ECLECTIC ANALYTICAL RLECLECTIC EDUCATION NK ‘The Argument Questions Tn these questions you are to analyze the situation on which each question is based, and then select the answer choice that is the most appropriate response to the question. No specialized knowledge of any particular field is required for answering the questions. And no knowledge of the terminology and conventions of formal logic are presupposed. The Parts of an Argument ‘We've already said that you don't need to know anything about logic, but yon do need to know a few simple terms to follow the rest of this chapter. Here's what you need to know: Condusion_ : Aconclusion is a claim, the main point of an ‘argument. Premise _: Apremise is a stated reason or a piece of evidence that supports the conclusion, Assumption ; An assumption is an unstatedpremise that supports the conclusion. ‘Types of Critical Reasoning Questions There are grossly seven types of problems that the Critical Reasoning questions frequently ask you to solve, They can be classified as- 1. Assumption Questions 2. Conclusion Questions 3. Inference Questions 14, Strengthen-the-Argument Questions 5. Weaken-the-Argument Questions 6, Resolve-the-Paradox Questions 7. Structure-of-Reasoning Questions In ourlessons on Critical Reasoning we will focus on the techniques of solving each type of problems one by one. How to Approach Reasoning Questions: 1. Read the question stem first. The question tells you what to look for in the argument, and how to approach it. 2, Read the entire argument Read the argument carefully, for full understanding. This isn't like Reading Compretiension! You really have to carefully follow the logic of the argument. Then find the conclusion. 3. Reread the question and try to answer it in your own words, before you go to the answer choices. Of course, the answer that you come up with will depend on the question you're answering. But always take the time to re-familiarize yourself with the intent of the question, and get a rough idea of what you're looking for, before you consider the choices. This will prevent careless mistakes, such as choosing an answer that weakens an argument when the question asks you to strengthen it.ECLECTIC EDUCATION 4, Analyze each of the answer choices and eliminate the wrong ones. J Read the Question-Stem First You need to read the question first, to get an idea of what you're dealing with. Since there are only a handful of different argument question types, you just want to decide what the question's asking before you read the argument, You shouldn't read the choices. Just read the question to see what you're looking for. The question stems will look like- - which of the following, if true, would weaken the conclusion above? - The author's conclusion depends on which of the following assumption? How to Read Arguments You should read arguments closely. As you read you should always look for the conclusion. Ask yourself, "What's the main point?" The main point of the argument is the conclusion. Let's try a simple example. “My computer isn’t working, I will need to use a computer in graduate school. Therefore, I should get a new computer.” What's the main point? “I should get a-new computer.” Did you notice that the conclusion was preceded by the wordtherefore? Words like therefore are grammatical indications that a conclusion is about to be made. The conclusion often comes after words such as: therefore then so consequently thus asa result hence To find the conclusion of an argument, look for statements that make judgments, directives, and predictions. = Ajudgment isa statement that something is better or worse than something else. ~ A directive is a statement that some course of action should be taken (see the argument above —“.. Ishould get a new computer’). ~ Aprediction, of course, predicts the future, Use the "Why Test" Remember that the conchision is supported by the other statements in the argument. The "Why Test" is a way to check that the statement you chose as the conclusion is supported by the other statements. State what you think is the conclusion, then say, "Why?" The other statements should provide the reasons ‘Try using the "Why Test" on the earlier exampl Conclusion: "I should get a new computer." Why? Because : "My computer isn't working. I will need to use a computer in graduate school” You can see how the other statements support the conclusion, Notice that if' we had mistakenly chosen the wrong statement as the conclusion, the other sentences would not have supported it. Conclusion: "My computer isn't working." Why? Because: "I will need to use a computer in graduate school. I should get a new computer.”ECLECTIC Pearse) EDUCATION What? It just doesn't make sense this way. The other statements don't support this conclusion. ‘This way you'd know that you chose the wrong statement as the conclusion. Now welll discuss strategies for solving each of Critical Reasoning questions types (mentioned earlier in this lesson) one by one. Let’s begin with the ~ 1, Conclusion Question . Inference Questions if». then Logical Structure Let's think of an argument which says- “fits raining then there must be cloud in the sky”. From the above statement, we can infer- 1. Ifthere is cloud in the sky then it may or may not be raining. 2. If there is no cloud in the sky then it is not raining, Now, think of another argument that goes like- “If you have completed HSC then you must have completed SSC’. From the above statement, we can infer- 1. Ifyou have completed SSC then you may or may not have completed HSC. 2. If you haven't completed SSC then you haven't completed HSC. Now try the following questions. Example ‘The primary schools in a city range from one to six stories in height. Ifa classroo1 above the second floor, it must havea fireproof door. ina primary school is If the statements above are true, which of the following statements must also be true about primary- school rooms in the city? (A) Some third-floor rooms in primary schools do not have fireproof doors. (B) No second-floor classrooms in primary schools have fireproof doors. (C) mn Primary schools, rooms have above the 2nd floor that are not classrooms do not have fireproof doors. (D) Any fourth-floor classrooms in primary schools have fireproof doors. (E) Primary schools with classrooms on the first floor only do not have any fireproof doors. 1, Conclusion Questions Conclusion questions ask you to identify the conclusion of an argument. These questions can be worded in several different ways: “The main point of the passage is that Which of the following best states the author's conclusion in the passage above? Which of the following conclusions can be most properly drawn from the data above? Which of the following statements about... is best supported by the statements above? ig best states the author's main point?ECLECTIC Pee EDUCATION All of these questions are merely asking you to identify the conclusion of the argument. Always use the following step-by-step method to identify a conchusion: 1. Read the question. 2, Read the argument, find the conclusion and mark it: Use the Why Test to check, 3, Answer the question in your own words, 4, Analyze each of the answer choices and eliminate the wrong ones. Extreme Wording ‘The best answer to a conclusion question will use indisputable, rather than extreme, language. Indisputable (soft) answer choices tend to use words like can, may, might, often, some, and so forth. Extreme answer choices tend to use words like all, always, totally, must, no, and only, or the best, the first. When two answer choices seem very similar, look for these differences in wording. Eliminate answer choices that use extreme language. Use More than One Round of Elimination ‘The first time you go through the answer choices, you should eliminate those answers that you know for sure are out of the scope. If you're not sure what an answer choice means, don't eliminate it at first. But when you're down to two or three choices on the second round of elimination, you'll have to look more closely at the choices left. Focus on what makes an answer wrong. You don't have to understand why the best answer is right, only why the other four choices can't be right. Not sure? Ifyou don't understand an answer choice, don't eliminate itt Treat an argument answer choice that you don't understand in the same way that you would do to a word that you can't define in a Vocabulary question, It could be the best answer! Focus on what's wrong with the answer choices that you do understand. ‘Question: ‘Since the winners of professional golf tournaments are receiving larger cash prizes than ever before, ‘many people are encouraging young peoples to aim for careers as professional golfers. Analogously, a few years ago children were urged to play basketball, during the enormous upsurge in the popularity of professional basketball. Today, however, itis obvious that there are opportunities for only a tiny fraction of talented basketball players at the professional level of the game. ‘The point of the analogy above is that (A) professional basketball players are also increasingly likely to play golf (B) professional golfers are becoming more popular than professional basketball players (C) in the future there will be more opportunities for talented players in professional basketball (D) there will probably be very few opportunities for many talented golfers (B) professional basketball players and professional golfers will soon be competing with each other for the same prize money The conclusion of this argument is not directly stated. In your own words, the conclusion would be something like "There probably won't be very many opportunities to play golf professionally.” Why? Because “there are opportunities for only a tiny fraction of talented basketball players at the professional level. “Then use the process of elimination, (A) This may be true in real life, but this statement is not supported by the passage. Whether pro basketball players also play golf is outside the scope of this argument.ECLECTIC EDUCATION (B) This choice is also outside the scope of the argument. The passage doesn't compare the popularity of golf with the popularity of basketball. (C) This also goes against information in the passage. The conclusion must be supported by statements in the passage. (D) This is very close to the conclusion that we put in our own words. Let's keep it. (E) This fs even worse than choice (A). Notice that it also has extremelanguage, “the same prize money.” ‘The best answer is choice (D). 2, Inference Questions Some arguments ask you to make inferences. “Inference” has a unique meaning in reasoning questions; it ‘means something that must be true based on the information in the argument. Here are some examples of the ways in which these questions can be worded: Which of the following inferences is best supported by the statement made above? Ifthe statements above are true, which of the following must also be true? Which of the following is implied in the passage above? Which of the following conclusions can most properly be drawn if the statements above are true? Note that some of these questions appear to be conclusion questions, and may not even use the word infer. In general, to spot inference questions, look for words suich as: Infer___most reasonably imply __mustalsobe true _ implicit The Difference between a Conclusion and an Inference: Sometimes there is no difference. When the conclusion to an argument is not explicitly stated in the passage, itis something you could infer. In other cases, inferences have nothing to do with the main point of an argument. You can make inferences from the facts that are stated as premises. All inference questions ask you to find something that is known to be true from information presented in the argument. How to Approach Inference Questions 1. Read the question, Read the argument and find the conclusion if there is one. (Use the Why Test to check.) Many inference passages are just a series of facts that don't lead to a single conclusion, 3. Answer the question in your own words (Note: possible inferences you could make that t's best to proceed directly to the next step.) 4, Analyze each of the answer choices and eliminate the wrong ones. Eliminating Answer Choices on Inference Questions In most inference questions, there are so many Immediately eliminate any answer choice that is obviously outside the scope of the argument. You're looking for something that comes very close to what was stated in the passage, but that was not stated. explicitly as such, Then, as you consider the remaining choices, ask yourself, “Is this known to be true, according to the passage?’ In other words, "Do I know this?” If you can'tfind the exact place in the passage that proves the answer choice is true, then eliminate that choice, Not sure? If you don't understand an answer choice-don't eliminate it! Focus on what could be wrong: with the answer choices that you do understand,ECLECTIC Peso) EDUCATION ONLY and ALL- a common analytical trick: A very common trick in analytical question is the confusion between ‘only’ and ‘all. Take the following argument: Saddam is a member of Dhaka club. Only Dhaka club members are industrialist Therefore, Saddam is an industrialist resi 01. A company's two divisions performed with remarkable consistency over the past three years. In each of those years, the pharmaceuticals division hi ited for roughly 20 percent of taka sales and 40 percent of profits and the chemicals division for the balance. fas accor Regarding the past three years, which of the following can properly be inferred from the statement above? (A)Total taka sales for each of the company’s divisions have remained roughly constant: (B)The pharmaceuticals division has faced stiffer competition in its market than has the chemicals division. (©) The chemicals division has realized lower profits per taka of sales than has the pharmaceuticals division. (D) The product mix offered by each of the company's divisions has remained unchanged. [NCC Bank] 02, Increases in the level high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in the human bloodstream lower blood stream-cholesterol levels by increasing the body’s capacity to rid itself of excess cholesterol. Levels of HDL in the bloodstream of some individuals are significantly increased by a program of regular exercise and weight reduction. Which of the following can be correctly inferred from the statements above? (A) Individuals who are underweight do not run any risk of developing high levels of cholesterol inthe bloodstream (B) Individuals who do not exercise regularly have a high risk of developing high levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream late in life. (Exercise and weight reduction are the most effective methods of lowering bloodstream cholesterol levels in humans. (D)A program of regular exercise and weight reduction lowers cholesterol levels in the bloodstream of some individuals. (E) Only regular exercise is necessary to decrease cholesterol levels in the bloodstream of indi- viduals of average weight. Perererryearrrcerry NeerECLECTIC EDUCATION 03. High levels of fertilizer and pesticides, needed when farmers try to produce high yields of the same crop year after year, pollute water supplies. Experts therefore urge farmers to diversify their crops and to rotate their plantings yeatly. To receive governmental price-support benefits for a crop, farmers must have produced that same crop for the past several years The statements above, if true, best support which of the following conclusions? (A) The rules for governmental support of farm prices work against efforts to reduce water pollution. (B) The only solution to the problem of water pollution from fertilizers and pesticides is to take farmland out of production. (C) Farmers can continue to make a profit by rotating diverse crops, thus reducing costs for chemicals, but not by planting the same crop each year. (D) New farming techniques will be developed to make it possible for farmers to reduce the application of fertilizers and pesticides. (E) Governmental price supports for farm products are set at levels that are not high enough to allow farmers to get out of debt. 4, Large national budget deficits do not cause large trade deficits. If they did, countries with the largest budget deficits would also have the largest trade deficits. In fact, when deficit figures are adjusted so that different countries are reliably comparable to each other, there is no such correlation, If the statements above are all true, which of the following can properly be inferred on the basis of them? (A) Countries with large national budget deficits tend to restrict foreign trade, (B) Reliable comparisons of the deficit figures of one country with those of another are impos- sible, (C) Reducing a country’s national budget deficit will not necessarily result in a lowering of any trade deficit that country may have. (D) When countries lire ordered from largest to smallest in terms of population, the smallest countries generally have the smallest budget and trade deficits. (E) Countries with the largest trade deficits never have similarly large national budget deficits. . The cost of producing radios in Country Q is ten percent less than the cost of producing radios n Country Y. Even after transportation fees and tariff charges are added, itis still cheaper for a company to import radios from Country Q to Country Y than to produce radios in Country Y. The statements above, if true, best support which of the following assertions? (A) Labor costs in Country Q are ten percent below those in Country Y. (B) Importing radios from Country Q to Country Y will eliminate ten percent of the ‘manufacturing jobs in Country Y. (C) The tariff'on a radio imported from Country Q to Country Y is less than ten percent of the cost of manufacturing the radio in Country ¥.ECLECTIC (D) The fee for transporting a radio from Country Q to Country Y Is more than ten percent of the cost of manufacturing the radio in Country Q. (@) Ittakes ten percent less time to manufacture a radio in Country Q than it does in Country Y. 01, Advertisement: Today's customers expect high quality. Every advance in the quality of manufactured products raises customer expectations. The company that is satisfied with the current quality of its products will soon find that its customers are not, At Eclectic Education, meeting or exceeding customer expectations is our goal. Which of the following must be true on the basis of the statements in the advertisement above? (A) Eclectic Education's competitors will succeed in attracting customers only if those competitors adopt Eclectic Education's goal as their own. (B) A company that does not correctly anticipate the expectations of its customers Is certain to fail in advancing the quality of its products. (C) Eclectic Education's goal is possible to meet only if continuing advances in product quality are possible, (D) Ifa company becomes satisfied with the quality of its products, then the quality of its prod- ucts is sure to decline. (E) Eelectic Education's customers are currently satisfied with the quality of its products, 02, Neither a rising standard of living nor balanced trade, by itself, establishes a country’s ability to compete in the international marketplace. Both are required simultaneously since standards of living can rise because of growing trade deficits and trade can be balances by means of a decline in a country’s standard of living. If the facts stated in the passage above are true, a proper test of a country ability to be competitive is its ability to ~ (A) balance its trade while its standard of living rises. (B) balance its trade while its standard of living falls (C) increase trade deficits while its standard of living rises. (D) decrease trade deficits while its standard of living falls. (E) keep its standard of living constant while trade defies rise 03, Many people argue that tobacco advertising plays a crucial role in causing teen-agers to start or continue smoking. In Norway, however, where there has been a ban on tobacco advertising since 1975, smoking is at least as prevalent among teen-agers as it is in countries that do not ban such advertising. Which of the following statements- draws the most reliable conclusion from the information above?ECLECTIC EDUCATION (A) Tobacco advertising cannot be the only factor that affects the prevalence of smol teen-agers. (B) Advertising does not play a role in causing teenagers to start or continue smoking. (© Banning tobacco advertising does not reduce the consumption of tobacco. (D) More teen-agers smoke if they are not exposed to tobacco advertising than if they are. (E) Most teen-agers who smoked in 1975 did not stop when the ban on tobacco advertising was plemented. ing among, 05, In recent years many cabinetmakers have been winning acclaim as artists. But since furniture must be useful, cabinetmakers must exercise their craft with an eye to the practical utility of their product, For this reason, cabinetmaking is not art. Which of the following is an assumption that supports drawing the conclusion above from the reason given for that conclusion? (A) Some furniture is made to be placed in museums, where it will not be used by anyone, (B)Some cabinetmakers are more concerned than others with the practical utility of the prod- ucts they produce. (C) Cabinetmakers should be more concerned with the practical utility of their products than, they currently are, (D) An object is not an art object if its maker pays attention to the object's practical utility. (E) Artists are not concerned with the monetary value of their products. 06, Most people who take the experimental medicine GRE /APT develop headaches; therefore, if Alice does not take GRE /APT, she will probably not develop headaches. The argument above most resembles which of the following? (A) Most Dobermans are easy to train, so Beth is sure to have no trouble training the Doberman she has just bought. (B) Most U.S. built cars are poorly made; since this car is well made, it was probably not built in the United States. (C) Most Broadway plays are very well acted. So The Logic Game, which is not a Broadway play, is probably not well acted. (D) Most engineers spent many years in school, so Sharon, who has spent many years in school, is probably an engineer. (E) All societies known to history have had clearly defined social hierarchies, so there will probably never be a truly nonhierarchical society. Neen Question: 07 Carol is shorter than Juan, but he is taller than Ed, Sandra fs shorter than Juan and she is shorter than Ed. Wally is taller than Sandra, but shorter than Juan. rcs Ifstatements above are true, it can be concluded that Bill is shorter than Carol ifit is true thatECLECTIC (A) Carol is equal in height to Wally. (B) Bill is equal in height to Wally. (©) Bill is taller than Sandra, but shorter than Wally. (D) Bill is shorter than Juan, but taller than Ed, (£) Wally is taller than Bill, but shorter than Ed, Question: 8 The Pistons have more points than the Nuggets. The Bullets have fewer points than the Lakers, ‘The Nuggets and the Suns have the same number of points, The Suns have more points than the Bullets, Ifthe above is true, which of the following must also be true? (A) The Nuggets have fewer points than the Bullets. (B) The Pistons have more points than the Bullets. (C) The Nuggets have fewer points than the Lakers. (D) The Lakers have more points than the Pistons. (B) The Lakers have more points than the Suns. m Cat Ellen to Ralph: I'm not going to play with your eat because I'll be sneezing all afternoon if I do, T've played with your cat three times, and each time, I've sneeze all afternoon. ion: 09.The argument above is most like which of the following arguments? ‘A. Empiricism must have developed later than rationalism. B. Drug X increase fertility in humans. Every women given the drug in test gave birth to more than one child. C. The dumping of chemicals into the lake two months ago caused the present dying off of the fish, No fish died in the lakes into which no chemicals were dumped. D. The Committee's report must have been valid, because it predicted that a crisis would develop, and that is exactly what has happened. E, Joe's finance must be allergic to roses, Every time he takes her rose, she becomes weepy. 10, Ellen's argument would be most strengthened ifit is also true that A. Ralph sneezes after playing with cat. B, Ellen never sneezes before playing with Ralph’s cat. C. Ellen also sneezes after playing with Dan's dog. D. Ellen sneezes only after playing with Ralph's cat, E, Ralph's cat also sneezes after playing with Ellen. reeererrer itECLECTIC 11, Excessive amount of mercury in drinking water, associated with certain types of industrial pollution have been shown to cause Hobson's Disease. Island Hatia has an economy based on subsistence- level of agriculture modern industry of any kind is unknown, The inhabitants of Hatia have an unusually high incidence of Hobson's Disease. Which of the following can be validly inferred from the above statements? 1, Mercury in drinking water is actually perfectly safe. 2, Mercury in drinking water must have other sources than industrial pollution. 3, Hobson's Disease must have causes other than mercury in water. A2only B, 3only C. 1or2 but no both D.2or3 but not both E,2 and 3 of both, 12. President of the company to the Board of Directors: We are being threatened by a union organizing drive. The workers are trying to wrest control from us, We must take any step necessary to prevent this take-over, even if some of these measures may not be fully legal. Ifthe statement above are true, it follows that ‘A. successful opposition to union to a union organizing drive must require illegal measures. B. the union organizing drive is being conducted illegally the directors will refuse to recognize the union even if it wins a representation in election D. maintaining full control of the company is more important than obeying the law E, unionization of any company deprives the company officers of control over the company 13. Partho: ‘Moutushi has become a better singer since she started meditating’ Sazid: ‘Impossible. A singer's most important asset is his or her nice voice” Sazid's statement implies that he believes that Mediation tends to make a person's voice harsh. Meditation has little or no effect on the person who practices it. Moutushi was a poor singer previously. Because she did not have nice voice. Moutushi has not really been meditating. Mental attitude has little or nothing to do with a mooR> nger's effectiveness rr ertECLECTIC 14, Average family income is right where itwas 20 years ago, even though in most families these days, husbands and wives are working The above statement implies all of the following, except: (A) Even though nominal family income may have increased, inflation has risen at an equal rate. (B)_ More husbands and wives are working today than 20 years ago. (©) Itwas more prevalent for one spouse to work 20 years ago than today. (D) Wives earn more than husbands today. (E)_ The price level was lower 20 years ago. Md. Tarif Islam Jewel Riazul Islam Himel Assistant Director 2017, Officer 2019, Probationary Officer 2019, Bangladesh Bank Bangladesh Bank Premier Bank