section on suggestions for further research
–Based on your questions resulting
from what you found or didn’t find in
the literature
–Write about aspects of the topic where
further research is needed
• Include new research questions.
▪ Closing summary
–A discussion about highlights in the body
–Illustrate how previous research
correlates to the thesis statement.
Chapter 9
Hypotheses
Hypotheses Overview (1 of 8)
• In scientific research, hypotheses are intelligent
guesses.
• Statement of the predicted relationship
between two or more variables
• Hypothesis of a study
– Expected outcome of the proposed research
question
• Only quantitative studies have hypotheses.
Hypotheses Overview (2 of 8)
• Links the independent and the dependent variables
• In experimental studies
– Independent variable is referred to as the cause
– Dependent variable is referred to as the effect
• In nonexperimental studies
– Cause and effect are not appropriate
– Researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable
Hypotheses Overview (3 of 8)
• Should always be written before the study begins
• Should not be changed after the study
results are examined
Hypotheses Overview (4 of 8)
• Purposes of Hypotheses
– Lend objectivity to investigations
– Test theoretical propositions
– Advance scientific knowledge
– Scientific knowledge gained
– Guide research design
– Dictate statistical analysis used
– Show researcher’s expectations
– Guides evidence-based nursing practice
Hypotheses Overview (5 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Theory
– Literature review of prior studies
– Personal experience
Hypotheses Overview (6 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Most important source of a hypothesis is the
 theoretical or conceptual framework.
 Involves deductive reasoning
 Propositional statement isolated
and empirically tested
Hypotheses Overview (7 of 8)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Nursing research studies can also be
derived from findings of other studies.
 Test assumptions
 Test hypothesis based on findings
Hypotheses Overview (8 of 8)
Classifications of Hypotheses (5 of 13)
• Sources or Rationale for Hypotheses
– Even when a study is based on empirical
generalizations from experience, a
literature review should be conducted.
 Determine what is already known on the
topic
– An attempt should then be made to find a
theoretical explanation for the observed
phenomenon.
Classifications of Hypotheses (1 of 13)
• Categorized as simple hypotheses or complex
Classifications of Hypotheses (6 of 13)
• Classified as research hypotheses or null
• Research further divided into:
– nondirectional or directional.
– causal or associative.
Classifications of Hypotheses (2 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Simple hypothesis
 Relationship between one
independent and one dependent variable
 Independent variable: cause
–Reason a phenomenon occurs
–Occurs first in chronological time
 Dependent variable: effect
–Occurrence of phenomenon
Classifications of Hypotheses (3 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Complex hypothesis
 Relationship in which:
–Two or more independent variables, or;
–Two or more dependent variables, or;
–Both
–Are being examined in same study
Classifications of Hypotheses (4 of 13)
• Simple and Complex Hypotheses
– Caution should be exercised when
using complex hypotheses.
– Divide complex hypothesis into two or
more simple hypotheses
 Avoid "partial support" crisis.
 Hypothesis is either
supported totally, or it is not
supported.
– Interaction effect
 Sometimes complex hypotheses are
necessary.
 Action of two variables in conjunction
with each other
• Nondirectional and Directional Research
Hypotheses
– Nondirectional research hypotheses
 Researcher predicts relationship
between variables.
 Does not present direction of
relationship
 When a study is not based on a theory
 When findings of related studies are
contradictory
• Nondirectional and Directional Research
Hypotheses
– Directional research hypotheses
 Predicts type of relationship that is
expected
 Several advantages:
–Make clear researcher’s expectation
–Allow more precise testing of
theoretical propositions
–Allow use of one-tailed statistical tests
Classifications of Hypotheses (7 of 13)
• Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
– Hypotheses can express:
 Causal relationship between variables
–Require an experimental research design
 Associative relationship between
variables.
–Require nonexperimental or
correlational research designs
Classifications of Hypotheses (8 of 13)
• Causal and Associative Research Hypotheses
– Causal research hypothesis
 Predicts independent variable
will cause something to occur to
 dependent variable
 Generally testing an intervention,
and the effect of that intervention on a
specific outcome
– Associative research hypothesis
 Predicts there will be a relationship
between variables
 Awareness of an association or
correlation between two or more
variables can help nurse researchers
design interventions.
Classifications of Hypotheses (9 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Null hypothesis
 H0
 Predicts no relationship exists between
variables
 Subjected to statistical analysis
Classifications of Hypotheses (10 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Research hypothesis
 H1
 Alternative hypothesis
 States expected relationship between
variables
 Other names include:
–Scientific
–Substantive
–Theoretical
Classifications of Hypotheses (11 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Statistical logic requires that a testable
hypothesis state the expectation of:
 No correlation between the variables.
 No difference between groups or
sets of data on the variable being
measured.
– Research hypothesis has replaced
statistical null hypothesis as preferred
way of expressing the predictions for
studies.
Classifications of Hypotheses (12 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Level of significance for rejecting the
statistical null hypothesis should always be
stated before data are collected.
 Level of significance is usually set at .05.
– Aim of researcher is generally to reject
the null hypothesis because this provides
support for the research hypothesis.
Classifications of Hypotheses (13 of 13)
• Null and Research Hypotheses
– Occasionally, the null hypothesis and the
research hypothesis are the same.
– Researcher actually expects:
 no correlation between variables.
 no difference between groups being
compared on a certain variable.
– Usually, researcher does expect to find a
difference or a correlation.
 Otherwise, study would not have been
conducted.
Developing Hypotheses (1 of 8)
• A hypothesis should:
1. Be written in a declarative sentence
2. Be written in the present tense
3. Contain the population
4. Contain the variables
5. Reflect the problem statement, purpose
statement, and research question
6. Be empirically testable
Developing Hypotheses (2 of 8)
• Hypothesis Format
– Research questions that examine more than
one variable are usually written in the form of
a correlational statement or comparative
statement.
– Directional research hypothesis should
contain a predictive term
 less, greater, decrease in, or negative
correlation
Developing Hypotheses (3 of 8)
• Hypotheses in Testing Theories
– Hypothesis usually tests only one
proposition from a theory, not an entire
theory.
– Hypotheses are never proved or disproved.
– If null hypothesis is rejected, research
hypothesis is supported.
– If research hypothesis is supported,
theory is supported.
– If research hypothesis is not supported,
theory is not supported
Developing Hypotheses (4 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
 – First, evaluator determines if report – Hypotheses
contains a hypothesis or hypotheses.  Should contain the population and
 Optimally, a section heading clearly study variables.
labels hypotheses.  Should be empirically testable and
– If study contains no hypotheses, a contain only one prediction.
determination should be made as to  May contain the name of the
whether or not the study is appropriate specific research instrument(s) that will be
for hypothesis testing. used to measure the study variables.
Developing Hypotheses (5 of 8) – If not, the research report should
• Critiquing Hypotheses contain an operational definition of
each of the study variables.
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions
1. Does the study contain a
hypothesis or hypotheses?
2.Is each hypothesis clearly worded and
concise?
3.Is it written in a declarative sentence?
4. Is each hypothesis directly
tied to the study problem?

Developing Hypotheses (6 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Critiquing Hypotheses and Research Questions
5. Is the study framework
clearly defined with each hypothesis
derived from it?
6. Does each hypothesis contain
the population and at least two
variables?
7. Is each hypothesis stated as a
directional research hypothesis? If
not, is a rationale given for the type
employed?
8. Is it apparent that each
hypothesis can be empirically tested?
9.Does each hypothesis contain only one
prediction?
Developing Hypotheses (7 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses
– Hypotheses
 Should be clear and concise
declarative sentences and written in the
present tense.
 Should reflect problem
statement, purpose statement, or
research question.
 Should be derived from the study
framework if there is a clearly identified
study framework.

Developing Hypotheses (8 of 8)
• Critiquing Hypotheses